Notes From Postgrad Writing Workshop - Master PDF

Part 1: Academic English vocabulary and style
1a Key features of academic style and

vocabulary
Academic Writing
Intensive
1b Academic vocabulary test & feedback
Martin McMorrow
ESOL Learning Advisor
1c Academic vocabulary strategies

With contributions from
other SLC staff, particularly
Kate Pritchard, Ken Cage
and Vanessa Van der Ham
1a Key features of academic style and vocabulary 1a Key features of academic style and vocabulary
Everyday English Academic English

Opinion You need to be really into learning
Teachers can influence the
a language if you stand any chance Teachers play a big part
motivation of their learners. A
of getting anywhere with it in motivation because, if
study by Nikolov (2001) showed
you ask me, even if youre
how initially positive attitudes to
20 words: 15 % of Latin origin motivated to begin with, if
language learning were badly
the teachers boring, youll
affected by a dislike of the
soon lose your motivation.
Motivation is a key element in teaching methodology (as cited
hypothesis successful language learning in Dornyei, 2005, p. 75).
for adults Opinion is clear. Opinion is equally clear
11 words: 45 % of Latin origin But its expressed impersonally

But it sounds personal. as a hypothesis
More academic language allows you to develop your ACADEMIC And this hypothesis is supported by
voice, so that its as clear as your ordinary VOICE but instead of And no evidence is given
reference to relevant research
expressing opinions, youre presenting arguments
Sample paragraph in everyday English style The same paragraph in academic English style
Define ageism giving an example to show what you mean? Define ageism giving an example to show what you mean?
Ageism means when someone is treated badly just because Ageism may be defined as unfair discrimination towards
theyre young or old. What matters most isnt whether or not someone on account of their age (Smith & Davidov, 2003, p. 23).
someones treated differently but whether its got anything to do with The crucial aspect is not discrimination in itself, but its unfairness.
whats going on at the time. For instance, someone might not get a In other words, whether or not age is a relevant consideration in
job or get promoted because people think theyre too young or too the circumstances. Lets consider the case of someone prevented
old. Youd probably think that a bar that wouldnt give a job to a 50 from obtaining employment or promotion because they are
year old to serve drinks was being a bit ageist and if that person considered too young or too old. A bar which refused to employ a
was good enough in every way except for the fact that they were 50 year old to serve drinks might be considered ageist, if that
getting on a bit, then you could call them ageist and they wouldnt person fulfilled the employment specifications in every other
really have a leg to stand on. But you could hardly say a bar was respect. However, no one could claim a bar was being ageist
being ageist if they didnt take on a 16 year-old for the job because because they didnt employ a 16 year-old, since they are legally
theyre not allowed to do so. prohibited from doing so.
1
Task 1: Matching exercise

Everyday English normally
repeats the same basic vocabulary

everyday English academic English
is based on verb phrases
uses active voice most of the time(does) unfair discrimination
connects sentences with and, but and because means
uses colloquial expressions someone is treated badly the crucial aspect
uses shorter (Anglo-Saxon) words and phrases because of no one could claim
What matters most may be defined as
Academic English normally
its got anything to do with they are considered
However
uses a larger vocabulary with less repetition whats going on
on account of
is based around longer noun phrases might not get a job
often uses passive (is done) as well as active (does) employ
people think they are
connects clauses and sentences with a wider range of linking words is a relevant consideration
is less personal (not believe me but be convinced by my you could hardly say
in the circumstances
argument) But
uses longer (Latin) words with more prefixes and suffixes may be prevented from
take on
obtaining employment
Roman written Latin spoken Latin

academic English
Empire
uses a larger vocabulary fulfilled the employment specifications

legally prohibited 500
Written Anglo-Saxon
with less repetition French
Latin
is based around longer unfair discrimination
noun phrases relevant consideration in the 1000 English everyday
circumstances church life
science society
uses passive (is done) as may be defined as
they are considered 1500
well as active (does) culture
connects clauses and However

on account of 2000
sentences with a wider
range of linking words
is less personal No one could claim

Lets consider A brief history of the English language
Relevance of this history for English language today Everyday English style words from Latin / French in red
Define ageism giving an example to show what you mean?
Todays English is a hybrid language: Ageism means when someone is treated badly just because
most common words and grammar is theyre young or old. What matters most isnt whether or not
Anglo-Saxon; a lot of common someones treated differently but whether its got anything to do with
vocabulary is from French; nearly all whats going on at the time. For instance, someone might not get a
academic and formal language is job or get promoted because people think theyre too young or too
from French or Latin old. Youd probably think that a bar that wouldnt give a job to a 50
year old to serve drinks was being a bit ageist and if that person
was good enough in every way except for the fact that they were
The more academic the writing is, the getting on a bit, then you could call them ageist and they wouldnt
higher proportion of words of French really have a leg to stand on. But you could hardly say a bar was
and Latin origin being ageist if they didnt take on a 16 year-old for the job because
theyre not allowed to do so.
2
Academic English style words from Latin / French in red Task 2: Making a text more academic in style
Define ageism giving an example to show what you mean? The next slide shows an extract from a prescribed text
(Quester, P., McGuiggan, R., Perreault, W., & McCarthy, S. (2004).
Ageism may be defined as unfair discrimination towards Marketing: Creating and delivering value. Sydney, Australia: McGraw
someone on account of their age (Smith & Davidov, 2003, p. 23). Hill.
The crucial aspect is not discrimination in itself, but whether or not
age is a relevant consideration in the circumstances. Lets
The style is not technical or especially formal although some of
consider the case of someone prevented from obtaining
the words would be very formal in spoken English
employment or promotion because they are considered too young
or too old. A bar which refused to employ a 50 year old to serve
drinks might be considered ageist, if that person fulfilled the In this exercise, the original words and expressions have been
employment specifications in every other respect. However, no taken out and replaced with colloquial, spoken English phrases
one could claim a bar was being ageist because they didnt
employ a 16 year-old, since they are legally prohibited from doing Replace them and see what a difference it makes to the academic
so. style of the whole text.
assist (x 2) serve competitive edge retain

stagnate base initially establish 1a Key features of academic style and vocabulary
seek benefits meet someones needs
A marketing manager should 1) look for new ways to
Original text (in academic English style)
2) deal with existing customers and strengthen the
relationship with them. Too often companies allow their A marketing manager should seek new ways to serve
strategies to 3) get tired after they have 4) got a customer existing customers and strengthen the relationship with
base and a set of marketing mix decisions. For example, them. Too often companies allow their strategies to
special business services related to the determining needs stagnate after they have established a customer base
and a set of marketing mix decisions. For example,
of front-line executives might 5) first of all 6) give a hotel a special business services related to the determining
hand in winning this business. But the hotel will lose its needs of front-line executives might initially assist a hotel
7) advantage if other hotels begin to offer the same in winning this business. But the hotel will lose its
8) nice things. Then, the determining dimensions change. competitive edge if other hotels begin to offer the same
benefits. Then, the determining dimensions change. To
To avoid this problem, and 9) keep hold of the 10) bunch of avoid this problem, and retain the base of customers it
customers it has built, the hotel needs to find new and has built, the hotel needs to find new and better ways to
better ways to 11) give the executives what they want. For meet the executives needs. For example, the hotel
example, the hotel could provide a voice mail system to could provide a voice mail system to assist traveling
executives during their stay.
12) help traveling executives during their stay. Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy,2004
McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy,2004
1b Academic English test and feedback 1b Academic English test and feedback
Task 3: Academic English test Task 3: Academic English test
This test will give you an idea of how strong your foundation of 1) Its difficult to define the con________ of beauty.
academic English vocabulary is at the moment 2) The internet gives you acc ________ to information and personal
contacts from around the world.
3) Evolution explains how simple animals developed into more
If there are any gaps, it will allow you to identify them. We will com ________ ones over a long period of time.
then discuss resources which will help you fill them 4) Come to the meeting if you feel you have anything to con ________ to
the discussion.
5) We are not really in competition with them, but there are a few
You can keep the test paper and make notes, ask questions ove ________ between our products.
during our feedback session 6) She asked me to check the first dra ________ of her presentation.
7) The final cost of the project should not exc ________ $ 10 000.
8) Its impossible to eli ________ crime completely, but this government
After 20 minutes, I will collect in the answer sheets. These will be aims to reduce it substantially.
anonymous. The purpose of collecting them is to develop the 9) Financial experts have det ________ some signs that the economy
may be improving.
test further 10) No agreement has been reached but negotiations are still
ong ________.
3

11) One reason that many goods are manufactured in China is the lower 21) The main foc ________ of our attention is the need to reform our
lab ________ costs there. organisation.
12) We have to in ________ from his silence on the matter that he has 22) He decided to buy separate com ________ for his computer and put
nothing he wishes to say. them together at home because it was cheaper than buying a
13) A recent sur ________ found that more than 60 % of workers were complete one from a shop.
dissatisfied with their bosses. 23) Please check with the legal department pri ________ to signing any
14) We had to make several calls to the tec ________ support line contracts.
before anyone came to repair out computer. 24) The company has had to am ________ its employment contracts as a
15) We all ass ________ in the meeting room to meet the new result of the new law.
management team. 25) Among his reasons for resigning he cit ________ the pressure of
16) The company publishes its ann ________ accounts every working to a limited budget.
September. 26) We have to ada ________ our products to the differing needs of our
17) At the moment we dont ant ________ any problems with the new customers.
system. 27) Vegetable sales flu ________ according to the season.
18) The internet has become an important med ________ of 28) Between one and two children per family is the nor ________ in many
communication for companies. countries.
19) Her work has been a cru ________ part of the companys success. 29) The city needs to improve its basic inf ________ if it wishes to attract
20) Unemployment will be one of the most important iss ________ in the international companies.
next election. 30) They have sent the sample to the laboratory to be ana ________ so
that they can be sure what exactly it is.

41) The road was blocked so we had to use an alt ________ route.
31) His point was highly rel ________ to the discussion, but, there was no real 42) The true reason for the companys problems only eme ________
time for discussion.
much later.
32) Some airlines have decided to cancel less popular routes in order to max
________ profits. 43) The hall only has a cap ________ of 50 people so we wont be able
33) Salaries may not seem large in dollars, but when con ________ into local to invite everybody.
currency, they are highly competitive. 44) Our involvement in community education projects has enh ________
34) Our British customers are most interested in low cost, whe ________ in the the reputation of the company.
United States, customers are happy to pay more for higher quality. 45) We all need to be realistic. We only have a fin ________ amount of
35) I knew a lot about the subject; nev ________, her talk was interesting time to complete the task.
enough. 46) We decided to ter ________ the contract because we were
36) Con ________ to all our expectations, the introduction of new working dissatisfied with their service.
practices went smoothly.
37) I found the instruction ambi ________ so I didnt know what to do. Could you 47) The rat ________ of men to women in management is still three to
please make it clearer? one.
38) Production has been temporarily sus ________ because of technical 48) We are transferring the dat ________ from magnetic tape to hard
problems. disk.
39) In the financial sec ________, both banks and insurance companies have had 49) Its important that we remain neu ________ on the question until we
a difficult year. have enough information to make an informed decision.
40) We have to start the meeting on time because we have several important 50) The most positive asp ________ of living abroad is the chance to
ite ________ on the agenda. experience a new culture.
Academic English test: Answers 11) One reason that many goods are manufactured in China is the lower
labour costs there.
1) Its difficult to define the concept of beauty. 12) We have to infer from his silence on the matter that he has nothing
he wishes to say.
2) The internet gives you access to information and personal contacts
from around the world. 13) A recent survey found that more than 60 % of workers were
dissatisfied with their bosses.
3) Evolution explains how simple animals developed into more complex
ones over a long period of time. 14) We had to make several calls to the technical support line before
anyone came to repair out computer.
4) Come to the meeting if you feel you have anything to contribute to the
discussion. 15) We all assembled in the meeting room to meet the new
management team.
5) We are not really in competition with them, but there are a few
overlaps between our products. 16) The company publishes its annual accounts every September.
6) She asked me to check the first draft of her presentation. 17) At the moment we dont anticipate any problems with the new
system.
7) The final cost of the project should not exceed $ 10 000.
18) The internet has become an important medium of communication for
8) Its impossible to eliminate crime completely, but this government companies.
aims to reduce it substantially.
19) Her work has been a crucial part of the companys success.
9) Financial experts have detected some signs that the economy may be
improving. 20) Unemployment will be one of the most important issues in the next
election.
10) No agreement has been reached but negotiations are still ongoing.
4
31) His point was highly relevant to the discussion, but, there was no
21) The main focus of our attention is the need to reform our real time for discussion.
organisation.
32) Some airlines have decided to cancel less popular routes in order to
22) He decided to buy separate components for his computer and put maximise profits.
them together at home because it was cheaper than buying a
complete one from a shop. 33) Salaries may not seem large in dollars, but when converted into
local currency, they are highly competitive.
23) Please check with the legal department prior to signing any contracts.
34) Our British customers are most interested in low cost, whereas in the
24) The company has had to amend its employment contracts as a result United States, customers are happy to pay more for higher quality.
of the new law.
35) I knew a lot about the subject; nevertheless, her talk was interesting
25) Among his reasons for resigning he cited the pressure of working to a enough.
limited budget.
36) Contrary to all our expectations, the introduction of new working
26) We have to adapt our products to the differing needs of our practices went smoothly.
customers.
37) I found the instruction ambiguous so I didnt know what to do. Could
27) Vegetable sales fluctuate according to the season. you please make it clearer?
28) Between one and two children per family is the norm in many 38) Production has been temporarily suspended because of technical
countries. problems.
29) The city needs to improve its basic infrastructure if it wishes to 39) In the financial sector, both banks and insurance companies have
attract international companies. had a difficult year.
30) They have sent the sample to the laboratory to be analysed so that 40) We have to start the meeting on time because we have several
they can be sure what exactly it is. important items on the agenda.
Resources for building up basic Academic English vocabulary

41) The road was blocked so we had to use an alternative route.
42) The true reason for the companys problems only emerged
much later. Massey papers:
43) The hall only has a capacity of 50 people so we wont be able to
invite everybody. 192.101 English for Academic Purposes
192.102 Academic Writing
44) Our involvement in community education projects has enhanced
the reputation of the company.
Both papers include a focus on basic academic English vocabulary
45) We all need to be realistic. We only have a finite amount of time
to complete the task.
Selected online resources:
46) We decided to terminate the contract because we were
dissatisfied with their service.
Massey University: Academic Word List: http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/index.shtml
47) The ratio of men to women in management is still three to one. Massey University: Academic English Generator: http://www.academicenglishgenerator.com
48) We are transferring the data from magnetic tape to hard disk. Hong Kong University of Science and Technology: http://uvt.ust.hk/about.html
49) Its important that we remain neutral on the question until we Hong Kong Polytechnic University: http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/eap/default.htm
have enough information to make an informed decision. University of Hertfordshire: http://www.uefap.com/vocab/vocfram.htm
50) The most positive aspect of living abroad is the chance to University of Manchester: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk
experience a new culture.
1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies 1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies
Suggestions for developing your academic vocabulary Quiz questions: one way to activate your basic academic vocabulary
1) Which of these words is closest in meaning to acquisition?

Ensure you have a good basic foundation of academic purchase expenditure interruption explanation
English
2)Which of these most needs to be unambiguous?
Its not worth learning very formal English a poem a legal contract the words of a song a promise
3) Which of these words is the opposite of analysis?

Have a daily / weekly routine of reviewing academic
and technical vocabulary youve noted research thesis investigation synthesis
4) Which of these are assumptions not usually based on?

Focus on phrases including prepositions, typical
uses etc rather than words on their own appearance previous experience testing gossip
5) Which of these would you be happy to receive from someone?

Vocabulary that you want to use in writing / speaking assumption acquisition inadequacy assurance
needs to be activated: make associations and
examples
5
6) Which form of categorization is often used for social class?

SWOT SQ3R ABC Do-Re-Mi 10) Which of these English scientists was famous for his evolutionary
theory?
7) In which kind of court case is incompatibility often used as the Dickens Durkheim Disraeli Darwin
main argument?
Divorce Burglary Kidnap Murder 11) Whats the opposite of minimal?
Optimal Cynical Maximal Sceptical
8) Which of these is a common misconception about London?
Its foggy and often snows. Its expensive to live in. 12) Which of these events would be unprecedented?
Public transport is old-fashioned. Its a very international city. New Zealand qualifying for the finals of the soccer world cup?
The soccer world cup finals being held in Asia?
9) Which of these companies diversified by purchasing a Hollywood A small country winning the soccer world cup?
film studio? An African or Asian country winning the soccer world cup?
Microsoft Apple Panasonic Sony
Personal questions: another way to activate basic academic vocabulary

Quiz answers
1) purchase General academic vocabulary

2) a legal contract
3) synthesis What was your initial impression of the following? Has it
changed since?
4) testing
5) assurance
Television in New Zealand
6) ABC The weather here
7) divorce
8) its foggy and often snows Subject-specific vocabulary
9) Sony
10) Darwin How could you define the customer base of the following?
11) Maximal
12) An African or Asian country winning the soccer World Cup Massey University
MacDonalds
Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading Sample difficult vocabulary from a prescribed text
Chapter 1
future
relevance Refrain from A head-on clash
Disseminate In accord with
Distinguish Jurisdiction
low It was held ..
Discriminate Prescribing
between Constraints Vigilance
ignore Validity Derived Flora and fauna
Arbitrary Incidence
Delegated Seizure
Statutory Legal liability Undergo
work out meaning and move on Judicial Adherents Nomenclature
precedent Unethically Underpin
Compliance Disclose
look it up to confirm Conform Lay reader
Laid down Fiduciary duty Tyro
Canvassed utmost good faith Prone
Decriminalization Presumption solecisms
file it in your system with Out of step Adjudication Parties
example sentence and review Much of this is low relevance
at end of day and week practice working out meaning
high from context to deal with it Hubbard, Thomas & Varnham, 2001
efficiently
6
Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading
Use your background knowledge and other clues in the sentence
Use your background knowledge and other clues in the sentence to guess the most likely definition of the keyword.
to guess the most likely definition of the keyword.
Time-saving kitchen appliances could be aimed at women

adequate research of overseas markets is one of several over 35 years of age .. offering the luxury of less drudgery and
more leisure time while at home
prerequisites for international marketing success
drudgery
prerequisites
relaxation
advantages hard work
things that must be done
professional employment
things that will surprise you
Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy, 2004, p. 161
Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy, 2004, p. 118
Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading
Use your background knowledge and other clues in the sentence Use your background knowledge and other clues in the sentence
to guess the most likely definition of the keyword. to guess the most likely definition of the keyword.
it is easy for both consumers and marketing managers to be If you watch a Yoplait advertisement that shows other people
lulled by the promise of constantly increasing standards of enjoying a new yoghurt flavour, you might conclude that you
living. Adjustments in consumer thinking will be required if would like it too. For services, such vicarious learning is
growth does not resume essential, as consumers can rarely assess the benefit directly
and have to rely on the experience of others
lulled
vicarious
made to feel worried
second-hand
made to feel embarrassed
useless
made to feel too comfortable
religious
Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy, 2004, p. 118 Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy, 2004, p. 199
p 192
1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies Part 1: Academic English vocabulary and style
Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading

future
relevance In order to spend more quality time with the vocabulary 1a Key features of academic style and
low that will be really useful for your writing, you need to vocabulary
spend less time with the rest.
1b Academic vocabulary test & feedback

Is it key topic vocabulary?
Will it be usable in your own writing?

1c Academic vocabulary strategies
Only if the answer is Yes, file it
in your system with example
sentence and review at the end
of the day and week End of Part 1
high
7
Part 2: Academic English writing 2a Essay and Report Structure
Not frequently enough asked questions
2a Essay and report structure

What are lecturers etc basically looking for?
Where do I start?
2b Paragraph structure
Whats the first sentence I should write in an essay?
How do I write an introduction?
2c Sentence structure How do I write a conclusion?
How do I summarise someone elses text?
What is flow and how do I get more of it?
2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure
Using and
Logical structure explaining technical
based on question words Step 1: Identify the
different parts of the
question
Referring to a
range of sources Step 2: Estimate how
many paragraphs you
have in your
assignment
Using theory as a
tool to analyse Step 3: Make a grid
matching paragraphs to
examples parts of the assignment
Where do I start?
What are they basically looking for?
Step 1: Identify the different parts of the question Part 1 Step 2: Estimate how many paragraphs you have in your assignment
Part 2 Intro
Question 1
= 150 words (1 paragraph)
It has been suggested that New Zealand and
Australia should adopt a common currency.
Body
What are the arguments for and against this
= 1700 words
proposal? Refer to specific sectors of New
(12 13 paragraphs)
Zealand business and / or society which Part 3
might benefit or suffer from such a
Conclusion
development and express an overall opinion
= 150 words
on the proposal.
(1 paragraph)
Part 4
8
Step 3: Make a grid matching paragraphs to parts of the assignment
Paragraph 1 Intro
The basic thesis is
Paragraph 2 Part 1: Define + analyse common currency your opinion
Your stated in one
Paragraphs 3 7 Part 2: Arguments against a common currency (3
arguments supported by 3 examples of sectors / arguable
firms that might suffer) thesis sentence.
Paragraphs 8 - 12 Part 3: Arguments for a common currency (3
arguments for supported by 3 examples of sectors statement You are making a
/ firms that might benefit) claim about your
Paragraphs 13 Part 4: Reasons for preferring a common currency topic.
14 and ways of minimising negative effects
Paragraph 15 Conclusion
Whats the first sentence I should write in an essay?
How to Write a Thesis Statement How to Write a Thesis Statement
Step 1: Write an arguable statement of Step 2: Add elements of support

opinion related to your question
because A, B, and C
in A, B and C areas
New Zealand should not make a foreign language

compulsory for primary school children because it would be a costly policy with little
long-term benefit.
How to Write a Thesis Statement Opinion Statement

Antithesis Elements of Support
Step 3: Address the antithesis (the opposite

Although this would seem a good way to address the problem
point of view). of low achievement in language learning at school ,
Although,
New Zealand should not make a foreign language
compulsory for primary school children
Although this would seem a good way to address because it would be a costly policy with little
the problem of low-achievement in language long-term benefit.
learning at schools Final Thesis Statement
9
General, Broad Overview Key Questions for the Introduction
How can you lead your reader into your

topic?
What is your essay going to do?
Compare? Contrast? Explain? Define?
Apply? Analyse? Examine?
What point are you making about this

Your Specific Thesis Statement
topic? What is your Thesis Statement?
How do I write an introduction?
2a Essay and Report Structure Sample introduction 2a Essay and Report Structure
New Zealand organisations are increasingly involved in

Context
international initiatives, such as joint ventures and
Your Specific Thesis Statement
outsourcing. Nonetheless, language and cross-cultural
communication skills remain a low priority for most
business executives. This essay investigates the causes
and effects of this situation, examines potential
Structure
advantages of developing these skills among key
employees and outlines principles for successful
implementation of effective training in this area. Although
companies may feel that business negotiation may easily
be conducted in English, research has shown that
Thesis
investment in language and cultural training equips
organisations with real competitive advantages. Broad Implications in the Field
How do I write a conclusion?
2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure Sample conclusion
As we have seen, successful leadership needs to be dynamic

in order to respond to changing circumstances. Although
Restate
XXss directive leadership style had been effective in the
Gives the reader a sense of closure Thesis
past, changes in the organisational culture had created a more
Restates the thesis competent and committed team which performed better with
less direction and more delegation. This mismatch
States implications and significance between leadership style and organisational culture led
Main Points problems of staff retention, motivation and
to serious
of the argument
productivity. In this case, the degree of damage only
Ends strongly and positively. became apparent on the departure of the marketing
manager and recovery was a long-term process. This
Significance
underlines
And Closure the need for more effective management
training, closer monitoring of management performance
and improved channels of communication within
organisations if such problems are to be avoided.
10
2a Essay and Report Structure Sample conclusion 2 2a Essay and Report Structure
How do I summarise someone elses text?
This essay has examined the similarities and Quote and cite
differences between language disorders of individuals Anothers Yes it author, year,
with TBI and aphasia, and their implications for words? page
intervention. It was argued that, despite certain
similarities between the two language disorders, they
are fundamentally different in origin and extent, No
aphasia being limited to language areas in the brain,
leaving other cognitive functions essentially
undamaged. As we have seen, this directly affects Cite it
both the aim and procedure of intervention in both Anothers Yes author +
cases. For aphasia, intervention is intended to facilitate idea? year.
longer-term restoration of lost language function and
the development of coping strategies. For TBI, on the
other hand, a combination of highly structured, clinic No
based activities is needed to designed to foster the Use of Sources
recovery of core cognitive abilities, while more specific
language therapy will generally focus on basic Decision Chart
functional conversational and social skills. Do not cite it Harris, 2001, p. 158
Degree applicants 'copy from web'

Sample summary
Thousands of prospective university students are using the internet to
cheat in their applications, analysis by admissions service Ucas reveals.
A recent analysis of 50 000 applications for medical Checks on 50,000 personal statements found 5% had borrowed material. Its
schools and top universities in the UK showed that study, by CFL Software Development, was done after the 15 October deadline
5% of them had based their personal statements for Oxbridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary science applications. Almost
on ideas from websites. These included over 200 800 drew on three example medicine statements on a free website, including a
story about burnt pyjamas. The Ucas application form includes a personal
applications using the same story about burning statement for people to detail their interests and say why they want to study
their pajamas when they were eight years old to their chosen course.
explain why they wanted to be doctors! (Degree CFL, which makes detection software Copycatch, found:
candidates copy from web, 2005) 370 sentences contained a statement beginning: "a fascination for how
the human body works..."
234 contained a statement relating a dramatic incident involving
"burning a hole in pyjamas at age eight"
175 contained a statement which involved "an elderly or infirm
grandfather". (text continues)
Step 1: identify key points of relevance in your original text
Step 1: identify key points of relevance in your original text
(Degree candidates copy from web, 2005)
2a Essay and Report Structure

2a Essay and Report Structure
Degree applicants 'copy from web'
Thousands of prospective university students are using the internet to
cheat in their applications, analysis by admissions service Ucas reveals.
Checks on 50,000 personal statements found 5% had borrowed material. Use note form to shake ideas out of your
Its study, by CFL Software Development, was done after the 15 October
deadline for Oxbridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary science
source
applications.
Almost 800 drew on three example medicine statements on a free website, 50 000 apps for top UK unis
including a story about burnt pyjamas. The Ucas application form includes a
personal statement for people to detail their interests and say why they want 5% borrowed mat from web for pers statements
to study their chosen course. 234 used same story about burning pajamas age 8 to show
CFL, which makes detection software Copycatch, found: why they wanted to go to med sch
370 sentences contained a statement beginning: "a fascination for how
the human body works..."
234 contained a statement relating a dramatic incident involving Note down citation details and decide how you want to
"burning a hole in pyjamas at age eight"
175 contained a statement which involved "an elderly or infirm introduce your source
grandfather".
As the deadline had approached the number of applications with borrowed
material had increased. Step 2: separate these points from the original language
11
phrases from original article my summary
3 ways to introduce your summary (or quote) 50,000 personal statements A recent analysis of 50 000
applications for the most
According to . competitive degree courses and
Oxbridge, medicine, top universities in the UK
According to Dunbar and Holmes (2003), cognitive behavioural dentistry and veterinary
therapy is increasingly preferred .. showed that 5% of them had
science applications
based their personal statements
End brackets 5% had borrowed material on ideas from websites. These
using the internet included over 200 applications
Cognitive behavioural therapy is increasingly preferred to more traditional
using the same story about
medical interventions in such cases (Dunbar & Holmes, 2003). 234 contained a statement burning their pajamas when they
relating a dramatic incident
Reporting verb were eight years old to explain
involving "burning a hole in
pyjamas at age eight" why they wanted to be doctors!
Dunbar and Holmes (2003) claim that cognitive behavioural therapy is
increasingly preferred .. say why they want to
study their chosen course.
(claim / argue / explain / point out / provide evidence / suggest that ..) Step 3: Write your own sentences
which fit YOUR audience and argument

hook to previous paragraph personal evaluation
The same paragraph minus flow!
Cognitive theories of motivation, on the other hand, seek to explain
motivation to learn language in relation to learners beliefs about their Cognitive theories of motivation seek to explain motivation to learn
abilities (Dornyei, 1994, p. 276). Perhaps the most influential of these, language in relation to learners beliefs about their abilities (Dornyei,
attribution theory, suggests that our beliefs about past experiences
influence expectations of future success. According to this view, the 1994, p. 276). Attribution theory suggests that our beliefs about past
common experience of low achievement in foreign languages at school experiences influence expectations of future success. The common
does not necessarily lead to low motivation in adults, since those who experience of low achievement in foreign languages at school does not
ascribe their past failures to factors beyond their control, might still be necessarily lead to low motivation in adults, since those who ascribe their
highly-motivated despite past failures. Research by Wu and Ushioda
(2001) supports this view, finding that highly motivated learners did in past failures to factors beyond their control, might still be highly-
fact tend to associate their successes with personal factors and failures motivated despite past failures. Research by Wu and Ushioda (2001)
with external factors (as cited in Dornyei, 2005, p. 80). A practical found that highly motivated learners did in fact tend to associate their
application of such research might be a stronger emphasis on learner successes with personal factors and failures to external factors (as cited
training with the goal of helping learners overcome unfounded
perceptions of lack of language learning ability based on past failures. in Dornyei, 2005, p. 80). There might be a stronger emphasis on learner
address the question training with the goal of helping learners overcome unfounded
What is flow? perceptions of lack of language learning ability based on past failures.
Your voice guides the reader, showing how the different sentences Without these linking and introductory expressions, your personal voice
are related to each other and how your argument develops. is gone and the reader has to try and guess what the argument is.
2a Essay and Report Structure 2b Paragraph Structure
Another example of a paragraph which flows Three qualities make a successful paragraph:
Efficient management of human resources, likewise, requires Unity

knowledge and ability to implement macroeconomic Intro phrase,
principles. For instance, according to the Principle of quotation marks The paragraph should focus on one idea
Comparative Advantage, everyone does best when each and page for
copied definition Coherence
concentrates on the activity for which he or she is relatively
most productive (Frank & Bernanke, 2001, p. 23). This The sentences in the paragraph should be
suggests that the underlying purpose of human resources Own voice to clearly related to each other
ought to be to ensure that employees are trained, motivated relate
and managed so that they can spend most of their time principle to
contributing to the companys mission at the highest skill level your topic Development
they are capable of. In other words, human resources
management needs to be proactive, rather than reactive. The paragraphs main idea must be supported
sufficiently with details and examples
Own voice in topic and
concluding sentences
12
2b Paragraph Structure 2b Paragraph Structure
TEE Structure is a PARAGRAPH UNITY
standard way to
achieve this TOPIC SENTENCE
A paragraph should have a TOPIC SENTENCE
Topic which states the main idea clearly. It is usually
TOPIC CONTROLLING good to start each paragraph with a topic
Statement IDEA sentence. Every single sentence in the paragraph
should contribute or relate to the main idea. If a
sentence does not clearly relate to the topic
Explanation SUPPORTING
SENTENCES
SUPPORTING
SENTENCES sentence, you should discard it. If the paragraph
begins with one point of discussion, it should not
Examples EXAMPLES EXAMPLES EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
end with another.
CONCLUSION
Three qualities make a successful paragraph:

A topic sentence has two essential parts:
Unity
The TOPIC The paragraph should focus on one idea
This names the subject or main idea of the Coherence

paragraph The sentences in the paragraph should be
clearly related to each other
The CONTROLLING IDEA
Development
This makes a specific comment about the
Its main idea must be supported sufficiently
topic
with details and examples
Use linking words and expressions guiding reader through

COHERENCE can be achieved by creating logical bridges paragraphs. These ones help the reader see how the different
from one sentence to another. This allows the same idea of a topic components relate to each other.
to be carried from sentence to sentence within the paragraph.
former / latter There are two major approaches to XXXX. The
This can be done by: former is the YYYY model devised by Smith
(1985) and consisting of AAAA, BBBB and CCCC.
Repeating Key words The latter is the ZZZZZ model developed by
Hassan and Watanabe (1993), which .
Substituting key words with Synonyms
Using Pronouns for already mentioned
Firstly, There are a number of drawbacks to this
nouns in previous sentences
model. Firstly, . Moreover, .
Using Transition words to link ideas from
different sentences. Finally, and most significantly, .
See www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk for a very useful set of phrases

for different purposes in academic writing
13
These expressions allow the reader to follow the logic of your

Transition words can indicate various things
argument
CHRONOLOGICAL OBJECTS IN RELATION ORDER OF

Thus, though functionalists and Marxists both discern ORDER TO EACH OTHER IMPORTANCE
common features in education, they draw radically next to
different conclusions. For functionalists, education is a first however
in front of
means of resolving many of the divisions and tensions of
secondly furthermore
modern society. Marxists perceive this conception of beside
education as fundamentally flawed, since for them next as a result
between
capitalist societies are inherently unfair to the majority of
meanwhile in fact
the population. Therefore, they seek to extend the scope of behind
education, so that its main role is to enable people to later yet
on the other hand
reject, rather than passively accept those divisions.
then also
conversely
afterwards in addition
similarly
See www.academicenglishgenerator.com for more examples of finally
academic writing, focusing on vocabulary development. likewise
Three qualities make a successful paragraph:

GIVE AN GIVE AN EFFECT/ ADD A
EXAMPLE RESULT CONCLUSION
Unity
The paragraph should focus on one idea
for example therefore in brief
for instance thus all in all Coherence
consequently indeed The sentences in the paragraph should be
as a result in other words clearly related to each other
in short
Development
in the end
Its main idea must be supported sufficiently
with details and examples

The developmental features in a paragraph
Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. DEVELOPMENT
These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their
winds can reach velocities of seventy-five miles an hour or more.
Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfall that accompany them In addition to being unified and coherent, a
can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy paragraph should hold a readers interest and
that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy explore its topic fully, using details and evidence.
consumed by mankind throughout the world in one year. Illustrating a point with examples can help to
develop the main idea of the paragraph.
The concept of the power of the hurricane is developed through
reference to:
1. Its size Use enough evidence to convince your readers that
2. Its speed the topic sentences assertion is valid. Your
3. Its capacity for destruction evidence should illustrate the point, not merely
4. Its power restate it.
14
Connecting ideas in a paragraph: Repeating ideas from a previous sentence
On 5 April the Ministry issued a statement denying the The government has decided to build a new factory on the west side of
accusations by the former Prime Minister. This angered several town. The decision has angered a lot of residents, who fear that the
factory will destroy the beauty of their neighbourhood.
former MPs.
Here the writer uses this + the noun form of the verb used in the
On 5 April the Ministry issued a statement denying the previous sentence.
accusations by the former Prime Minister. This move angered

According to new statistics from the government, unemployement has
several former MPs.
fallen in the last six months. These figures suggest that the economy is
improving.
Sometimes the word this is not clear enough alone and you need to add
a noun after it.. The noun figures is a synonym for the noun statistics in the earlier
sentence
(Adapted from Pakenham, 1998) (Adapted from Pakenham, 1998)

Some common words to make the reference back clearer and form a PARAGRAPH LENGTH
bridge to your developing argument
On April 15, 1912, the Titanic, the largest passenger ship in the world at No hard and fast rules. At undergraduate level a
paragraph of between 100 and 200 words is probably
that time, sank in the North Atlantic. A total of 1,522 passengers and
what you should be aiming for
crew lost their lives. The disaster shocked the world.
Shorter than five or six good, substantial sentences
Here the writer is again using the + noun, but the noun is a general word
that descibes something in the earlier sentence. - re-examine the paragraph and see whether you
have developed the ideas fully. (This is just a
For things that For things that we For things that
happen do we think guideline and doesnt apply to all paragraphs)
incident action idea
event move view A paragraph should be long enough to do justice to the
situation reaction attitude main idea of the paragraph - it may be short or it may be
circumstances behaviour long - it is not the number of words which count, but
development practice whether the paragraph is complete.
(Adapted from Pakenham, 1998, pp. 4-5)
If your paragraph runs onto a page or longer, there may WHAT TO DO IF A PARAGRAPH IS TOO SHORT
be a problem. In this case:
It probably lacks sufficient development.

Check that you are sticking to only ONE TOPIC
Have you explained the topic sentence?

Check that you have not introduced SUB TOPICS that
appear to be related to the topic but which in fact
Have you given examples to illustrate the topic sentence?
deserve their own paragraphs
Check for REPETITION of ideas
15
2b Paragraph Structure 2C Sentence Structure
Some language gas to lift

The T E E rubric will enable you to always construct you up
readable, complete paragraphs.
Cause and effect language
Similarity and difference language
T Topic Statement Hurricanes are powerful Problem and solution language
Some language holes to

They get their power from repair
E Explanation
their size and their speed
Basic sentence structure

Example or They can destroy a small

E Evidence town in a matter of hours

Singular and plural
Verb tense
Pronoun reference
The
2C Sentence Structure 2C Sentence Structure

Showing cause and effect Showing cause and effect
Nouns Verbs Inside a sentence :
C causes E
Cause Effect Cause
C is the cause of E C results in E Crops have failed as a result of the drought.
C brings about E
C is one factor in E Cause Effect
C is the reason for E C creates E As a result of the drought, crops have failed.
C gives rise to E
Effect
C leads to E Between sentences:
E is the result of C
E is the consequence of C C produces E Cause
E is the outcome of C C forces E There was a severe drought last year. As a result,
Make sure that you use the C plays a part in E the crops failed.
appropriate tense To attribute E to C Effect
(Adapted from Pakenham, 1998, p. 19) To blame C for E (Adapted from Pakenham, 1998)

Showing cause and effect Showing similarity and difference
More and more women are interested in developing their

careers; for this reason, we can expect an increase in X is similar to Y
the number of women in medicine, law, and scientific
research.
There is a similarity between X and Y
The cost of residential houses has increased by 40% in
the last two years. This dramatic rise in prices has forced X and Y are identical
many young people into the rental market.
X is equivalent to Y
In 1999 the two countries resumed diplomatic talks. This
improvement in the relationship between the two X (closely) resembles Y
countries facilitated the re-opening of trade links.
16
Showing similarity and difference Showing similarity and difference
Children in private schools have several Smith and Jones (1999) distinguish between deliberate cruelty towards
problems in common with children in other children and unintentional cruelty (p.46). An awareness of
this distinction is useful for a teacher who has to deal with an accusation of
government schools. In both sectors of the bullying in the classroom.
education system, children struggle with Wealthy industrial nations are able to provide health care to all those in
issues such as teasing and bullying. need of it while many third world countries can provide this care to only
Children in public schools have problems twenty or thirty percent of potential patients.
with bullying; likewise, many children in Wealthy industrial nations are able to provide health care to all those in
private schools face both emotional and need of it. In contrast, many third world countries can provide this care to
only twenty or thirty percent of potential patients.
physical victimisation on a regular basis.

Showing similarity and difference Showing similarity and difference
Topic sentence Wealthy industrial nations and developing nations
Wealthy industrial nations and developing nations face different
face different issues in the provision of health-care.
issues in the provision of health-care. Industrial nations are Industrial nations are concerned with providing the latest
Subject 1
concerned with providing the latest drugs and technology to treat drugs and technology to treat the small number of ill
the small number of ill people in the population. In these nations Detail people in the population. In these nations the focus is on
the focus is on the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as heart
heart disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are faced disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are
Subject 2
with the problem of providing for the majority of their population the faced with the problem of providing for the majority of
their population the clean water, the basic drugs and the
clean water, the basic drugs and the vaccines that the industrial
Detail vaccines that the industrial world takes for granted. In
world takes for granted. In these nations the priority is dealing with
these nations the priority is dealing with diseases that are
diseases that are widespread in the population because of
widespread in the population because of unsanitary living
unsanitary living conditions and the lack of basic health care.
conditions and the lack of basic health care.

Showing similarity and difference Showing problems and solutions
Topic sentence Wealthy industrial nations and developing nations Describing solutions
Describing problems
problem risk to solve to relieve
Subject 1 Industrial nations are concerned with providing the latest
difficulty threat to resolve to ease
drugs and technology to treat the small number of ill
Detail people in the population. In these nations the focus is on crisis danger to respond to deal with
the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as heart challenge complication to remedy to overcome
disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are obstacle issue to improve to address
Subject 2
faced with the problem of providing for the majority of
In an attempt to address the problem,
their population the clean water, the basic drugs and the The community of Dark Bay has identified childhood obesity as one of the
Detail vaccines that the industrial world takes for granted.
major threats to the health of the community. In order to address the problem,
In these nations the priority is dealing with diseases that
the Health Board has launched a campaign to teach parents about healthy
Effect are widespread in the population because of unsanitary
eating habits for their children.
living conditions and the lack of basic health care. Subject of sentence
Cause
(Adapted from Pakenham, 1998) (Adapted from Pakenham, 1998, p. 190)
17
Showing problems and solutions Some language gas
Cause and effect language

The cheapest and most effective solution to the problem of heart
Similarity and difference language
disease is for people to start taking more responsibility for Problem and solution language
maintaining their own health. They can do this by developing
healthier eating habits, by taking more exercise, by reducing stress
Some language holes
in their lives and by avoiding activities like smoking that increase the
risk of heart attack.
Singular and plural
Problem: heart disease
Verb tense
Solution: Develop healthier Exercise Reduce Avoid unhealthy Pronoun reference

eating habits more stress activities The
(Adapted from Pakenham, 1998, p. 189)

subject + verb
Every sentence must have a
Main Subject/Verb-Phrase
Who Did what?
The Main Subject/Verb-Phrase must have a The researcher concluded that stereotypes still exist.
Sense of Completion The committee decided upon a new policy.
Women were portrayed primarily as caregivers.
The Main Subject/Verb-Phrase must
The question is crucial.
contain a Complete Idea.
This study has shown a high level of compliance.
Combined, the Subject/Verb-Phrase must state a complete idea.

Interrupters may come between the Subject and Verb-Phrase
An introductory phrase is anything that comes before the Main
Subject/Verb-Phrase Subject Interrupter Verb-Phrase
Introductory Phrase Main Subject/Verb-Phrase (Compete (Offers Additional Information) Idea)
(Offers Additional Information) (Complete Idea) The researcher , a leading academic , concluded
Although the study was flawed , the researcher concluded that The committee , which was formed ad hoc , decided
After the riots began , the committee decided upon Women , when they appeared at all , were portrayed
Even in comic strips , women were portrayed as
This question , on the other hand , is
While answers are premature , the question is
This study , although narrow in scope , has shown
Contrasting all previous work , this study has shown
Basic sentence structure Basic sentence structure Notice the commas on both sides of the interrupter
18
Trailers may come after the Subject/Verb-Phrase
Subject Verb-Phrase ( = Complete Idea)

A Subject/Verb-Phrase.
The researcher concluded that stereotypes still exist
The Subject / Verb- Phrase must state a complete idea.
reinforcing the notion that.
Trailers demonstrating that Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans.
although it is rarely examined.
although they are less prevalant Subject Verb-Phrase
Basic sentence structure (Offers Additional Information)
Other elements can be added to

develop the main idea expressed in
the main clause ..
Introductory Phrase + Subject/Verb-Phrase.

Subject/Verb-Phrase + Trailer.
Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans In subsequent trials,
to solve the problem.

Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans.
Basic sentence structure Basic sentence structure
Introductory Phrase + Subject/Verb-Phrase + Trailer. Subject , Interrupter , Verb-Phrase
Lackson and Enscore (1993)

In subsequent trials,
, in their work with split-brain patients,
Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans
modified their plans.
to solve the problem. Be careful with interrupters and try to keep the Subject and Verb-Phrase close together.
Basic sentence structure Basic sentence structure
19
But take care not to add too many elements. This may mean your And, take care, especially if there are a lot of introductory phrases, fishing
poor reader has to fish for the main clause! isnt enough! The reader has to go deep-sea diving for the main clause!
Intro Phrase + 2nd Intro phrase + 3rd Intro phrase +

Intro Phrase + 2nd Intro phrase +
Subj/Verb-Phrase
+ Trailer + a 2nd Trailer + a 3rd Trailer + 3rd Intro phrase + Subj/Verb-Phrase + a Trailer.
In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial expression, like This time, making his way through the jungles of Papua New
most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was Guinea to the most remote villages where tribesmen had no
culturally determined, that we simply use our face according to a set problems interpreting the expressions on the photographs he
of learned social conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis carried of men and women making a variety of distinctive facial
on motivation and cognition in academic psychology that flourished expressions, Ekman had a breakthrough that established that
at the time. expressions were the universal products of evolution.
2C Sentence Structure 1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase

(Make sure its a complete idea)
If your sentence is too long or complicated 2. Identify the secondary elements that could be extracted
3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas.
1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase
(Make sure its a complete idea) In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial
expression, like most social scientists of her day,
2. Identify secondary elements that could be
Mead believed expression was culturally determined,
extracted
that we simply use our face according to a set of
3. Create new sentences around the extracted learned social conventions, a belief that grew from
ideas. the emphasis on motivation and cognition in
academic psychology that flourished at the time.
One over complicated and ungrammatical sentence . 2C Sentence Structure

In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial expression, like most
social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was culturally
determined, that we simply use our face according to a set of learned If your sentence is a fragment
social conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis on motivation
and cognition in academic psychology that flourished at the time. Before every sentence, add I think that and listen
for a sense of completion of an idea. I think that
. becomes FOUR clear and grammatical sentences WHO? DID WHAT?
In the 1960s, little study was devoted to facial expression.
Like most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was culturally Ekman and Friesen created the Facial Action Coding
determined. System, or FACS.XWrote them up in a 500 page
In other words, she believed we simply use our face according to a set of binder. It is full of details like the 8 possible
learned social conventions. movements of the lipsXit also gives four different
This belief grew from the emphasis on motivation and cognition in academic changes of the skin between the eyes and the cheeks.
psychology that flourished at the time.
Researchers have used this information in many ways.
Basic sentence structure X To study schizophrenia and heart disease.
20
Subject verb agreement Subject

More and more women are interested in developing their
careers; for this reason, we can expect an increase in
Subject = plural verb = plural form the number of women in medicine, law, and scientific
Subject = singular verb = singular form research.
Subject
The cost of residential houses has increased by 40% in
Plural subject has Plural verb form has the last two years. This dramatic rise in prices has forced
s ending no s ending many young people into the rental market.
Subject
The researchers study
In 1999 the two countries resumed diplomatic talks. This
Singular subject has Singular verb form has improvement in the relationship between the two
countries has facilitated the re-opening of trade links.
no --s ending -s ending
Singular and Plural A researcher studies Singular and Plural (Adapted from Pakenham, 1998)

Subject verb agreement
Wealthy industrial nations and developing nations
Verb tense
Topic sentence
Industrial nations are concerned with providing the latest
Subject 1 The tense the time element of a verb needs to be
drugs and technology to treat the small number of ill
consistent throughout your writing.
Detail people in the population. In these nations the focus is on
the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as heart Decide when you want your writing to take place
disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are either yesterday, now, or tomorrow
Subject 2
faced with the problem of providing for the majority of Check all:
their population the clean water, the basic drugs and the action verbs (buy, rise, cause)
Detail vaccines that the industrial world takes for granted. In
state-of-being verbs (is, are, was, were)
these nations the priority is dealing with diseases that are
widespread in the population because of unsanitary living
auxiliary verbs (have, had, has)
conditions and the lack of basic health care.
Singular and Plural (Adapted from Pakenham, 1998) Verb tense
The economic situation in Peru is

The economic situation in Peru is dismal.
dismal. People are losing jobs,
People lost jobs, inflation had been rising,
inflation is rising, and all the economic
and all the economic problems had been
causing social and political problems. Since
problems are causing social and
there is high inflation, employees cannot buy
political problems. Since there is high
the same things they buy the month before inflation, employees cannot buy the
because prices have been rising 3 times same things they bought the month
faster than salaries. before because prices are rising 3
times faster than salaries.
Verb tense Verb tense
21
Pronoun reference Use the Find and Replace function to locate

your pronouns, especially
A common problem with pronouns is when it is
unclear what word the pronoun refers to. IT, THEY, THEIR, THEM
This is especially common when the referent word
is in a previous sentence. What word does the pronoun refer to?
Check all your pronouns for any possible Is it close and clear?
misunderstandings.
If the referent is 1 or 2 (or more) sentences back, or if there are
multiple nouns that the pronoun could be referring to in that
sentence, restate the noun.
Pronoun reference Pronoun reference
When a solution to a problem Using the definite article - the
causes another problem, it should be When youve mentioned something previously:

At the meeting a student spoke about problems in finding housing.
reanalysed. The student emphasised
?
When the word is qualified by specific information:
Example 1: Qualified by a phrase:

Clearer version The books on the third shelf
When a solution to a problem causes Example 2: Qualified by another noun:

The article commented on the New Zealand economy.
another problem, the entire problem- Example 3: Qualified by a relative clause:
The enquiry that began in 2001
solution process should be reanalysed.
Pronoun reference The (Adapted from Pakenham, 1998)
Part 2: Academic English writing

References
Degree candidates copy from web. (2007, March 7). BBC News.
Retrieved March 7, 2006 from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
2a Essay and report structure uk_news/education/6426945.stm

Hubbard, J., Thomas, C., & Varnham, S. (2001). Principles of law for
New Zealand business students (2nd ed.). Auckland, New Zealand:
Prentice Hall.
2b Paragraph structure Pakenham, K.J. (2001). Making connections: Academic reading
techniques. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press.
Quester, P., McGuiggan, R., Perreault, W., & McCarthy,M. (2004).
2c Sentence structure Marketing: Creating and delivering value. Sydney, Australia:
McGraw Hill.
End of Part Two
22
ACADEMIC WRITING FOR ESOL STUDENTS
What are the Qualities of

Academic Writing?
Academic Conventions: Accurate,

Objective, Referenced
Academic Tone: Formal expression. No
slang or overly-casual vocabulary
Academic Argument: Claim,
Reasons, Evidence, and
Counter-argument.
K. Pritchard
Why do you need to write this way? Academic Writing

Imagine you had borrowed your friends brand new
BMW for a night on the town.
At the end of a very exciting and fun evening, you were Language style for a specific audience and a
involved in a minor car accident. specific purpose
Think about the different ways you would tell the story of
the evening to the following people:
Follows conventions of a particular field of
study.
~ your friend, the owner of the car
~ your grandmother
~ the police officer
~ a 12-year old neighbor
Academic Expectations: The Rules of Academic

Challenge Dont accept information Writing:
and Critique without critically thinking
Authority: about it.
Rule 1: Be Curious
Dont just summarise the issue.
Argue a Rule 2: Be Imaginative
Develop your opinion with
specific issue: reasons and support. Rule 3: Be Straightforward
Document Explain whose ideas you are Rule 4: Know the Conventions
your building upon. Acknowledge
information: all sources youve used.
1
Rule 1: Be Curious Ask Questions about Ideas
How does this idea work?

Ask questions about your topic: What are the benefits and drawbacks?
What are the interesting aspects of the topic? Where did this idea come from?
What have other researchers concluded? Whats the main point of this idea?
What is the history or background of this topic? Whats an example of this idea?
What do I think about this topic? Why is this idea important?
Practice
Ask Questions about Experiences:
Lets say you are asked to Discuss the
What happened next? effects of immigration on New Zealand.
What happened before this?
Why did this happen?
When was this?
Be curious!
Had this happened before?
What caused this? Ask yourself as many
What was the consequence of this? questions as you can
What experiences do I have with this? about this topic.
What questions did you ask?

What is New Zealands immigration policy? Questions
How has the policy changed over the years?
How many immigrants move to New Zealand annually? Supply the Power for Academic Writing.
Where are NZ immigrants from?
What difficulties do immigrants have adjusting to NZ culture?
What difficulties do New Zealanders have adjusting to introduced
cultures?
What programmes are in place to help ease culture clashes?
How does immigration affect the education system?
How does immigration affect the job market?
How does immigration affect the environment?
How does immigration affect New Zealands economy?
2
The Rules of Academic Rule 2: Be Imaginative
Writing:
Imagine the World of Evidence: What
Rule 1: Be Curious possible types of information could you
find about your topic?
Rule 2: Be Imaginative
Rule 3: Be Straightforward
Rule 4: Know the Conventions
What is Academic Evidence 1:

EVIDENCE? Facts
APPEAL STATISTICS Facts are the strongest form of evidence.

TO AND DATA
Planes hijacked by terrorists crashed into the
AUTHORITY FACTS
World Trade Center on 11 September, 2001.
Fact or Opinion? Why?
RESEARCH Verifiable
EXAMPLES FINDINGS Fairly undisputed
PERSONAL
EXPERIENCE Supported by ample, dependable evidence.
Some Types of Facts: Opinions

(versus Facts)
Historical fact: The San Francisco
Earthquake of 1973 resulted in 184 million Capital punishment deters crime.
dollars damage.
Fact or Opinion? Why?
Scientific fact: Fissures are areas of weakness
that lie along earthquake faults. Most Conflicting evidence
earthquake epicenters occur at fissures. Unreliable evidence
No evidence
Geographical fact: San Onofre Nuclear
Power Plant is 3 miles west of the San The more supporting evidence there is for a belief, the
Clemente Fissure of the San Andreas Fault. more factual the belief becomes.
(Browne & Keeley, 2004, p.104)
3
Evidence 2: Evidence 3:
Appeal to Authority Statistics and Data
Interview an expert Books, textbooks, course materials
Statistics can be deceptive or incomplete.
Journal articles Trustworthy Organisations Last year, homicides increased
by 67%.
Why should we believe this authority?
How much training and expertise does this authority What are the absolute numbers?
have in this subject?
Increase from 3 to 5?
Is the authority free of distorting influences?
Increase from 300 to 500?
Has the authority been reliable in the past?
Evidence 4: Evidence 5:
Research Findings Examples
Case Studies Surveys Experiments
What examples demonstrate this point?
Questionnaires Longitudinal Studies Interviews
How can the idea be illustrated?
What is the quality of the source? Would a story or scenario help clarify the
Has the study been replicated? point?
How far can we generalize from the research study
or case example?
Could there be any conflicting motives?
Evidence 6:
Personal Experience Evidence is the backbone of
Academic Writing
I played video games when I was a kid, and I
wasnt harmed by them.
My friend took anti-depressants for her

depression and it just got worse.
What are the strengths of this kind of evidence?

What are the limitations?
4
Practice What evidence did you imagine?
What facts are available for:
What kind of evidence can you imagine for Immigration changes, programmes available, language programmes, etc...
Discuss the effects of immigration on Who are immigration experts? What do they think?
NZ Immigration Services, Labour Department, Researchers, etc
New Zealand. ?
What are the statistics about NZ immigration?
Immigration numbers; education, jobs, economy, etc
Facts Research Findings What research has been done on immigration issues?
NZ attitudes toward immigration; Immigrant experiences; Education,
Appeal to Authority Examples employment, and environmental impacts, Cultural issues, etc
What are some examples of culture clashes?
Statistics and Data Personal Experience
How is my life impacted by immigration? What are my or
others personal experiences in immigration issues?
The Rules of Academic

Once you Imagine the Evidence...
Writing:
You need to FIND IT.

Rule 1: Be Curious
Afternoon session will give help with locating information.
Rule 3: Be Straightforward Avoid Fancy Words

George Orwell said, Never use a long word where a short one will do.
Is this idea expressed as simply and
clearly as possible? Perambulate..walk
Utilise... use
Avoid Fancy words
Commencebegin
Avoid Fancy-sounding sentences
Ameliorateimprove
Add Secondary Information carefully.
Peruseread
Use words you are familiar with.
5
But not too Informal Use Language Resources
English Dictionary
Too Informal: Just Right Bilingual Dictionary
Thesaurus Use Together
Help out Assist
Idiomatic Dictionary
Set up Establish
Microsoft Word
Gone up Increase Tools in Menu bar
Go to: Language
Cut down Reduce To to: Thesaurus
Use Thesaurus in conjunction with OTHER dictionaries
Get rid of Eliminate Check for parts of speech
Check for usage, examples in sentences.
Avoid Fancy-sounding Sentences Add Secondary Information Carefully
Certain product lines such as CDs that have not been Main Subject / Verb-Phrase
previously recorded upon are now unavailable with
this company, whilst potentially remaining available +
from more mainstream suppliers. Secondary Information
In other words Subject to Introductory Phrases
Cultural Interrupters
This company no longer sells blank CDs, but you can Language
buy them at other stores. Differences Trailers
Cultural Language Differences Cultural Language Differences
English Sentences: Other Languages: English Sentences: Other Languages:
Subject/Verb is usually close Sentence often starts with a Sentences are direct and Sentences arrive at the
to the beginning of the purpose, condition, or reason straight-to-the-point main point gradually
sentence phrase, which pushes the
Subject/Verb to the end of
the sentence
The store has done a good job After observing the store for
The store held three sales During the authors integrating their sales three months, and considering
promotions during the authors observation time, which was promotions. the integration of sales
observation time between 1 between 1 August and 5 promotions, the store has
August and 5 October. October, the store held three done a good job.
sales promotions.
6
Cultural Language Differences Cultural Language Differences
English Sentences: Other Languages: English Sentences: Other Languages:
Verb shows the tense Tense is often shown in a Overt, obvious connections Connections between
prepositional phrase before between sentences sentences are assumed
the subject/verb.
The key to successful promotion The key to successful
is customer awareness. promotion is customer
The promotions have been Over several months, the To encourage this awareness, awareness. Sales promotions
very effective. promotions are very sales promotions should include should include several media.
effective. several media. For example, Michael Hill Jewelers use TV,
Michael Hill Jewelers use TV, newspaper advertisements, and
Over a period of time
newspaper advertisements, and letterbox fliers.
letterbox fliers.
Cultural Language Differences Writing in English:

English Sentences: Other Languages: Keep the Subject/Verb-phrase at the beginning of the
sentence unless you are adding a transitional phrase
Each sentence focuses on One sentence often
one main idea expresses several ideas Try to avoid long introductory phrases before the
subject/verb-phrase. State the main point directly.
Michael Hill is one of the largest Michael Hill, one of the largest
jewelry retailers in New Zealand, jewelry retailers compared to Make connections between sentences using
with 47 stores. * Their products other NZ jewelers like Pascoes transitional words and phrases
are a higher quality than their and Steward Dawson but at a
competitors, Pascoes and higher quality with moderate- Rely on the verb to show tense
Steward Dawson. * Their to-high income customers, has
customers are from the moderate- 47 stores in New Zealand. Try to avoid overly-long sentences. Use full-stops and
to-high income bracket. semi-colons, with one main idea per sentence.
Main
Subject/Verb-Phrase
Who Did/is what?
The researcher concludes that stereotypes still exist.
The committee decided upon a new policy.
Two Guidelines:
1. Try to keep the Main Subject and the Verb-phrase
close to each other Combined, the Subject/Verb-Phrases state a complete idea
2. Try to keep the Main Subject/Verb-phrase close to Subject/Verb-phrases are close to each other
the beginning of the sentence. Subject/Verb-phrases are close to the beginning of the sentence.
7
Secondary Information Where to place Secondary
Information
Short phrases.
That- Who- and Which- phrases Before the Subject/Verb-Phrase: Use sparingly,
Introductory Phrases usually as a
Contrast Phrases: Although despite transition.
Why- When- and Where- Phrases
How-Phrases Between the Subject and Short phrases.
--ing phrases Verb-Phrase: Interrupters Use very sparingly.
With or without phrases

Short and long
After the Subject/Verb-Phrase: phrases.
Trailers. Use frequently.
Practice That Who and Which Phrases

The cat that was hiding behind the tree snarled.
The cat snarled. The cat who was trapped in the corner snarled.
The cat snarled, which was typical of a wild beast.
Who Did/is what? The study that was conducted last year found
This study examines the health attitudes of immigrants
who have entered the country within the last decade.
Create a practice sentence as simple as this one.
The results are surprising, which demonstrates that
Contrast Phrases Why- When- and Where- Phrases

The cat snarled because it was tired and hungry.
Although despite
The cat snarled before eating its dinner.
The cat snarled, although it was usually a nice animal.
The cat snarled despite its usual friendliness.
The cat snarled from its spot on the fence.
Although it is a more expensive process, the Sprague method To eliminate these visual distractions, the interview
gives more accurate results. was held in a quiet, empty lounge.
The participants demonstrate consistent responses despite Computer tutors clearly lack an important dimension
overwhelming peer influence. when compared to human tutors.
These method measure different aspects of interference, although We tried to answer some of these questions in the
they have still been shown to correlate.
initial experiment.
8
How- Phrases How- Phrases
--ing phrases: With or without phrases:
The cat snarled, arching its back and tail. With its yellow eyes gleaming, the cat snarled.
The cat snarled, baring its teeth threateningly.
The cat snarled without fear.
The researcher measured the participants at three body Without recognising these cultural differences in
locations using a skin-fold test. communication behaviours, individuals often
communicate ineffectively.
People experience social events with others, drawing
on shared cultural factors such as language and The skin was measured with the Holtain skinfold
history. caliper.
Caution! In the 1960s when little study was devoted to

facial expression, like most social scientists of
Add Secondary Information carefully! her day, Mead believed expression was
culturally determined, that we simply use our
face according to a set of learned social
conventions, a belief that grew from the
emphasis on motivation and cognition in
academic psychology that flourished at the
Not too many ideas in one sentence! time.
Too Much Secondary Information in one sentence.
In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial expression, like
most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was Guidelines to Follow:
culturally determined, that we simply use our face according to a set
of learned social conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis 1. Keep the Subject close to the Verb-Phrase
on motivation and cognition in academic psychology that flourished
at the time. 2. Keep the Subject and Verb-Phrase close to the
beginning of the sentence
Little study was devoted to facial expression in the 1960s.
3. Use Introductory phrases as transitions
Like most social scientists of those years, Mead believed
expression was culturally determined. 4. Use Trailers for most secondary information
In other words, she believed we simply use our face according to
a set of learned social conventions. 5. If your sentences are too long,
This belief grew from the emphasis on motivation and cognition Extract secondary information
in academic psychology that flourished at the time. Create new sentences around it.
9
The Rules of Academic
Writing:
Stock Academic Phrases
Rule 1: Be Curious Academic Use of Tense.
Stock Academic Phrases: Stock Academic Phrases:

Introductions Purpose of Essay
The central issue in xxx is yyy The (aim/purpose/focus/goal) of this essay is to
The development of xxx is a common (look at/examine/discuss) xxx
problem in. This essay describes
Xxx is of particular interest for. analyses Use the
discusses task terms
For the last xxx (time period), yyy has
given in the
One (controversial/interesting/important) examines assignment
investigates
(issue/problem) Xxx is facing is
addresses
Stock Academic Phrases: Stock Academic Phrases:

Citing Source Material Explaining Findings
Smith (2003) states that Their results help explain that/how/why
remarks explain the reasons
proposes the position
mentions that/how
indicates These results challenge the claim that
explains
points out
The findings offer explanations for
suggests
10
Academic Tense: Simple Present Example:
Observational learning is important in
Most academic writing is in simple present
tense: Used almost 3x more than past tense socialisation. In particular people learn patterns
of behaviour by observing prime-time television
Present tense:
shows. This essay presents a discussion of
Refers to actions and events that take place
generally in the present, but not necessarily at observational learning and the process of
the present moment or time socialisation. This is followed by a review of
Habitual activities: The company provides behaviour patterns that may be learned as a result
Citational present: Smith finds that of watching prime-time television. Finally, some
Historical present: Few occupations are implications for public policy are presented.
Past Tense Examples:

In academic writing, most past tense is used
In 1994, Hilton Hotels Corp. announced
for specific actions or events that took place
plans for a reorganization of its internal
in the past and no longer continue in the
operations (Zikmund et al., 1995, p. 184).
present
Case studies 3M developed Post-It notes and many
Specific experiments other unique products.
Specific historical events In their 2001 study, Woolf and Parker found
Otherwise, you can usually write in simple that costs in non-profit hospitals increased
present tense. 24.7%.
Future Tense and Modal Verbs Progressive: Is/was + ing

Future tense is not often used in academic Small percentage of academic writing uses
writing these forms.
Generally reserved for plans and predictions Used when its important that the action is
with a very high degree of certainty: seen as happening at the present moment, or
The company will expand in 2006. during a specified time period:
Modals (may, can, could, plans to) are The students are conducting an experiment
recommended because they are less definite: (right now)
The government may solve these problems The water was boiling steadily when the
chemical reaction took place (specific time).
11
Tense Shifts The Rules of Academic
When you need to shift from the simple present tense,
use clear time-markers with the appropriate verb tense:
Writing:
Past time-markers:
In 1994, Smith examined Rule 1: Be Curious
At the turn of the 19th century, psychology was
Future time-markers:
In the next decade, businesses may Rule 3: Be Straightforward
To shift back to present tense, use a present time- Rule 4: Know the Conventions
marker:
At present, the company works
Thank you
and Happy Writing.
K. Pritchard
12
APA REFERENCING
What We Will Cover In This Session

Why do I need to reference?
How do I reference?
APA The format of APA referencing
Referencing In-text referencing: Quotations and summaries

End-of-text referencing: Reference Lists
Presenter: Vanessa van der Ham Referencing internet sources
Learning Advisor: Postgraduate
Student Learning Centre We will be using a sample essay adapted from Summers &
V.Vanderham@massey.ac.nz Smith (2003) during this presentation.
1 2
Why Do I Need to Reference? How do I reference?

To distinguish between your ideas and someone elses ideas
APA Method
- One of most frequent comments by markers: Source?
- I read it somewhere is not an acceptable explanation American Psychological Association
- Common knowledge? Very little of what goes into your essay
In-text references: in the body of the essay
will be common knowledge.
- few details of source
To show the marker the range and quality of your reading
- Research skills - author surname; date of publication; page
To direct readers to the sources used numbers
- Publication details End-of text references: in Reference List
To avoid allegations of plagiarism
- full details of source
- Using other peoples ideas and words without acknowledging them
3 4
For every source you refer to in your assignment, there

must be an entry in the References section of your
assignment with full publication details: In-text References
In-text reference: Paragraph 1 Two types:
Observational learning, also known as vicarious or social
learning, plays a significant role in the socialisation of
Quotations Authors exact words
individuals (Mowen & Minor, 1998, p. 2).
Summaries Your words

End-of-text reference:
Mowen, J. C., & Minor, M. (1998). Consumer behavior (5th ed.).
Upper-Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
5 6
1
Quotations Introduce quoted materials
Place in quotation marks to indicate that youve used the Use an appropriate signal phrase:
exact words of the author
Indicate the source, date of publication and page
Observational learning can be defined as the phenomenon
number(s) where the information can be found
whereby people develop patterns of behavior by observing
the actions of others (Mowen & Minor, 1998, p. 147).
Example: (Par. 2)
Observational learning can be defined as the phenomenon OR
whereby people develop patterns of behavior by observing Mowen and Minor (1998) define observational learning as:
the actions of others (Mowen & Minor, 1998, p. 147). the phenomenon whereby people develop patterns of
Authors Date of Page behavior by observing the actions of others (p. 147).
surname(s) publication number
7 8
Summarising
Summarising Socialisation refers to the process by which individuals acquire the
knowledge, skills and dispositions that enable them to participate as
Using someone elses ideas, concepts or data, members of society (Mowen & Minor, 1998, p. 534). From a consumer
but not their exact words behaviour perspective, socialisation refers to how people acquire skills,
knowledge and attitudes that enable them to function as consumers in the
Use your own words and your own sentence marketplace (Assael, 1998, p. 22). Cowell (2001) discusses four main
structure consumer socialising agents in the lives of children, namely parents,
- your voice must be clear in the text schools, peers and television. He points out that because of its wide
reach, television can influence much behaviour, both positively and
Even though youre using your own words, you negatively (p. 76). Preston (2004) points out, for example, that the
must acknowledge the source advertising used on television helps children to acquire the tools of social
interaction (p. 365). On the other hand, Silverblatt (2004) argues that the
- the ideas belong to someone else
explicit sexual and violent content of programs in mass media systems
such as television can exert a strongly negative influence on the public.
9 10
Check whether your department requires page numbers for summaries
Reference List Format of non-periodical sources

Overall Guidelines
Entries are arranged alphabetically End-of-text reference: Title of book in italics
Direct readers as closely as possible to the information Mowen, J. C., & Minor, M. (1998). Consumer behavior (5th ed.).
being cited Upper-Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Place of publication: City
Different information is required to find periodicals and Name of publisher
Country OR State (in the USA)
non-periodicals
- Periodicals: published daily/weekly/monthly
Eg. journals; magazines; newspapers
- Non-periodicals: not published periodically
Eg. books; reports; brochures
Periodicals and non-periodicals are formatted differently
11 12
2
Format of non-periodical sources Format of periodical sources:
Journals, magazines, newspapers
End-of-text reference: Title of book in italics
The format is different because the reader requires different
Mowen, J. C., & Minor, M. (1998). Consumer behavior (5th ed.).
specific details in order to access the sources:
Upper-Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Place of publication: City Name of article
Name of publisher
Country OR State (in the USA) - Periodicals generally contain several articles by
different authors
- Reference list must show which article you used
Shortcut! and the relevant page numbers
Examine the Library Catalogue page for the above Additional publication details
text and find these details.
- Volume numbers
- Issue numbers
13 The reader must be able to access your sources easily 14
Format of periodical sources: Hard copy

Format of periodical sources
End-of-text reference:
Periodicals: journals, magazines, newspapers Detail required to access documents
Hard copy periodicals Example: Title of article (not in italics)

- stored on Level 2 of library Silverblatt, A. (2004). Media as a social institution.
Electronic periodicals American Behavioral Scientist, 48(1), 35-42.
Title of journal (in italics) Page
Volume Issue
- stored on-line in university databases number number numbers
Compare with non-periodical:

Mowen, J. C., & Minor, M. (1998). Consumer behavior
(5th ed.). Upper-Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
15 16
Electronic copy of a journal Electronic copy of a journal

article retrieved from a database article retrieved from a database
Most of the journal articles you access for your Follow the format appropriate to journal articles and add
assignments will be found in the University databases the date of retrieval and the name of the database
Business Source Premier
Example
PsycINFO
Preston, C. (2004, September). Childrens advertising: The
ERIC
ethics of economic socialization. International Journal of
You can find the publication details on the Citation link Consumer Studies, 28(4), 364-71. Retrieved February 17,
for the article
2006, from Business Source Premier database.
View: Citation PDF Full Text Linked full text
Task: Find the details above on the citation page for
this article in your notes
17 18
3
Referencing a work discussed in a
secondary source
In-text reference: Name the original work and give a citation for the
secondary source
Reference list: Give the secondary source
Referencing
In-text reference: Internet Sources
Kennedys study (as cited in Jackson, Keale, & Mirren,1993)
revealed that
Reference List:
Jackson, L., Keale, B., & Mirren, J. (1993). Models of controlled
reading. New York: Camden Press.
19 20
Why must you evaluate Who created the site?

web sites ?
Youre looking for a credible Web site creator:
Anybody can publish information on the Internet
Web sources dont have to be accepted or edited by Is there an author? Is the page signed?
any professional body before publication Is the author affiliated to a university or other educational
Web pages are used to market products and may institution?
contain misleading information Is the author an expert? What else comes up when you
search under the authors name?
Political groups and other interest groups use web Are there contact details/links for the author?
pages to spread information and publicise their
Who sponsors the website?
causes
Who created the site? How reliable is the

21 22
information?
How reliable is the information? Referencing Internet Sources

Does it show evidence of research using credible Overall Guidelines
sources? Statistics New Zealand 1. Direct readers as closely as possible to the information
ACRS part of Purdue being cited
Are there links to other reliable sites? University
- reference specific documents rather than home
How current is the information? Both articles - 2006 pages or menu pages
Does it provide a list of sources? 2. Ensure that the addresses you reference are in working
order
Can you trace the sources?
- only way your reader can access the source
- check the address again just before you hand in
As an example, were going to be referring to the website of the the assignment
New Zealand Retailers Association the NZRA, and specifically a page
entitled Retail Research and Statistics.
23 24
4
End-of-text reference for an
Formatting the URL
internet source
See Get It Right disc
Authors of document (where possible) If the URL goes to another line, break it after a slash or
Publication date before a full -stop
Title or description of the document Dont allow your word processing program to insert a
Retrieval date hyphen at the break
- Date when you retrieved the document from the internet
Internet Address: URL (uniform resource locator) Albertson, J. (2006, January). The retail market in New Zealand:
A review. Retrieved January 18, 2006, from http://www.retail.org.nz/
downloads/The%20Retail%20Market%20In%20NZ%202006.doc
Albertson, J. (2006, January). The retail market in New Zealand: A
review. Retrieved January 18, 2007, from http://www.retail.org.nz/ Do not inset a full-stop at the end of the URL
downloads/The%20Retail%20Market%20In%20NZ%202006.doc
25 26
In-Text Reference Where can you go for help?

Get It Right Disc
In his statistical review of the New Zealand
APA ONLINE
retail industry, John Albertson, CEO of the New http://www.apastyle.org
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_apa.html
Zealand Retailers Association, points out that
APA PUBLICATION MANUAL
fluctuation in petrol prices in recent years has - make sure its the 5th Edition
- copies available in the library on campus
had what he calls a distortionary impact on
total retail results (Albertson, 2006, p. 6). STUDENT LEARNING CENTRE
- pick up a brochure
- make an appointment to see us
- bring your sources/copies of sources with you
27 28
A few commonly required Document available on university

references program or department Web Site
Document available on university program or If the document is part of a large Web site (e.g. a
department Web site university):
Documents available on government agency Web include the host organization
sites include the relevant program or department
precede the URL with a colon
Daily newspaper article, electronic version available
by search
Example:
Document created by a private organization,
Engle, M. (2005). Evaluating websites: Criteria and tools.
available on organisation Web site
Retrieved February 17, 2006, from Cornell University,
See Get It Right disc Cornell University Library Web site: http://www.library.cornell.edu/
olinuris/ref/research/webeval.html
29 30
5
Documents available on Daily newspaper article, electronic
government agency Web sites version available by search
Agency as author Title of document in italics Printed source:
Ministry of Education. (2004, April 5). Worksafe at
Young, A. (2004, July 8). Entry rules eased for migrants.
schools Getting started. Retrieved July 18, 2004,
The New Zealand Herald, p. A3.
from http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index...
Title of document in italics Electronic version

Author identified
Kerslake, J. (2001, October). Ministry of education Young, A. (2004, July 8). Entry rules eased for migrants.
computer census 2001. Retrieved July 20, 2004, The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 8, 2004,
from http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index... from http://www.nzherald.co.... No page numbers
Retrieval date on bottom right-hand corner of the page

31 32
Document created by a private organization, What should I do when there

available on organisation Web site
are details missing?
End of text reference
Dark Bay Minerals, Inc. (2003). Its time to change our No author identified
physical landscape! Retrieved January 9, 2004,
from http://www.darkbay.ca/publication/landscape.doc
- journal article
- book/report/brochure
In-text reference
A local company recently made a commitment to renew The document is not dated
five sites to locations that can be enjoyed by the entire
community (Dark Bay Minerals Inc., 2003, para.3). In-text references when there are no page
numbers
If there is no author listed, the organisation is listed as
the author of the document 33 34
Stand-alone book, report or brochure,

Internet journal article, no author no author
End-of-text reference End-of text reference
Look at student needs. (2004). Journal of Mental Health, Reading made easy. (2004). Retrieved April 4, 2004,
4 (3), 34-45. Retrieved May 10, 2004, from http://www.adu.edu/glc/elearning
from http://www.tra.edu/mentalhealth/econcerns.doc Title in italics
In-text reference
Article title in double inverted commas Students should vary their reading speeds to suit the
In-text reference purpose of the reading task (Reading made easy, 2004,
para.3).
A lack of inexpensive accommodation remains one of the
biggest problems facing students (Look at student needs,
2004, para.5)
If the author of the document is not identified,
If the author of the document is not identified, begin the reference with the title of the document.
begin the reference with the title of the document. 35 36
6
What should I do if the document In-text references for electronic
is not dated? sources with no page numbers
End of text reference
Community Against Junk. (n.d.). Its time to If the paragraphs in the document are numbered
stop the spread! Retrieved January 9, 2004,
(Smith, 2003, para. 5) OR (Smith, 2003, 5)
from http://www.bayhealth.org
Abbreviation of paragraph Symbol for paragraph
In-text reference
If there are no paragraph numbers
A local organisation has identified three fast food outlets
Include the heading of the section and the number of the
that deliberately place flyers near designated play areas for
paragraph following it to direct the reader to the material:
children (Community Against Junk, n.d., para.3).
(Smith, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 1)
Use the abbreviation n.d. to indicate that the document is
not dated 37 38
Citing New Zealand Acts and

Citing New Zealand Statutes
APA Guidelines designed for US legislative system
Acts and Statutes Guidelines on referring to official NZ publications available
in the Guide to Style published by the Ministry for Culture
Please Note: and Heritage:
The following guidelines are adapted from the online
http://www.mch.govt.nz/history/stylegui.html#Offpubs
Guide to Style published by the New Zealand Ministry
Look under heading: Official publications
for Culture and Heritage (details on the next slide).
Reference format for Acts and Statutes different from that
The slides provide general guidelines only. Check used for books, periodicals and electronic sources
whether your department has specific guidelines for
referencing New Zealand Acts and Statutes.
39 40
Citing New Zealand Statutes/Acts: Do you

Citing New Zealand Statutes/Acts include an entry in the reference list?
Provide the citation in parentheses (brackets) after the Requirements vary on this issue:
statement that you are citing - include in-text entry only
Include the exact form of the short title at the - include entry in reference list
beginning of the published Act in New Zealand Statutes - include entry in reference list in separate section
(including exact punctuation used), followed by the date Check with your Department/Lecturer/Supervisor
Indicate the section to which you are referring If you are required to include an entry for an Act in the reference
list, make sure you know which format is required. One suggested
Example: format is provided in the example below.
Old-age Pensions Amendment Act 1908, s.13(5). Example:

Building Act 2004. (2004). The statutes of New Zealand, 2004,
No 72.
Note: Bills are cited in the same way but they are made up of
clauses rather than sections, so use the abbreviation cl. instead of s. Note: The reference list entry for an Act does not include mention of
41 sections cited in the assignment. This information is included in the 42
in-text reference only.
7
Citing an Appendix to the Journals of the
House of Representatives
Citing the Parliamentary Debates
Cite the Appendix (not Appendices) in the form shown by the Cite the Parliamentary Debates in the form shown by
example below. the example below
The full name: Appendix to the House of Representatives is
provided only in your first reference to the Appendix. In subsequent Example:
citations only the initials (AJHR) are used. First reference: New Zealand Parliamentary Debates (NZPD),
Note: It is useful to record that nature of the item, e.g. departmental 1920, vol. 189, pp. 179-95.
annual report, Royal Commission, etc. Provide this information at Subsequent reference: NZPD, 1920, vol. 189, pp. 179-95.
the beginning of the reference.
Example: Note: It is often useful for a specific reference to include

First reference: Department of Labour annual report, Appendix to the
the date and speaker.
Journals of the House of Representatives (AJHR), 1950, H-11, p.13. Example:
Subsequent reference: AJHR, 1950, H-11, p.13.
43
NZPD, 3 May 1920, vol. 189, p. 182 (Coates). 44
Library websites providing information References

on referencing Acts/Statutes Summers, J., & Smith, B. (2003). Communication skills handbook.
Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd.
http://library.manukau.ac.nz/pdfs/apa.pdf
http://library.ucol.ac.nz/~upload/Library%20Docu
ments/apa_referencing.pdf
http://www.waikato.ac.nz/library/learning/g_apag
uide.shtm#othe
45 46
END
47
8
EDITING AND PROOFREADING
Why is Editing and

Proofreading Important?
When your writing has errors and gaps in
Editing meaning, readers draw negative conclusions
about you as a writer, thinker, and person
and Your readers will not think of you as the
Proofreading intelligent, thoughtful, and careful person you
are
Errors and gaps in meaning detract from your
message; as a result, readers (and markers!) may
Kate Pritchard 2005 not hear your ideas or value your thoughts.
Lets Start with Editing When to Edit?

Writing is a recursive process rather than linear
Editing deals with Content and Ideas That means you loop back through the various stages
of the process as you write.
The Purpose of Editing is to tighten the
Brainstorm for Ideas Draft
gaps in meaning so that your ideas are
translated as clearly as possible to the page Edit Draft Draft
where your reader can interpret them.
Brainstorm for more ideas Draft Draft
Need to do more research Draft
Edit Draft Draft Draft
In other words The Rules of Editing:

You probably do some editing throughout the
drafting process, rather than dealing with it
only at the end of your writing task
Rule 1: Be Curious
Global and Local Organisation: Intro, Body, Rule 2: Be Imaginative
Conclusion Rule 3: Be Straightforward
Paragraphing
Sentence-level editing
1
How to Edit
Ask Questions about Images
Rule 1: Be Curious: How many were there?
Ask yourself questions at the end of every What did they look like?
sentence: What information does your reader What color?
need? What else was there?
What shape was it?
How was it arranged?
Ask Questions about Experiences: Ask Questions about Ideas
What happened next? How does this idea work?

Why do you say this?
What happened before this?
Where did this idea come from?
Why did this happen?
What do the experts say about this idea?
When was this?
How do you know this?
Had this happened before? Whats the main point of this idea?
What caused this? Whats an example of this idea?
What was the consequence of this? Why is this idea important?
Practice What questions did you ask?

Clearly there have been significant How have their social
What questions can you ask at the end of changes in the social position of positions changed?
every sentence in this passage? women
The percentage of womens to What are the exact
mens annual wages has percentages of change?
Clearly there have been significant changes in the social position
changed dramatically.
of women over the last three decades. The percentage of
womens to mens annual wages for full-time work has also Some would argue that such Why do they think that?
achievements maskgender
changed dramatically. Some would argue that such inequalities.
achievements mask continued and pervasive gender inequalities.
Others suggest that the glass What do they mean by this?
Others suggest that the glass is, in fact, half full. Thus, the is half full.
inquiry into structural sexism continues to be important.
Thus, the inquiry into What is structural sexism?
structural sexism
2
Clearly there have been significant changes in the social
position of women over the last three decades. More women
How to Edit
have joined the workforce; more women are active leaders in
business, politics, and academia. To illustrate, in 1974, women
comprised 39% of the civilian labor force; by 2003, that
Rule 2: Be Imaginative:
percentage had increased to 45.2% (Tilman, 2004). The
percentage of womens to mens annual wages for full-time work has Imagine the world of evidence: What
also changed, rising from 57.2% in 1974 to 72.6% in 1996. Some possible types of information could fill any
would argue that such achievements mask continued and pervasive
gender inequalities. Lorber (1996), for example, states Others,
gaps in meaning?
however, suggest that the glass is, in fact, half full, that we should
Facts Statistics and Data
be satisfied with these increases as signs of progress. Thus, the
inquiry into structural sexism the ways in which the conventions Authority Personal Experience
of a given culture perpetuate the subordination of individuals or Research Findings Analogy
groups based on gender continues to be important.
Clearly there have been significant changes in the social

position of women over the last three decades. More women
Practice
have joined the workforce; more women are active leaders in What kind of evidence would enrich this passage?
business, politics, and academia. To illustrate, in 1974, women
comprised 39% of the civilian labor force; by 2003, that There is little doubt that gender role stereotypes exist. These
percentage had increased to 45.2% (Tilman, 2004). The attitudes are numerous and particularly prevelant in the media.
percentage of womens to mens annual wages for full-time work has Television is filled with instances of stereotyping in primetime
also changed, rising from 57.2% in 1974 to 72.6% in 1996. Some shows, news programs, childrens programming, soap operas,
would argue that such achievements mask continued and pervasive and commercials. Print advertisements, music videos, greeting
gender inequalities. Lorber (1996), for example, states Others, cards, magazines, newspapers, and textbooks have all been
however, suggest that the glass is, in fact, half full, that we should found to underrepresent women in status positions and offer
be satisfied with these increases as signs of progress. Thus, the
portrayals of both male and female in limited and stereotypical
inquiry into structural sexism the ways in which the conventions
roles. Even studies of comic strips yield similar conclusions. It
of a given culture perpetuate the subordination of individuals or
groups based on gender continues to be important. seems there is no getting away from gender stereotyping.
Did you imagine evidence like this?

Once you Imagine the Evidence...
Is there a poll or study that shows peoples attitudes
about men and womens characteristics?
What have research studies found about:
primetime shows
You need to go back to your notes to find it,
news programs
childrens programming Or
soap operas
commercials Go back to the library to find it.
What do the experts say about gender roles on TV?
How often are stereotypical images offered on TV,
commercials, music videos, greeting cards, magazines,
newspaper
What research has been done on comic strips?
3
There is little doubt that gender role stereotypes exist. In a
2000 Gallup Poll, men were most often described as. How to Edit
Women, on the other hand These attitudes are numerous and
particularly prevelant in the media. In a study about gender roles Rule 3: Be Straightforward
on TV, Kubey & Shifflet (1995) report that Television is filled
with instances of stereotyping in primetime shows, news programs,
childrens programming, soap operas, and commercials. Content
Is this idea expressed as simply and
analyses of childrens TV advertising (Smith, 1994), for instance, clearly as possible?
demonstrate that Print advertisements, music videos, greeting
cards, magazines, newspapers, and textbooks have all been found to
Avoid Fancy words
underrepresent women in status positions and offer portrayals of both
male and female in limited and stereotypical roles. Even studies of Avoid Fancy-sounding sentences
comic strips yield similar conclusions. In comic strips published in
Add Secondary Elements carefully.
1994, Small (1996) found It seems there is no getting away from
gender stereotyping.
Avoid Fancy Words

Avoid Fancy-sounding Sentences
George Orwell said, Never use a long word where a short one will do.
Certain product lines such as CDs that have not been
previously recorded upon are now unavailable with
Perambulate..walk this company, whilst potentially remaining available
from more mainstream suppliers.
Utilise... use
Commencebegin In other words
Ameliorateimprove This company no longer sells blank CDs, but you can
buy them at other stores.
Peruseread
Add Secondary Elements Carefully Every sentence must have a

Main Subject / Verb-Phrase
+ The Main Subject/Verb-Phrase must have a
Secondary Elements Sense of Completion
Introductory Phrases The Main Subject/Verb-Phrase must
Interrupters contain a Complete Idea.
Trailers
4
Main Introductory Phrase
Subject/Verb-Phrase Anything that comes before the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase
Introductory Phrase Main Subject/Verb-Phrase

Who Did what? (Offers Additional Information) (Complete Idea)
The researcher concluded that stereotypes still exist. Although the study was flawed , the researcher concluded that
The committee decided upon a new policy. After the riots began , the committee decided upon
Women were portrayed primarily as caregivers. Even in comic strips , women were portrayed as
The question is crucial. While answers are premature , the question is
This study has shown a high level of compliance. Contrasting all previous work , this study has shown
Combined, the Subject/Verb-Phrase must state a complete idea. Notice the comma between intro phrase and subject/verb-phrase
Interrupters* Trailers
Anything that comes between the Subject and Verb-Phrase Anything that comes after the Subject/Verb-Phrase
Subject Interrupter Verb-Phrase
Subject Verb-Phrase ( = Complete Idea)
(Compete (Offers Additional Information) Idea)
The researcher , a leading academic , concluded The
This
Womenresearcher
Thestudy
The committee
question concluded
has
wereshown
decided athat
portrayed
is crucial,
upon a stereotypes
highprimarily
level
new asstill exist
of compliance
policy caregivers,
The committee , which was formed ad hoc , decided

Trailer although
that
although
demonstrating
givesthey
reinforcingittenants
isare
therarely
that
less
theexamined.
notion power
prevalant
that.to
Women , when they appeared at all , were portrayed
(Offers Additional Information)
This question , on the other hand , is
This study , although narrow in scope , has shown
Notice the commas on both sides of the interrupter
Remember, you must have Often, you can add a Trailer
The Subject / Verb- Phrase must state a complete idea.

Subject Verb-Phrase
5
Often, you can add an Intro Phrase Often, you can add both

Introductory Phrase + Subject/Verb-Phrase + Trailer.
In subsequent trials, In subsequent trials,

Sometimes, you can add two

Sometimes, you can add two or more
Intro Phrases:
Trailers
Introductory Phrase + Introductory Phrase + Subject/Verb-Phrase
+ Trailer + Trailer + Trailer.
Subject/Verb-Phrase.
In subsequent trials that proved very successful, to solve the problem, which proved very successful
Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans. in subsequent trials.
Rarely, you might add an Interrupter Confusion happens

With sentences that combine too many elements:
Subject , Interrupter , Verb-Phrase
Subj/Verb-Phrase
Lackson and Enscore (1993) + Trailer + a 2nd Trailer + a 3rd Trailer
In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial expression, like
, in their work with split-brain patients, most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was
modified their plans. culturally determined, that we simply use our face according to a set
of learned social conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis
on motivation and cognition in academic psychology that flourished
Its best to keep the Subject and Verb-Phrase close together. at the time.
6
Confusion happens Confusion happens
When the Subject/Verb-Phrase
arrives very late in the sentence: With some sentences that have an interruption
between the Subject and Verb-Phrase
Subject + Interrupter + Verb-Phrase.
+ 3rd Intro phrase + Subj/Verb-Phrase + a Trailer.
This time, making his way through the jungles of Papua New
Guinea to the most remote villages where tribesmen had no His book, the man who hired me yesterday said, deals
problems interpreting the expressions on the photographs he with politics.
carried of men and women making a variety of distinctive facial
expressions, Ekman had a breakthrough that established that The man who hired me yesterday said that his book deals with politics.
expressions were the universal products of evolution.

Steps to Follow (Make sure its a complete idea)
2. Identify the secondary elements that could be extracted
if your sentence is too long or
complicated 3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas.
1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial
(Make sure its a complete idea) expression, like most social scientists of her day, Mead
believed expression was culturally determined, that we
simply use our face according to a set of learned social
extracted
conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis on
3. Create new sentences around the extracted motivation and cognition in academic psychology that
ideas. flourished at the time.
1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase 1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase

(Make sure its a complete idea) (Make sure its a complete idea)
2. Identify the secondary elements that could be extracted 2. Identify the secondary elements that could be extracted
3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas. 3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas.
-- In the 1960s,
-- like most social scientists of her day,
-- when little study was devoted to facial expression
-- Mead believed expression was culturally determined,
In the 1960s, little study was devoted to facial

Like most social scientists of her day, Mead believed
expression.
expression was culturally determined.
7
-- a belief that grew from the emphasis on motivation

-- that we simply use our face according to a set of and cognition
learned social conventions -- in academic psychology
-- that flourished at the time.
In other words, she believed that we simply use our
This belief grew from the emphasis on motivation
face according to a set of learned social conventions.
and cognition in academic psychology that flourished
at the time.
In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial expression,

like most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression
was culturally determined, that we simply use our face according
Practice...
to a set of learned social conventions, a belief that grew from the How could you make this sentence simpler
emphasis on motivation and cognition in academic psychology that and more straightforward?
flourished at the time.
Although they are less prevalent now than in the early
In the 1960s, little study was devoted to facial expression. 1960s when research in gender first found its way onto
Like most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression university campuses and The Feminine Mystique by
was culturally determined. Betty Friedan was published in 1965, officially
In other words, she believed we simply use our face according to beginning what is called the second wave of the
a set of learned social conventions.
womens movement, Matthews (2002) concludes that
This belief grew from the emphasis on motivation and cognition gender stereotypes are still firmly embedded in most
in academic psychology that flourished at the time.
Western cultures.

(Make sure its a complete idea)
Did you make changes like this?
3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas.
In the early 1960s, gender research was first finding
Although they are less prevalent now than in the early its way onto university campuses. By 1965, with the
1960s when research in gender first found its way onto publication of The Feminine Mystique by Betty
university campuses and The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan, the second wave of the womens
Friedan was published in 1965, officially beginning what movement had officially begun. However, Matthews
is called the second wave of the womens movement, (2002) concludes that gender stereotypes are still
Matthews (2002) concludes that gender stereotypes are
firmly embedded in most Western cultures.
still firmly embedded in most Western cultures.
8
Or this? Remember
Gender stereotypes are much less prevalent now
the Rules of Editing:
than in the early 1960s. At that time, research into
gender was just finding its way onto university
campuses, and in 1965, Betty Friedan published The
Rule 1: Be Curious
Feminine Mystique. These two events sparked what Rule 2: Be Imaginative
is called the second wave of the womens Rule 3: Be Straightforward
movement. However, Matthews (2002) concludes,
gender stereotypes are still firmly imbedded in most
Western cultures.
Now, lets think about To Proofread...

Proofreading
You will have to read through your essay or
Proofreading deals with correctness report many, many times
Grammar, punctuation, spelling, Each time you read through, you should
typographical mistakes focus on a single proofreading issue
In order to do a good job with proofreading, Read your essay or report backwards,
you must separate this writing task from other sentence-by-sentence to isolate your
tasks, like drafting and editing sentences from the context of your work
Dont worry about proofreading during your Read your work slowly and out loud.
drafting process.
Proofreading Issues: Sentence Boundaries
Grammar:
Is a sentence complete or a fragment?
Sentence Boundaries, Subject/Verb Agreement,
Verb Tense, Clarity Are two (or more) sentences running
together?
Punctuation:
Are there too many secondary elements that
Commas, apostrophes, colons, semi-colons
create confusion?
Spelling
Errors, missing words, typos
9
HINT: Subject / Verb Agreement
Before every sentence, add I think that Subject must agree in number with the verb form:
and listen for a sense of completion of an
idea. I think that WHO? DID WHAT? Subject = plural verb = plural form
Subject = singular verb = singular form
Practice:
Ekman and Friesen created the Facial Action Coding Plural subject has Plural verb form has
System, or FACS.XWrote them up in a 500 page s ending no s ending
binder. It is full of details like the 8 possible The researchers study
movements of the lipsXit also gives four different
changes of the skin between the eyes and the cheeks. Singular subject has Singular verb form has
Researchers have used this information in many ways. no --s ending -s ending
X To study schizophrenia and heart disease. Start here A researcher studies
HINT:
Identify every noun and pronoun Revised Version
Check the related verb for agreement
The teaching methods in Russia are different
No double-S No non-S.
than in this country. Most Russian students have
Practice: to do a lot of homework after school. The
teachers push them hard to get a good score.
The teaching methods in Russia is different than in this
It forces many students to give up their free time.
country. Most Russian students has to do a lot of
homework after school. The teachers pushes them hard
to get a good score. It force many students to give up
their free time. Start here
Tense Yesterday Now Tomorrow?

The tense the time element of a verb
needs to be consistent throughout your writing.
Decide when you want your writing to take People lost jobs, inflation had been rising, and
place either yesterday, now, or tomorrow all the economic problems had been causing
Check all: social and political problems. Since there is
action verbs (buy, rise, cause) high inflation, employees cannot buy the same
state-of-being verbs (is, are, was, were) things they buy the month before because
helping verbs (have, had, has) prices have been rising 3 times faster than
salaries. Start here
10
Revised Version: Now
Pronoun Clarity
The economic situation in Peru is dismal. A common problem with pronouns is when
People are losing jobs, inflation is rising, it is unclear what word the pronoun refers
and all the economic problems are causing to.
social and political problems. Since there is This is especially common when the referent
high inflation, employees cannot buy the word is in a previous sentence.
same things they bought the month before Check all your pronouns for any possible
because prices are rising 3 times faster than misunderstandings.
salaries.
HINT:
Use the Find and Replace function to
When a solution to a problem causes
locate your pronouns, especially another problem, it should be
IT, THEY, THEIR, THEM reanalysed. ?
What word does the pronoun refer to?
Is it close and clear? When a solution to a problem causes

another problem, the entire problem-
solution process should be reanalysed.
Know this Rule: Commas

A Commas function is The store supplies biking supplies , outdoor
to separate sentence elements: clothing , and camping equipment.
Although the store is open 9-5 Monday
Items in a list through Friday, weekend hours are limited.
Secondary elements from the
subject/verb-phrase The store manager said, We want our
customers to be having fun on weekends.
Tag from a quotation
Two (or more) sentences joined with a The stores hours are 12-3 on Saturday , and
conjunction. it is closed altogether on Sunday.
11
Apostrophes HINT
Check every word that ends in s
Signal possession
Does it need an apostrophe to signal possession?
Signal a contraction of words. (Check the following word)
Is the word a simple plural requiring no
apostrophe?
The researchers hypothesis was supported by the data.
Practice:
The hypothesis wasnt supported by the data.
(was not) The
Thechairs
chairsfabric
fabricwas
wasfaded
fadedand
andtorn.
torn.
Many chairs have this problem when placed in

sunny windows.
Spelling HINT:
Spell-Check is a good place to start, but it is not enough.
Spell-Check doesnt know homonym differences: For Spelling and Missing Words:
there / their / theyre; sight / cite / site; and others
Spell-Check cant tell you when youve made a typo that

still spells a word correctly: Comb through your papers word-by-word
take when you meant make, Read aloud and slowly
hat when you meant hate,
he when you meant the Read each word as it is printed on the page.
A simple missing word can also send your reader into a

complete state of confusion.
Thank you
and Happy Writing.
Kate Pritchard
12
LITERATURE REVIEWS
What is a literature review?
Focuses on what has been researched

Literature Reviews: before on the topic
An Introduction Highlights how your study will fill the
current research gap
Presenter: Vanessa van der Ham
Student Learning Centre, Auckland
E-mail: V.Vanderham@massey.ac.nz
Phone: 414 0800 Ext. 9583 (Davidson & Tolich, 1999, p. 94)
1 2
Basically, the questions the literature review

An examination of the key seeks to answer are the following:
research on a topic
What have others said about this topic?
Involves: What theories address this topic?
What do those theories say?
The selection of available documents on the topic,
Which policies address the topic? (If relevant)
which contain ideas, data and evidence
What research has been done previously?
The effective evaluation of these documents in relation
to [your research] Do the results of the existing research agree with one
another, or is there disagreement?
The synthesis of information into a coherent story of
knowledge on the topic Are there flaws in the existing literature?
Which gap in the literature will your research fill?

(Hart, 1998; Davidson & Tollich, 1999)
3 4
(Davidson and Tollich, 1990, p. 94)
Research history forms the Demonstrating your understanding of the

starting point for your research history of the topic
What do we mean by the history of the topic?

All research has a history
The assumptions and definitions other researchers have
It is this history that provides the employed to study the topic
precedent for further work
Why must you investigate this history?
It is what forms the starting point for your In order to provide the story of how the topic was defined,
research. established and developed
(Hart, 1998, p.175) (Hart, 1998, p. 173)

5 6
1
Smith Billet & Morgan & Kevinstan Jacqet Which gap in the literature will your research fill?
1979 Ouster Tuffin 1985 1988
1980 1981 Example topic: Developing natural treatments to replace
antiobiotic use in pig farming
Anders Fieldman Christians McDonald Johnson
1988 & Roberts 1990 & Bundt 1991 Antibiotics are used to cure diseases in pigs and increase
performance. Their use, however, has come under attack by
1989 1990 consumers and political groups due to allergies and bacterial
Bleet Smith & Jones Bush & Solomon resistance in pork consumers. Since antibiotics increase
performance, the ban [on antibiotics] would increase mortality and
1992 Kettle 1994 Thomson 1995 reduce performance in pigs. To avoid a decrease in performance,
1992 1995 there is a need to develop natural treatments to replace antibiotic
use (Nkamba, 2006).
Frankens Johansen Smart Dickens Engels
1996 1998 1999 2000 2001 1. Antibiotic use in curing pig diseases
Studies supporting this
Increases pigs performance growth rate
Little & Nettle Nettle Nettle Winston However, concerns raised by consumers and political groups have
Scott 2002 2002a 2002b 2002c 2003 drawn attention to the problems of antibiotic use.
7 8
Natilene Bowker, Student Learning Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North 2005 Adapted from: Natilene Bowker, Student Learning Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North 2005
2. Health problems with antibiotic use

Health - allergies, bacterial resistance in pork consumers How is a literature review organised?
Political concerns
Davidson and Tolich (1999, p.94) introduce the literature

Banning antibiotics review as follows:
3. Consequences of banning antibiotics

The goal of the library search is [to] to assemble what
Mortality increase, reduced pig performance, growth rate
other researchers have said about your topic of interest
4. Developing natural treatments to replace antibiotics
and to distil this into a coherent statement. This involves
Different treatments
a lot of reading, note-taking, paraphrasing of arguments,
Benefits summarising of the key findings, and extracting the most
Disadvantages critical quotes. What you come up with at the end of all
End with closest resembling treatment to your study and / or technique this should read much more like a short essay than
used in your study
simply a jumble of disordered notes.
All this justifies the validity & value of your research question.
9 10
Natilene Bowker, Student Learning Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North 2005
Example: Literature Review in Thesis (Hawkins, 2003)
How is a literature review 2. Literature review

2.1. Introduction
2.1.1. Social consequences of obesity
organised? 2.2. Broader communication issues

2.2.1. Advertising
Arranged by key themes or findings
Arranged in headings and sub-headings
2.2.1.1. Advertising expenditure
by key themes or findings 2.2.1.2. Advertising style

2.3. Likely causes of obesity
Logical grouping of
information from your
arranged in headings and sub-headings 2.3.1. Obesity and genetics
2.3.2. Television watching, exercise and obesity
sources
as an argument that flows 2.3.3. Lifestyles and eating choices

2.3.4. Advertising, children and obesity
To provide a coherent
- information from various sources is 2.3.4.1. Communication theory
2.3.4.2. Television content analysis
argument about research on
your topic so far
synthesised to form a coherent argument 2.3.4.3. Television advertising and nutrition practices
2.4. Proposed public policy changes to reduce obesity
2.4.1. Fat/Sin taxes
Leading to your research
2.4.2. Health education
question
2.4.3. Advertising restricitons
11 12
2.5. Summary of literature and research aims
2
Literature review: Do not confuse a literature review
Arranged as an argument that flows with an annotated bibliography
Extract from a literature review: Extract from annotated bibliography:
Taumoefolau, M., Starks, D., Bell, A., & Davis, K. (2004). The role of
2.3. Likely causes of obesity second language acquisition theory and practice in Pasifika
language maintenance in New Zealand. In Language Acquisition
2.3.4 Advertising, children and obesity Research: Papers presented at a Ministry of Education Forum
held in 2003. Wellington New Zealand: Ministry of Education Research
The cause for concern lies in the fact that advertising targeting and Evaluation Unit.
children is a high growth area, as is childrens buying power (Eagle &
The authors discuss a survey of community language use in Pasifika communities
de Bruin, 2001). Marketers target this youth market, hoping to in Manukau City. They conclude that there is evidence of language attrition a
reduction both in the use and the range of community languages. The authors then
establish early trends of brand loyalty and influence parents buying
summarise relevant theories of second language acquisition, focusing on the
decisions (Dobrow, 2002). Furthermore, whilst children may crucial importance of comprehensible input. They then discuss how children in
influence their parents spending habits, advertisers recognise that Pasifika communities in New Zealand might obtain more comprehensible input in
the home and school. I intend to use the concept of comprehensible input to
children also have their own money to spend (Strasburger, 2001) evaluate materials available for parents who want to read stories in Tongan to their
13 pre-school children. 14
(Source of extract: Hawkins, 2003, p. 23)
What should you include in Summary of existing work on

the review? your topic
Summary of existing knowledge on your How has the topic been studied?
topic
What has been found?
Critical evaluation of this work Which issues have the different authors
highlighted as a result of their work?
Some general and specific conclusions
about work done to date on the topic How have the key terms or concepts been
defined or used?
Make sure you synthesise information on existing work
(Hart, 1998, p. 186) 15 16
(Hart, 1998, p. 186)
What does it mean to synthesise the Synthesise information on existing

information on existing knowledge? research on your topic
Dont just list what the different researchers did and what Summarising existing research on the topic for a literature review does not
their findings were: involve simply writing a separate summary paragraph on each reading:
Identify issues highlighted in the research

Research by Brown (2002)
- youre going to organise your literature review
around these, in line with the aims of your research Research by Smith (2003)
Highlight differences and similarities in findings across the
research Research by Aitkens (2003)
Identify areas of consensus among researchers

Guide the discussion using your voice
Show the relationship between the studies
Your voice must guide the discussion
17
Show how the research is linked to your research project 18
3
Synthesise information on existing
Literature Review (Extract)
research on your topic 2.3.4.3. Television advertising and nutrition practices
Where is your voice here? What is the point youre Television advertising may influence childrens nutrition practices, particularly in regard to
making about the topic in this paragraph? Which food requests, purchases and consumption (see for example, Hutchings & Moynihan, 1998;
issue does the research highlight? Kotz & Story, 1994; Borzekowski & Robinson, 2001). Story and Faulkner (1990) state that
Research by Brown (2002) television exposure may impact on actual eating behaviour [but that further research is
required to establish causal links]. Similarly, Kotz and Story (1994) note that television is
Where is your voice here? What is the relationship such a ubiquitous medium that it is difficult to measure its behavioural effects. Their report
between Browns research and Smiths research? concluded that it was not possible to prove that food advertisements aimed at children
cause poor eating habits. Whilst these and other such studies report a positive correlation
Research by Smith (2003)
between television viewing and food requests, purchases and consumption, there is limited
Where is your voice here? What is the relationship conclusive evidence to support a direct cause and effect relationship between the
between Aitkens research and that of Brown and of messages portrayed and the actual eating patterns of children.
Smith? (Source of extract: Hawkins, 2003, p. 29)
Literature review:
Research by Aitkens (2003)
Synthesising and critiquing existing knowledge on
How are all these linked to your research question?
19
your topic 20
(Adapted from Graduate School Website of Edith Cowan University)
2.3.4.3. Television advertising and nutrition practices Synthesise information from

Television advertising may influence childrens nutrition practices,
particularly in regard to food requests, purchases and consumption (see
your sources
for example, Hutchings & Moynihan, 1998; Kotz & Story, 1994; Caulley (1992) notes that a literature review should:
Borzekowski & Robinson, 2001). Story and Faulkner (1990) state that
television exposure may impact on actual eating behaviour [but that Compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue
further research is required to establish causal links]. Similarly, Kotz and Group authors who draw similar conclusions,
Story (1994) note that television is such a ubiquitous medium that it is Criticise aspects of methodology,
difficult to measure its behavioural effects. Their report concluded that it Note areas in which authors are in disagreement,
was not possible to prove that food advertisements aimed at children Highlight exemplary studies,
cause poor eating habits. Whilst these and other such studies report a Highlight gaps in research,
positive correlation between television viewing and food requests, Show how your study relates to previous studies,
purchases and consumption, there is limited conclusive evidence to Show how your study relates to the literature in general,
support a direct cause and effect relationship between the messages Conclude by summarising what the literature says.
portrayed and the actual eating patterns of children.
21 22
(Source of extract: Hawkins, 2003, p. 29) (as cited in The University of Melbourne, 2006, Getting started)
Paragraph Organisation Critical evaluation of the

Identify areas of consensus: Hence, it seems that there is
agreement among researchers of the 80s regarding information
Thomsons theory.
Deciding which literature is most pertinent to your review
Identify areas of divergence: Much debate exists on the
issue of Try to explain why. Ability to point out strengths and weaknesses in previous
research in relation to your research topic
Consider the need for summary paragraphs dispersed
throughout the review. - moving beyond description of research to analysis
and evaluation
In summary, the evidence laid out demonstrates that
operating online does not challenge the online mediums Using other writers critiques
ability to . Rather, this literature supports a continuation
of . Consequently, people with disabilities may
experience social stigma online . However, alternative
ideas and findings suggest .
23 24
4
Deciding which literature is most Prioritise Material Type
pertinent to your review
1. Articles in refereed, 5. PhD thesis
Library searching - Online and hard copies: international 6. MA thesis
journals 7. Honours thesis
The Library for: Undergraduates | Postgraduates | Extramurals | Staff
and Researchers | Visitors 2. Books / Chapters in 8. Websites / Articles
Ed. Books in non-refereed
university databases
3. Articles in national, journals
use abstracts to help you in your search refereed journals
use indexes in books 4. Conference papers / Check course requirements
make an appointment with a librarian for a research Research reports Consult with your supervisor
consultation (govt, com, org)
25 26
Critical evaluation: How useful is the study

What does it mean to critically in relation to your research?
evaluate existing knowledge?
Smith and Jones (2004) analysed the content of advertisements
Move beyond description into analysis and critique on New Zealand television during a two year period between the
hours of 3pm to 6pm each day, with the intention of examining
Smith and Jones (2004) analysed the content of advertisements the nutritional quality of food in television food advertisements
on New Zealand television during a one week period between targeted at children. They found that the majority of the food
the hours of 3pm to 6pm, with the intention of examining the advertisements analysed were for foods that were high in fat,
nutritional quality of food in television food advertisements sugars and sodium. The study provides a basis for comparing
targeted at children. They found that the majority of the food advertising patterns over time. However it does not include any
advertisements analysed were for foods that were high in fat, discussion of eating situations or eating behaviour as shown in
sugars and sodium. the advertisements.
Strengths and limitations in relation to your research

Description only Youre constructing an argument about gaps in current knowledge
27 28
Critically analyse the text Critically analyse the text

What is the main idea the writer is putting forward? Was the text written in response to another text?
- use abstracts and introductions to help you
What is the underlying theory?
What are the main points made to develop the idea?
- pick out the main elements of the argument in the text Does it develop a previous model further?
What kind of evidence is provided to support the points? Does it provide an entirely new model?
What is the quality of this evidence? What are the strengths and weakness of the model
in relation to your research?
Do you agree with the conclusion the writer comes to?
What are the strengths and limitations of the study
in relation to your research?
29 30
5
Methodological critique Introducing other peoples criticisms
Manchester Universitys Academic Phrasebank offers
Sample size the following examples:
Randomized trials
Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been
Reliable control confounding variables successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that...
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.
Validity
The X theory has been strongly challenged in recent years by a
number of writers.
Lack of alternative methodologies used to Jones (2003) is probably the best known critic of the X theory.
Critics question the ability of post-structuralist theory to provide...
understand the issue.
Jones (2003) is critical of the conclusions that Smith draws from his
findings.
31 (Manchester University, 2006, Introducing other peoples criticisms) 32

Some general and specific conclusions

about work done to date on the topic In summary: Literature review...
Involves synthesising and critiquing existing
General conclusions can be about the overall knowledge on your topic
direction of work on the topic in relation to earlier
more fundamental work. A literature review tells the story of the literature
produced so far on the topic and justifies the need
Specific conclusions are about identifying for your own research
gaps, fallacies and failures in previous work in
Organised by key themes or findings arranged in
order to show the legitimacy of your own
headings and sub-headings as an argument that flows
approach.
33 34
(Hart, 1998, p. 186)
(Hart, 1998; Davidson & Tollich, 1999)
Problem-awareness pattern
Planning your review Describe the nature of the problem:
- give examples of the problem showing its extent;
- offer evidence that the problem exists;
Hart (1998) suggest three possible structures to help you - develop a definition of the problem.
think about how to structure your review. Elements of Show the relevance of the problem to the reader:
each may be useful to you in planning your review. - provide specific evidence, argument of negative effects.
Explain the consequences if nothing is done or if the current

state continues
Problem-awareness pattern - provide evidence of effects/current practice;
Cause and effect pattern - summarise the problem situation.
Outline the parameters of the problem (definitional argument)
Possible solution pattern
Outline an approach (recommendations for tackling the
problem situation)
(Hart, 1998) 35 36
(Hart, 1998, p. 188)
6
Cause and Effect Pattern Possible Solution Pattern
Consider definitions and solutions already tried:
Establish the existence of the problem (problem awareness):
- give relevant examples of solutions tried;
- propose possible causes of the problem;
- show why they failed or were inadequate;
- show the main factors underpinning the proposed causes.
- show factors causing failure;
Clarify any confusing areas: - provide evidence of factors.
- eliminate any improbable, irrelevant causes/definitions;
Consider possible alternatives:
- provide evidence for causes/definitions eliminated.
- distinguish between alternatives;
Focus attention on proposed cause/definition: - provide summary of possible effects of alternatives;
- provide evidence for proposed cause/definition - make a choice from alternatives by elimination;
- summarise the argument. - provide evidence for elimination and choice.
Suggest course (recommendations) of action to deal with the Summarize the problem, solutions tried and why they failed and
problem give recommendations for alternative approaches
(Hart, 1998, p. 188) 37 38

(Hart, 1998, p. 188)
Introducing Your Review Be clear about the purpose of

Hart (1998, p.196) suggests five components for the introduction: your review
Aim Means What are you trying to achieve with your review?
What should you achieve? How you can achieve it?
- clear aims in your introduction
1. To announce the topic of A clear and concise statement
your review The rest of the review should realise these aims
2. To state the purpose of
A careful explanation of what Keep going back to these aims
your review
you aim to achieve
- helps you to control your research
3. To explain the relevance of An indication of its - helps you to structure your review
the topic importance in the literature
4. To establish your credibility Information on why you should be seen as - helps you to decide what to include
competent to write about this topic
5. To preview the main points that Advance notice of the structure
you will make in the main body of of your text, possibly including
the text your thesis statement 39
Hart, 1998, p. 186 40
Writing definitions Concluding your review

See Manchester Universitys Academic Phrasebank for
examples of phrases to introduce definitions:
General and specific conclusions on the
Referring to general meanings/applications of topic in existing literature
meanings
All the aims of the literature review must
Indicating difficulties in defining a term
be addressed in the conclusion
Specifying terms that are to be used in your
thesis/research report/article
Referring to other peoples definitions
(Manchester University, 2006, Writing definitions) 41 42
7
Starting to Write Referring to the research of
1. Organise your literature around topics / other writers
themes you can write about. What do you include?
2. Choose headings to define each topic Citation and tense
category & sub-categories.
Avoiding repetition
3. At this stage, do not be concerned with
the overall picture of how topics will link. The language of critique
- verbs and adjectives used to situate critique
4. Be concerned about covering all issues /
- indicating gaps in research
ideas / boundaries / relevant areas /
dimensions.
43 44
Micro-Level Tasks: Referring to

What do you include? Others Work
A study by Smith (1998) showed that gender differences exist
At a basic level for each individual piece of online.
research cover:
How?
What the researcher did Why?
What the researcher found
Implications for future work/your work Smith (1998) investigated the existence of gender
differences in chatroom participation. By measuring the
Moving beyond description
proportion of responses made by male and female
participants, taking into account the amount of time spent
- Should also cover seminal works. accessing the chatroom, findings showed that males were
more likely than females to post messages (67% and 33%
respectively). This evidence supports the view
45 46
Cover seminal work, leading theories, concepts in the area

Features to include For theories, try to refer to the original research, rather than a textbook
Participants characteristics, criteria for inclusion reference. Einsteins (1923) theory of relativity
Sample size
Location of study Multiple authors
Type of study expt, interviews, survey Use when your assertion is particularly important, or may be
questioned.
Nature of task what was done, details of tests used
Findings numerical, descriptive A plethora of literature exists about men and women masquerading as the
How the findings relate to your research question opposite gender online (Curtis, 1997; Dickel, 1995; Kendall, 1996; McRae,
1996, 1997; Reid, 1995, 1996a, 1996b; Turkle, 1995; Van Gelder, 1991;
Whitty, 2002).
Reasoning
Discernment in use of verbs
Based on the findings of Brown (1989) and Jones Just because an author suggests an idea, this does not
(1997), Smith (1998) hypothesised that gender make it so.
differences are prevalent online. Smith (1998) suggests that gender
differences exist online.
Suggest is not the same as demonstrate, conclude, argue

47 48
8
Citation and tense
Swales and Feak (1994) point out three main patterns:
Citation and Tense
1. Past researcher activity as agent
Jones (1987) investigated the causes of illiteracy.
The causes of illiteracy were investigated by Jones (1987).
Compare:
2. Present perfect researcher activity not as agent
Jones (1987) found that illiteracy was correlated
The causes of illiteracy have been widely investigated (Jones,1987; most closely with poverty.
Ferrara,1990; Hyon,1994).
There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy Jones (1987) found that illiteracy is correlated most
(Jones,1987; Ferrara,1990; Hyon,1994).
closely with poverty.
3. Present no reference to researcher activity
The causes of illiteracy are complex (Jones,1987; Ferrara,1990;
Hyon,1994).
Illiteracy apears to have a complex set of causes (Jones,1987;
49 (Swales & Feak, 1994) 50
Citation and Tense

Reference to single studies - past Citation and Tense:
Jones (1987) investigated the causes of illiteracy.
Situating your argument
Reference to areas of inquiry present perfect Jones (1987) found that illiteracy was correlated
2. Present perfect researcher activity not as agent most closely with poverty.
The causes of illiteracy have been widely investigated (Jones,1987;
Shows that the writer believes that the finding should be
understood within the context of a single study
There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy
Jones (1987) found that illiteracy is correlated most
Reference to areas of inquiry present perfect closely with poverty.
3. Present no reference to researcher activity
The writer implies here that a wider generalisation is
The causes of illiteracy are complex (Jones,1987; Ferrara,1990; Hyon,1994). possible
Illiteracy apears to have a complex set of causes (Jones,1987; Ferrara,1990;
Hyon,1994). 51 52
(Swales & Feak, 1994)
Avoiding Repetition Situating Critique

How negative are the following verbs (a to l)?
Refer to authors via their name, pronouns, Definitely or strongly negative?
investigators, researchers
Neutral or slightly negative?
Brown (1999) conducted a study on gender However, previous research in this field has _________
differences. She demonstrated how . Brown
concluded that/It was concluded thatSimilarly, a. concentrated on x. g. neglected to consider x.
another researcher looked at b. disregarded x. h. overestimated x.
c. failed to consider x. i. overlooked x.
Instead of relying on the word research, also use d. ignored x. j. been restricted to x.
investigation, study, project, work
e. been limited to x. k. suffered from x.
f. misinterpreted x l. underestimated x
53 54
Natilene Bowker, Student Learning Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North 2005 (Swales & Feak, 1994)
9
Situating Critique Indicating gaps
How negative are the following adjectives (a to g)?
Definitely or strongly negative? Strategies identified by Swales and Feak (1994):
Neutral or slightly negative?
Nevertheless, these attempts to establish a link Using negative subjects (openings)
between secondary smoke and lung cancer are at
present ______________________ Using contrastive statements
a. controversial e. questionable Raising a question, a hypothesis or

b. incomplete f. unconvincing a need
c. inconclusive g. unsatisfactory
d. misguided
55 56
(Swales & Feak, 1994)
Indicating gaps: Negative openings Indicating gaps: Contrastive statements
However, little information However, few studies

The research has tended to focus on..., rather than on...
little attention few investigations
However, much of the attention has been focused on X
little work few researchers rather than Y.
little data few attempts So far this method has been applied to X rather than Y.
little research The studies have concentrated on differences rather
than on similarities...
Useful alternative: Use a contrastive statement:

57 58
(Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189)
Indicating gaps: Raising questions, Indicating gaps:

hypotheses or needs Contrastive statements
However, it remains unclear whether ...
It would thus be of interest to learn how...
If these results could be confirmed, they would provide These studies have emphasised ...as opposed to...
strong evidence for...
These findings suggest that this treatment might not be Although considerable research has been devoted to...,
so effective when applied to... rather less attention has been paid to...
(Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189)
It would seem, therefore, that further investigations are
needed in order to...
(Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189) See also Manchester Universitys academic phrasebank:
59 60
http://www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk/sources.htm
10
Presenting information and analysis Record-keeping:
A range of formats can be used:
Filing and storing notes
Text Make sure you have easy access to your documents
Tables - establish a clear filing system
Diagrams - maintain the system
Consult with your supervisor on appropriate formats Keep detailed records of the source of the information
See Emerson & Hampton, Chapter 9 - store details in APA format
Examine other literature reviews
- note exact words vs summary
Create templates according to the requirements of your course
- note page numbers where necessary
- presentation and referencing of texts, tables and diagrams
- in-text references to texts, tables and diagrams
61 62
References
Davidson, C., & Tolich, M. (2003). Social science research in New Zealand (2nd ed.).
Help with literature review
Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand Limited.
Emerson, L. & Hampton, J. (Eds.). (1996). Writing guidelines for applied science students. Postgraduate Seminar: August 24
Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press.
Notes from Postgraduate Seminars
Hart, C. (1998). Doing a literature review. London: Sage Publications.
V.Vanderham@massey.ac.nz
Hawkins, J. (2003). A cross-cultural content analysis of the portrayal of food and nutrition, in
television advertising and programmes in New Zealand and Japan in 2002/2003. Text on literature review:
Unpublished masters thesis, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand. Hart, C. (1998). Doing a literature review. London: Sage Publications.
Manchester University. (2006) Academic phrasebank. Retrieved May 22, 2006,
Academic writing text:
from http://www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk/index.htm
Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students.
Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (1996). Academic writing for graduate
Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. students. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
Sussex Language Institute. (n.d.). Critical analysis, argument and opinion.
Retrieved February 22, 2006, from Sussex University, Sussex Language
Small group consultations at SLC
Institute website: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/languages/1-6-8-2-3.html One-to-one consultations at SLC
University of Melbourne. (2005). Conducting a literature review. Retrieved July 3, 2006,
from University of Melbourne, Library website:
http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/postgrad/litreview/gettingstarted.html 63 64
Help with literature review Links to Writing Resources

A few links:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu (OWL) The Writing Lab at Purdue
http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu/resources/pg006.html
http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/litreview.html
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/index.html
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/Resources/research-
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/Resources/research-
Education/research%20education/researchwrite/organising.htm#Conceptualising
Education/research%20education/researchwrite/acadwriting.htm
http://www.clet.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM
http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb.html
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu/resources/writing.html
http://www.uow.edu.au/research/rsc/files/thesis/litreview/WritingLitReview.pdf http://sites.uws.edu.au/learning/health/contents.htm
http://www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk/sources.htm http://aerg.canberra.edu.au/pub/aerg/edulertz.htm
65 66
11
Links to writing resources Recommended sources
Emerson, L. (Ed.) (2005). Writing guidelines for business students. (3rd ed.)
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/sif/Tutorials/Grammar/Preamble_Tenses/ Southbank, Victoria, Australia: Thomson Dunmore Press.
Tenses_menu/tenses_menu.html
Emerson, L. & Hampton, J. (Eds.). (2005). Writing guidelines for science
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/other4.html
and applied science students (2nd ed.). Southbank, Victoria, Australia:
http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu/resources/grammar.html Thomson Dunmore Press.
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/reporting.html Emerson, L. (Ed.). (2005) Writing guidelines for social science students (3rd ed.).
Southbank, Victoria, Australia: Thompson Dunmore Press.
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/esol/esolonline/index_e.php
http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/exp_lang/phrases Hart, C. (1998). Doing a literature review. London: Sage Publications.
.html
Rountree, K. (1996). Writing by degrees. A practical guide to writing
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/index.html theses and research papers. Auckland: Longman.
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/grammar.htm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/esltensverb.html Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students.
Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
67 68
12
OPEN BOOK EXAMS
What do open book exams test?

Open Book exams:
Evaluated on understanding rather than

memory and recall
Test your ability to think critically
You need to use the resources at your fingertips

as evidence
Sarah Cowpertwait & Vanessa van der Ham
You need to locate, interpret and apply the
information
Risk Homeostasis Myths about open book exams

Homeostasis in biology: Maintaining physiological equilibrium Myth No. 1: Open Book exams are a breeze
Risk homeostasis = risk is reduced, we feel a You need to know your resources really well
false sense of security and are over relaxed
You have no time to look up everything
For example:
People with ABS brakes tend to drive faster or leave less Myth No. 2: You can just copy straight from the book!
braking space because they feel safer!
You cant copy chunks of text directly from textbooks
For example:
Unfortunately this counts as plagiarism
People can feel that an open book exam means they do
not need to prepare or revise before an exam
You may need to reference
(University of New South Wales, n.d.)
Preparation
What information do you need? Anticipate the Questions
You need to know which topics which will be What topics are going to be covered?
covered in the exam
Terms, definitions or concepts that are commonly
used in your course
You need to understand key topics
You need to know and understand key terminology Topics which are mentioned frequently by lecturers
You will need to use the open book only for finer Topics which were noted in comments on your
details assignments or on WebCT?
Use the course objectives
1
Past Papers in the library
Look at Past Papers
Three previous years exam papers
Look at Past Papers as they can help with:

Content of exam topics covered Library phone: (09) 414 0800 ext 41071
Format of exam types of questions

Multichoice
Short answer
Essay http://library.massey.ac.nz/findit/exampapers.htm
Timing in the exam how many questions
Preparation
What resources do you need? Organise Course Material
What resource materials will you need? Divide your work into test/exam topics
If you have a choice:
Gather key material in
readings and assignments Focus on topics you like
Focus on topics you understand
Carefully select the materials
you will need in the exam Focus on topics you have done thoroughly
Dont revise topics which are unfamiliar
Prepare concise notes on the concepts being tested
Organise Course Material Organise Course Material

Divide your work into test/exam topics Divide each topic into small, manageable tasks
This critical lite rature review is an atte mpt to
This critical lite rature review is an atte mpt to build upon the theoretical debate of Mezirow's Select one or two adult learning theories and Andragogy - Self directed learning
build upon the theoretical debate of Mezirow's transformative learning theory by investigating present a critical evaluation of the m. ' Andragogy is not a panacea, but it is a system of
what the empirical studies haveDougiamas, to say aboutM. a (1998).
A journey into
transformative learning theory by investigating Adult education is integral to the democratic ideas that can improve the quality of learning'
Select one or two adult
Andragogy
learning - Selftheories
directedandlearning what the empirical studies have to say about a perspective
Select one transformation.
or two adult learningTheConstructivism.
review findsstruggle
theories and (knowles, 1984, p. 49)
muchpresent
support for Mezirow's http://www.dougiamas.com/writing/constructivis
theory, but
present a critical evaluation
' Andragogy ofisthenot perspective
m.a panacea, but it is a system of transformation. The review finds a critical evaluation of the m.at the (Brookfield, 1984, p. 190 cited in Heaney, 1996, Around the middle of the 20th Century conditions
Andragogy - Self m.html
Adult education isideas
integral
that to cantheimprove
democratic much support
the quality of learning' fordirected
Mezirow's learning
theory, but at the sameAdult
time suggests
education a need to reconceptualize
is integral to the democratic the
p.2) This critical lite rature
whichreview
gene rated is anthe attesocial
mpt tomovements of the
struggle
p.2)
Many adult educators
(knowles, 1984, p. 49)
(Brookfield, 1984,Around the middle
p. 190 cited in Heaney, of the
which gene rated the social movements ofrevie
1920's
the ultimate and defining
havein Ame
adult learning
rica and
attempted
theorytheory
to Britain
'same
create we re changing
of adultwas becoming marginalised
Andragogy
ideas that
process
20th Century conditions
1996,
(knowles,
of can
the w discloses
Around thetomiddle
recognize
which gene
influence
is not aapanacea,
time suggests
improve the
a perspective
1984, p.a 49)
ofrated
but it is a systemthe
need to reconceptualize
quality of learning'
transformation. The
learning process that needs to
of the 20th Century conditions
and a greater degree the significant
the social
context, movements
the varying natureofofthethe
of process
Dougiamas, M. (1998). of a perspective
struggle
A journey
Constructivism. revie(Brookfield,
into
w discloses a1984,
recognize
http://www.dougiamas.com/writing/constructivis
m.html influence
Manyofadult
catalyst
context,
of the process,
the ultimate
learning
p. 190
the varying
educators
6/04/04
transformation.
INTRODUCTION
process
cited inthat
about
nature
havediscussing
TheMany adult educators have attempted to create build upon the theoretical
needsthe
Heaney,
constructivis
attempted
the minimization
and defining theory
of the
to ultimate and defining theory of adult
1996,
During the past three months, I've been learning
p.2) to a greater degree the significant learning, yet all have been influenced by the
tosocial
ofthe m
the
create
m by reading scholarly texts,
transformative
what the empirical
and cultural situation surrounding the m. perspective transformation.
with my class and my friends,
The definition of adult learning is thus very much supportm.html
1920's indebate
learning
Dougiamas,
adult learning
bystudies
Constructivism.
Ame rica
theory
M. (1998).
traditional
wrote that The
for possible
Mezirow's
by
this was
of Mezirow's
theory
and Britain we re changing and
investigating
A journey
have institutionalised
review
theory, but
alternative
a time
into marginalised
was becoming
to say about a learning. Knowles
findsfor discovery of a
at the
model. It was a model of self
Topic 3
1920's inofAme rica and Britain we re changing and 6/04/04 journalofkeeping
adult and pe rsonal reflection. Through same time suggests a need to reconceptualize
learning, yet all have
by traditional
been influenced institutionalised
by the learning. catalyst
Knowles the process, the minimization of the INTRODUCTION role of critical reflection and increased
learning, yet all have been influenced by the role of
complex. Heaney (1996) describes it as being as 6/04/04directed learning which wasthe labelled the
adult this inte resting time, I feel my unde rstanding has
of a oflearning
critical theory wasandbecoming marginalised othermonths,
waysandofI've
knowing and relationships, anddifficult
an process of a perspective
INTRODUCTION transformation.
model, deThe
social and culturalwrote
situation
that surrounding
this was a time m. discovery role
thefor reflection increased role of During the past three social cultural situation
been learning surrounding the m. to define as a sketch by Esche r and andragogical rived from the greek word
grown conside rably of andand have already proved
Label each section clearly

byof traditional institutionalised learning. Knowles overall broadening ofadult
thetexts,
definitional Caffarella (1991, p. 278) refer to revie w discloses afor
During learning
the past process
three that needs
months, I'vetobeen learning was
The definition of adult
possible
learning
alternative
is thusmodel.
very It was a model other ways of knowing
self and relationships, and an about constructivis m byThe definition
reading of
scholarly learning isoutcome
thus very Merriam adult, ane r (Knowles, 1980). Andragony
wrote that this was a time for discovery of a useful. I've constructed this text in an attempt to recognize to aabout
greater degree
complex. Heaney directed
(1996) describes
learningitwhich as being wasaslabelled theoverall broadening of the definitional outcome of a perspective
discussing the m with complex.
my class and transformation.
Heaney Research
(1996) describes
my friends, itneeds
as being to as
adult learning as a 'rich mosaic'. constructivis
launched intothe'a
msignificant
by reading that
philosophy scholarly texts, to it
was similar
demonstrate my current understandings of
difficult to define andragogical
as a sketch bymodel, Esche rde andrived from the greek apossible
perspective
word
alternative model. It was
transformation. a model
Research of self
needs to journal keeping and continue, particularly
pedifficult
rsonal to define as
reflection. in the areasbyofEsche
a sketch
Through culturalr and
influence of context, and,the
discussing the varying
the m withnature
refore, my class
quite of theand my
receptive friends,
to it...andragogy
directed learning
continue, which was labelled the constructivism, asearly
well as theCentury
process Ame
by which
rica and Europe wascatalyst of thejournal
process, the at
keeping minimization
and whenofthe
pe rsonal thestructures
reflection. Through
Merriam and Caffarella
for adult, (1991,
ane rp.(Knowles,
278) refer1980).to Andragony was particularly in the areas of cultural diveIrsity,
this inte resting time, Merriam
feel mytheundefostering
andrstandingof transformative
Caffarella (1991, p. 278)
has learning
The
refer to 20th emerged a time of society
andragogical model, deof rived from the greek word in the classroom, and the nature my ofknowledge
and developed. role of criticalthis
reflection
inte andtime,
resting increased
I feel role of rstanding
my unde has the
adult learning as alaunched
'rich mosaic'.
into 'a philosophy that was similar dive rsity,
to it the fostering transformative learning grown conside rably andadult
havelearning
already asproved
a 'rich mosaic'. an era of social change, pragmatis m and we re condusive to the philosophy unde rlying
forthe
in adult, ane r (Knowles,
classroom, and the 1980). Andragony
nature of and was relationship between critical reflection and othe r
philosophy (Heaney, 1996) and eme rging adult other ways ofgrown
knowing
theory and
consideand relationships,
rably
...its and
own have and
structures an reflected
already proved the
and, the refore, quite receptive to it...andragogy useful. I've constructed this text in an attempt to I had some trouble with the self-referential
launched intobetween'a philosophy
criticalthat was similar to itr waysThe ofunderstandings
knowing. Designs reflected the times. John Dewey overall broadening useful. of theconstructed
I've definitional
of wider this outcome
text in ofan attempt
1984,to
The early 20th Century
emerged Ame at rica
a timeandwhenEurope structures ofrelationship
the was society reflection and othe demonstrate my current early 20th of of Ame
Century researchrica including
nature andthe learning
Europe wastheory structures society" (Jarvis, p.37
suchof
and, the refore, quite receptive to it...andragogy mate rial. Since the subject is the a perspective demonstrate
transformation. Research
my current needs to
we re condusive
an era of social change, pragmatisto mthe
andphilosophy unde rlying ways of knowing.
the Designs of research including constructivism, asother
wellan methods
as era
theof beyond
social
process inte
change,
by which rvie ws,
pragmatis masand(Cross-Durrant, 1981) said that 'all lifes cited in Candy, 1991,understandings
p.213) of
emerged at a time when thervie
structures "meaning of meaning" at various levels, it's easy
philosophy (Heaney, theory
1996) and and ...its
eme ownrging adult reflectedother
structures the methods beyond inte ws, such ofas society observations
my knowledge developed. philosophy and(Heaney,
content analysis
1996) andineme an ongoing
rgingexperiences
adult and resources, from pre-school to oldcontinue, particularly Candy in (1991)
constructivism, the areas wellofascultural
as suggests the process
that, despite byself-directed
which
wep.37
re condusive tobebecome confused and fall into a "black hole"
learning theory reflected
structures theoftimes.
widerJohn society"
Dewey (Jarvis, 1984, observations andtocontent
the philosophy
analysis unde
in anrlying
ongoingthe educational
learningcontext, would also
theory reflected the valuable.
times. Johnage...could
Dewey play a meaningful part in an
dive rsity, the my
fostering
knowledge
learningof transformative
developed.
dating back to learning
the time of Socrates and
theory and ...its own structures where textlearning,
seems meaningless. How can I know
(Cross-Durrant, 1981)
cited said
in Candy,
that 'all 1991,
lifes
p.213) educational context, would also reflected
be valuable.the
I had some troubleSince
with 1978, the theory1981)
(Cross-Durrant,
the self-referential of transformative
saidfrom
that 'all lifesindividual's education' (p.81). Eduard Lindemanin the classroom, and Plato,theserious
naturestudy of and of self direction especially
structures reading texts what authors think, and what
experiences and resources,
Candy (1991) fromsuggests
pre-school that,todespite
old Since
self-directed 1978,ofthewider society"
theory (Jarvis, 1984,learning,
of transformative p.37
nature of the mateas defined
rial. Sinceby
experiencestheJack andMezirow
subject resources,
is the works? from pre-school viewed adult education as an essential factor in relationship between
to old I hadwithin
somecritical
adultreflection
trouble with theand
education was othe r
self-referential
initiated by Professor The first use of the term 'andragogy' - as far as
cited in Candy, 1991, p.213) How can I realise my own understanding? ways of knowing.
natureDesigns of research including
age...could play a learning
meaningful datingpartback in anto the time of Socrates as defined
and by Jack Mezirow "meaning of meaning"age...could
at variousplay a meaningful
levels, it's easyHow part in an the creation of a de mocratic society and this view Cyril Houle in his book 'The Inquiringthe
of the mate rial. Since the subject is Mind' in we know today - was found with the Ge rman high
Candy (1991) suggests that, despite self-directed can I communicate my unde rstandings to
individual's education'
Plato,(p.81).
seriousEduardstudy ofLindeman
self direction especially to become confused and individual's education'
fall into a "black hole" (p.81). Eduard Lindeman reflected the spirit' of a time that inspired both other methods beyond
1961.inte
"meaning of rvieoutlining
meaning"
Houle ws, such as
at various levels, it's
the motivation andeasy
progress school teacher Alexander Kapp in 1833. In a book
learning dating back to the time of Socrates and you?
viewed adult education
withinas adult
an essential
education factor
was ininitiated by Professor viewed adult
where text seems meaningless. Howeducation
can I know as an essential factor grassinroots learning and social action, which is observations to and content
become
of twenty analysis
confused in an
and
two independent fallongoing
intoadult
a "blacklearnehole"
rs said entitled 'Platon's Erziehungslehre' (Plato's
Plato, serious study of self direction especially educational context,
where would
text seemsalso beneed
valuable.
meaningless. Howeverycan I know Guidelines for Working with Adult Learners.
the creation of a deCyril Houlesociety
mocratic in his book
and this'The Inquiring Mind' in
view from reading texts what theauthors
creation of a de
think, and what society and illustrated
mocratic this view in initiatives such as the work of that 'we do not to explore other age in Educational Ideas) he describes
ERICStarting
Digest No.
the lifelong
reflected the spirit'
1961.
of Houle
a time outlining
that inspired the motivation
both
within adult education was initiated by Professor
and progress works? How can I realise reflected
my own the spirit' of a time that inspired
understanding? Myles bothHorton at Highlander, Moses Coady at St Since 1978, the fromtheory
areadingof transformative
tedious texts
search whatfor authorslearning,
continuing think, andrswhat
learne necessity to learn. with154.
early childhood
is learne rsCyril
saidHoule in his book 'The Inquiring Mind' in Francis as defined by works?
Jack Mezirow
How can I realise my own understanding?
grass roots learning
of twenty
and social
two independent
action, which adult How can I communicate grass rootsrstandings
my unde learning and to social action, which is Xavier and Albert Mansbridge in Britain. he comes to page 241 (of 450) to adulthood with
1961. Houle outlining the motivation and progress How can I communicate my unde rstandings to This digest was created
Andragogy by e ric,directed
- im
Self the educational
learning
illustrated in initiatives
that 'we suchdo as nottheneedwork
to explore
of every other age in you? illustrated in initiatives such as the work of the title 'Die Andragogik oder Bildung
maennlichen resources
of twenty two independent adult learne rs said you? information
' Andragogy cente r. For
is not more but it is a system of
ainpanacea,
Myles Horton at Highlander,
a tedious search Moses forCoady
continuing
at St learne rs Myles Horton at Highlander, Moses Coady at St Alte r' (Andragogy or Education
the man's Ageinformation
about
be ethat
that 'we do not need to explore every other age in ideas ric, can
contact accesstheeric 1-800-
Francis Xavier and Albert Mansbridge in Britain. Francis Xavier and Albert Mansbridge in Britain. - a replica can found onimprove quality of learning'
a tedious search for continuing learne rs let-eric In 60(knowles,
www.andragogy.net). pages he 1984,arguesp.that 49)
"The adults did not
Around have
the to be there:
middle of theif 20th
the class
Century conditions
education, self-reflection, and educating the
wasfirst
disagreeable, they could
ratedsimply stopmovements
coming.
character is the value which
in human gene life. the social of the
In teaching [adults],
1920's in theAme
customer,
rica andnot the subject,
Britain we re changing and
comes first and is always
adult learning right,
theoryandwasthe custome
becoming r marginalised
is the learner." by(Rogers
traditional 1989, p. 3)
institutionalised learning. Knowles
"Adults vote with wrotetheirthat feet,"
this was a favorite
a time for adage of
discovery of a
Andragogy. History, Meaning,
adult educators, isContext,
possible frequently Function
alternative used to describe
model. It wasaa model of self
Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3 Topic 4 The term 'andragogy' has been

characteristic
times and countries with various
Nowadays there exists mainly
understandings:
1. In many countries
In most there
usedlearning
of adult
directed in diffe
learne
connotations.
andragogical
for three
rs.rent
which was labelled the
model, de rived from the greek word
adult, ane r (Knowles, 1980).
is a growing
circumstances, adults are not captive
conception oflearners
'andragogy'and,as scholarlysituation does not
if the learning
approach to thesuitlearning
their needsofAndragony
adults.
and inte
was launched
Inrests,
this into 'a philosophy that
they will simply
connotation andragogy wasdiscussing
is the similaroftoadult
science it and, therefore, quite receptive to
stop coming. In education,
understandingKnowles
and supporting it...andragogy
lifelong and e merged at a time when the
(1980, 1984) distinguished between
lifewide education of adults. structures of society were condusive to the
teacher-centered and learne r-centered
philosophy unde therlying the theory
2. Especially in the USA, 'andragogy'
instruction. He promotedin the latter because it and ...its own
tradition of Malcolm structures
Knowles, reflected theinstructures of wide r
viewed learners aslabels
mutual a specific
partners the
society" (Jarvis, 1984, p.37 cited
theoretical and practical
learning approach,
endeavor based on
(Merriam and a Caffare lla in Candy, 1991,
Adult education is integral to the democratic

struggle
(Brookfield, 1984, p. 190 cited in Heaney, 1996,
Dougiamas, M. (1998). A journey into
Constructivism.
Andragogy - Self directed learning
' Andragogy is not a panacea, but it is a system of
ideas that can improve the quality of learning'
This critical lite rature review is an atte mpt to
build upon the theoretical debate of Mezirow's
transformative learning theory by investigating
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 humanistic conception
1991). Known
autonomous learne rs and
of learne
p.213)
of self-directed
teache
r-cente
of learning. addressing thelearning
most effectivewithin
(1991)
needs and
Plato, serious
regularly championed
way toadult
and
as the andragogical
Candy suggests that,
redrsinstruction--which
as facilitators
dating back to
interests
in thestudy
of the
of selfas
literature
teacheducation
Task 4
model, the use
despite self-directed
supports
time of Socrates and
learners--is
direction
the
especially
adults. was initiated by Professor
Cyril Houle in his book 'The Inquiring Mind' in
Task 5 Task 6
p.2) Adult education is integral to the democratic m.html (knowles, 1984, p. 49) what the empirical studies have to say about a 1961. Houle outlining the motivation and progress
Many adult educators have attempted to create
struggle 6/04/04 Around the middle of the 20th Century conditions perspective transformation. The review finds of twenty two independent adult learne rs said
the ultimate and defining Dougiamas, M. (1998). A journey into Andragogy
rated the -social Self directed learning much supportThis critical lite theory,
rature review is an atte mpt to
(Brookfield, 1984,theory
p. 190of adult
cited in Heaney, 1996, INTRODUCTION which gene movements of the for Mezirow's but at the that 'we do not need to explore every other age in
learning,p.2)
yet all have been influenced by the During the Constructivism.
past three months, I've been learning 1920's in'Ame
Andragogy
rica andisBritain
not a panacea,
we re changingbut it is anda system of build upon
same time suggests a needthetotheoretical
reconceptualizedebatethe of Mezirow's a tedious search for continuing In learne
http://www.dougiamas.com/writing/constructivis ideas that canwas improve the quality of learning' transformative learning theory Andragogy - Self directed learning Andragony was launched into 'a philosophy that Guidelines for Working with Adult Learners. mostrscircumstances, adults are not captive The first use of the term 'andragogy' - as far as Andragogy. History, Meaning, Context, Function
social andMany
cultural
adultsituation
educators surrounding
have attempted the m. to create about constructivis m by reading scholarly texts, adult learning theory becoming marginalised process of a perspective transformation. The by investigating ' Andragogy is not a panacea, but it is a system of was similar to it and, therefore, quite receptive to ERIC Digest No. 154. learners and, if the learning situation does not we know today - was found with the Ge rman high The term 'andragogy' has been used in diffe rent
The definition
the ultimate Adult
of adultand learning education
defining is thus
theory is integral
very of adult to the democratic discussingm.html
the m with my class and my friends, (knowles,
by traditional 1984, p. 49) learning. Knowles
institutionalised what
revie w discloses the empirical
a learning process studies have to
that needs tosay about a ideas that can improve the quality of learning' it...andragogy e merged at a time when the suit their needs and inte rests, they will simply school teacher Alexander Kapp in 1833. In a book times and countries with various connotations.
complex.learning,
Heaney (1996) struggle
describes 6/04/04 and pe rsonal reflection. Through Around thea middle forofdiscovery
the 20th Century conditions recognize to aperspective transformation. The review finds
yet all have beenitinfluenced
as being asby the journal keeping Dougiamas, M. (1998). A journey into wrote that this was time
Andragogy - Self of a
directed learning greater degree This the significant
critical lite theory,
rature review is an atte mpt to (knowles, 1984, p. 49) structures of society were condusive to the This digest was created by e ric, the educational stop coming. In discussing adult education, entitled 'Platon's Erziehungslehre' (Plato's Nowadays there exists mainly three
a (Brookfield, 1984, p. 190 cited INTRODUCTION which gene rated the
It social movements selfof the much support for Mezirow's but at the
difficult to define
social andascultural
sketchsituation
by Esche r and
surrounding theinm.Heaney, 1996, this inte resting time, I feel my unde rstanding has
Constructivism. possible alternative model. was aismodel a of influence of context, the varying nature oftheoretical
the
MerriamThe anddefinition
Caffarellap.2) During the past threealready
months,proved
I've been learning directed 1920's Ame' rica
in which Andragogy
wasand Britain notwe panacea,
the re the changing butand
it is a system of
catalyst of thesame timethe build upon
suggests a need theto debatethe
ofreconceptualize
of Mezirow's Around the middle of the 20th Century conditions philosophy unde rlying the theory and ...its own resources information cente r. For more Knowles (1980, 1984) distinguished between Educational Ideas) he describes the lifelong understandings:
of(1991,
adult p. 278) refer
learning to very
is thus grown conside rably and have
learning ideas labelled
that canbecoming
improve quality of learning'
process, minimization
transformative
the
learning theory which gene rated the social movements of the structures reflected the structures of wide r information about e ric, contact access eric 1-800- teacher-centered and learne r-centered necessity to learn. Starting with early childhood 1. In many countries there is a growing
adult learning as aHeaneyMany
'rich adultdescribes
mosaic'. educatorsithave attempted to create about
useful. I've constructivis
constructed m byinreading
this text scholarly
an attempt to texts, adultmodel,
andragogical learning theory
de(knowles,
rived from was the p. greek marginalised role of criticalprocess of aand
perspective transformation. The by investigating
complex. (1996) as being as
discussing m.html
the m with my class and 1984, 49) wordKnowles reflection what increased role ofstudies have
the empirical to
tosay about a 1920's in Ame rica and Britain we re changing and society" (Jarvis, 1984, p.37 cited in Candy, 1991, let-eric instruction. He promoted the latter because it he comes to page 241 (of 450) to adulthood with conception of 'andragogy' as the scholarly
the ultimate
difficult to define as a sketch andby defining
Esche rtheory
and of adult demonstrate my current
6/04/04 understandings of my friends, for adult,by traditional
ane r (Knowles, institutionalised
1980). theAndragony
learning.
was 20th Century conditions other ways ofrevie w discloses
knowing a learning
andperspective
relationships, process
and an that needs adult learning theory was becoming marginalised p.213) "The adults did not have to be there: if the class viewed learners as mutual partners in the the title 'Die Andragogik oder Bildung im approach to the learning of adults. In this
journalas keeping
well asand the pe rsonalby reflection.
which Through launchedwrote
into 'athat thisAround
was a time middle
for of the
discoveryto it of a recognize to definitional
a greater degree transformation.
the significantThe review finds
The earlyMerriam andlearning,
20th Century Ame ricayet
Caffarella andallEurope
(1991, have been
p. 278) was influenced
refer to by the constructivism, INTRODUCTION process philosophywhichthat gene was
rated similar
the asocial movements of the overall broadening of the much support outcome of
for Mezirow's
an era of adult change,social
sociallearning and cultural
pragmatis m and situation surrounding the m. this inte
my knowledge resting
developed. time, I feel my unde rstanding has possible
and, the refore, alternative
quite receptive model. It was model of self a perspective influence of context, the varying
needs nature of theory,
the but at the by traditional institutionalised learning. Knowles Candy (1991) suggests that, despite self-directed was disagreeable, they could simply stop coming. learning endeavor (Merriam and Caffare lla maennlichen Alte r' (Andragogy or Education in connotation andragogy is the science of
as a 'rich mosaic'.
grown consideDuring the past
rably threealready
and have months,proved
I've been learning 1920's intoAmeit...andragogy
wasrica and Britain we re changing and transformation.
same
Research
timethesuggests
to
a need toofreconceptualize the wrote that this was a time for discovery of a learning dating back to the time of Socrates and In teaching [adults], the customer, not the subject, 1991). Known as the andragogical model, the use the man's Age - a replica can be found on understanding and supporting lifelong and
philosophy (Heaney, 1996) The definition
and eme rging of adult
adult learning is thus very
about constructivis emerged directed
at a timelearning
when thewhich
structures labelled
of societythe catalyst ofinthe
continue, particularly the process,
areas of minimization
cultural the
possible alternative model. It was a model of self Plato, serious study of self direction especially comes first and is always right, and the custome r of learne r-cente red instruction--which supports www.andragogy.net). In 60 pages he argues that lifewide education of adults.
useful. I've constructed this m byinreading
text scholarly
an attempt to texts, andragogical adult
model, learning
de rived theory
from
rlyingthe
wasgreek
becomingwordmarginalised dive rsity, the role of critical process of aand
reflection perspective
increased transformation.
role of The
learning The
theoryearly 20thcomplex.
reflected Century Heaney
the times. Ame John
rica(1996)
Dewey describes
and Europe it as being as
was I had some trouble with the self-referential
discussing the m understandings
with my class and we re condusive to the philosophy unde the fostering of transformative learning directed learning which was labelled the within adult education was initiated by Professor is the learner." (Rogers 1989, p. 3) addressing the needs and interests of learners--is education, self-reflection, and educating the 2. Especially in the USA, 'andragogy' in the
difficultthatto'all
define
lifesas amsketch nature ofdemonstrate rial.my current of my friends, for...its
adult, ane by traditional
r (Knowles, institutionalised
1980). Andragony was learning. Knowles other ways
theof
revie
knowingw discloses a learning process
and relationships, and an that needs to
(Cross-Durrant,
an era of1981)
social said
change, pragmatis and by Esche r and the matejournal Since the subject
keeping is the reflection. theory and own structures thatreflected wasthe in the classroom, and nature of and
experiences Merriam
and resources, from and Caffarella
pre-school (1991, p. 278) refer to "meaningconstructivism,
of meaning" atasvarious well asandthe pe rsonal
process by which Through launched
of widerinto
wrote
'a philosophy this that
1984,was
a time for discovery
p.37similar to it of a overall broadeningrecognize to definitional
of the a greater degree
and othe r outcome of
the significant andragogical model, de rived from the greek word Cyril Houle in his book 'The Inquiring Mind' in "Adults vote with their feet," a favorite adage of regularly championed in the literature as the character is the first value in human life. tradition of Malcolm Knowles, labels a specific
philosophy (Heaney, 1996) and emeto old
rging adult this inte
levels, it's easy
resting time, I feel my unde rstanding has
structures society"
possible (Jarvis,
alternative model. It was a model of self
relationship between critical reflection
influence of context, the varying nature of the for adult, ane r (Knowles, 1980). 1961. Houle outlining the motivation and progress adult educators, is frequently used to describe a most effective way to teach adults. theoretical and practical approach, based on a
age...could play a theory
learning adult
meaningful learning
reflected in as
part the an a 'rich
times. mosaic'.
John Dewey to become confused anddeveloped.
my knowledge fall into a "black hole" and, the refore,
cited in Candy, 1991, p.213) quite receptive to it...andragogy a perspective transformation.
ways of knowing. Designs of research including Research needs to
of twenty two independent adult learne rs said characteristic of adult learne rs. humanistic conception of self-directed and
grown conside rably and have already proved emerged at a directed
time learning which was labelled the catalyst ofinthe process,
areas ofthe minimization of the
individual's education' (p.81).
(Cross-Durrant, 1981)Eduard
said that Lindeman
'all lifes where text seems useful.meaningless.
I'vewithHow can I this
constructed know text in an attempt to Candy (1991) suggests that, when
despite
andragogical
theself-directed
structures
model,unde de rived
of society
from other methodscontinue, particularly
beyond inte rvie ws, suchtheasreflection cultural
that 'we do not need to explore every other age in autonomous learne rs and teache rs as facilitators
viewed adult education The early
asresources,
an 20thfrom
essential Century
factor inAme rica and Europe was I hadtexts
from reading somewhat trouble
authors the self-referential
think, andunderstandings
what learning we re condusive
dating back tofor to the
the timephilosophy
of Socrates andrlying thethe greek word observations anddive content role
rsity, theanalysis of critical
fostering in of
antransformative
ongoing
andlearning
increased role of
experiences and pre-school to old demonstrate my current of adult, ane r (Knowles, 1980).
the creation an aera
of a de mocratic of socialand
society change, pragmatis m and
thisinview works? How naturecanofIconstructivism,
the matemy
realise rial.
ownSince the subject
understanding? is the theorystudy
Plato, serious and of ...its
self own structures
direction reflected
especially the Andragony was in the classroom,
educational context,
other
alsoand
wouldoverall
waystheof knowing
nature
bebroadening
valuable.
and relationships, and an
of and a tedious search for continuing learne rs of learning.
age...could play meaningful part an asvarious
well aslevels,
the process by which launched into 'a(Jarvis,
philosophy
reflectedindividual's
the spirit' of philosophy
a time that (Heaney,
inspired 1996) and eme rging adult
bothLindeman How can"meaning
I communicate of meaning"
my undeatrstandings to it's easy structures
within adult education of wider
was the society"
initiated by Professor 1984,that
p.37was similar to it Since 1978, the relationship between criticallearning,
theory of transformative
of the definitional
reflection and othe r outcome of
education' (p.81). Eduard myconfused
knowledge
learning
socialtheory reflected the times. to become anddeveloped.
fall into a "black hole" citedininhisCandy, and, refore,
p.213) quite
1991,Inquiring receptive to it...andragogy
as defined by ways
Jack of
a perspective
knowing. Designs oftransformation.
research including Research needs to
grass roots learning
viewed adult and
education action,
as which isfactor
an essential in John Dewey you? Cyril Houle bookemerged
'The at a time Mind'
when in
the structures of society Mezirow
where text seems meaningless. How can I know Candy (1991)the suggests that, despite self-directed other methodscontinue,
beyond inte particularly
rvie ws, suchin the
as areas of cultural
illustrated
theincreation of(Cross-Durrant,
initiatives asuch as the work
de mocratic 1981)
of said
society that view
and this 'all lifes
I hadtexts
somewhat trouble with think,
the self-referential 1961. Houle outlining webackmotivation
re condusive and progress
to the philosophy unde rlying the dive content
rsity, theanalysis
fostering
from reading authors and what learning dating to the time of Socrates and observations and in of
antransformative
ongoing learning
Myles Horton
reflected the experiences
at Highlander,
spirit' of Moses and
a time resources,
Coady
that at St from
inspired bothpre-school to old
nature of twenty two independent adult learne rs said
age...could works? How canofI the matemy
realise rial.
ownSince the subject is the
understanding? Plato,
not serious
theory
study and
of self ...its own
direction structures
especially reflected the in the classroom,
educational context, would alsoand the nature of and
be valuable.
Francis Xavier and Albert
grass roots learning andplay
Mansbridge sociala inmeaningful
Britain.which
action, partis in an that 'we do need tostructures
explore every other age in (Jarvis, 1984, p.37
How can"meaning
I communicate of meaning"
my undeatrstandings
various levels,
to it's easy a tedious within
searchadult educationlearne of wider
was initiated society"
by Professor Since 1978, the relationship between criticallearning,
theory of transformative reflection and othe r
illustrated in individual's
initiatives such education'
as the work (p.81).
of Eduard Lindeman to become confused and fall into a "black hole" for continuing rs
you? Cyril Houle incited in Candy,
his book 'The 1991,Inquiringp.213) Mind' in as defined by waysJack of knowing. Designs of research including
Mezirow
Myles Hortonviewed adult education
at Highlander, Moses Coady as an essential
at St factor in where text seems meaningless. How can I know Candy (1991) suggests that,
theand creation 1961. Houle outlining the motivation and despite
progress self-directed other methods beyond inte rvie ws, such as
Francis Xavier AlbertofMansbridge
a de mocratic society and this view
in Britain. from reading texts what authors think, and what
reflected the spirit' of a time that inspired both of twenty twolearning independent dating back
adult to therstime
learne said of Socrates and observations and content analysis in an ongoing
grass roots learning and social action, which is works? How can I realise my own understanding? that 'we do not Plato,
needserious
to explore study of self
every direction
other age inespecially educational context, would also be valuable.
illustrated in initiatives such as the work of How can I communicate my unde rstandings to a tedious search within
for adult
continuing education learnewas rs initiated by Professor Since 1978, the theory of transformative learning,
you? Cyril Houle in his book 'The Inquiring Mind' in as defined by Jack Mezirow
Myles Horton at Highlander, Moses Coady at St
1961. Houle outlining the motivation and progress
Francis Xavier and Albert Mansbridge in Britain.
of twenty two independent adult learne rs said
that 'we do not need to explore every other age in
a tedious search for continuing learne rs
2
Organise Course Material Organise Course Material
Prioritise
In summary, you have now
Topic 3
Identified the topics that you need to study
for the test/exam
Prioritise the tasks that are to be studied each week
Organised your lecture notes and course
1 2 3 4 5 6 readings under topics
Task 14 Task
Task 21 Task 3 Task
Task 24 Task 5 Task 6
Andragogy
In
'learners
Andragogy
Around the
Knowles
- Self directed
most circumstances,
and,isifnot
(1980,
which gene rated the
teacher-centered
1920's in Ame
instruction.
thealearning
discussing
middle
1984)
Herica
of the
and Britain
promoted
learning
adults are not captive
panacea,situation
but it is adoes
suit their needs and inte rests, they will simply
(knowles,
stop coming.1984,
In p. 49) adult education,
20th Century
distinguished
andsocial
learnemovements
system
notof
conditions
between
r-centered of the
we re because
the latter changingit and
Andragony was launched into 'a philosophy that
Andragogy - Self directed learning
was similar to it and, therefore, quite receptive to
' Andragogy is not a panacea, but it is a system of
it...andragogy e merged at a time when the
structures of society were condusive to the
(knowles, 1984, p. 49)
philosophy
Around the unde rlying
middle the20th
of the theory and ...its
Century
structures reflected the structures of wide r
which gene rated the social movements of the
society" (Jarvis, 1984, p.37 cited in Candy, 1991,
1920's in Ame rica and Britain we re changing and
own
conditions
Guidelines for Working with Adult Learners.
ERIC Digest No. 154.
This digest was created by e ric, the educational

resources information cente r. For more
information about e ric, contact access eric 1-800-
let-eric
In most circumstances,
Andragony
learners
was similar
it...andragogy
suit
Knowles (1980,
philosophy
was launched
and,toifitthe
and,
their needse merged
stop coming.
structures of In
and inteat
society
discussing
unde1984)
teacher-centered
structures
instruction.
society"
reflected
(Jarvis,
adults
learning
into 'a
therefore,
rests,
a time
were condusive
rlyingdistinguished
andthe
He promoted
arephilosophy
the theory and

learne
structures
1984, p.37the
not captivethat
situation
quite does
theywhen
r-centered
cited
latter
receptive
will simply
adult education,
the
to the
between
not to
...its own
of wide r
in Candy,
because1991,it
The first use of the term 'andragogy' - as far as
we know today - was found with the Ge rman high
school teacher Alexander Kapp in 1833. In a book
entitled 'Platon's Erziehungslehre' (Plato's
Educational Ideas) he describes the lifelong
necessity to learn. Starting with early childhood
he comes to page 241 (of 450) to adulthood with
Andragogy. History, Meaning, Context, Function
The term 'andragogy' has been used in diffe rent
times and countries with various connotations.
Nowadays there exists mainly three
understandings:
1. In many countries there is a growing
conception of 'andragogy' as the scholarly
Divided them up into manageable tasks
adult learning
viewed learnerstheory was becoming
as mutual partners in marginalised
the p.213) "The adults did not have to be there: if the class viewed learners as mutual partners in the
p.213) the title 'Die Andragogik oder Bildung im approach to the learning of adults. In this
adult learning theory was becoming marginalised
by traditional
learning institutionalised
endeavor (Merriam and learning.
CaffareKnowles
lla Candy
by (1991) suggests
traditional that, despite
institutionalised self-directed
learning. Knowles was disagreeable, they could simply stop coming. learning
Candy (1991)
endeavor
suggests
(Merriam
that, despite
and Caffare
self-directed
lla maennlichen Alte r' (Andragogy or Education in connotation andragogy is the science of
wrote that
1991). Known thisaswasthea andragogical
time for discoverymodel,ofthea use learning dating back to the time of Socrates and In teaching [adults], the customer, not the subject, 1991). Known
learning datingasbackthe andragogical
to the time ofmodel,
Socrates theanduse the man's Age - a replica can be found on understanding and supporting lifelong and
wrote that this was a time for discovery of a
possible
of learnealternative
r-cente red model. It was a model
instruction--which of self
supports Plato, serious study of self direction especially comes first and is always right, and the custome r of learne
Plato, serious
r-centestudy
red ofinstruction--which
self direction especially
supports www.andragogy.net). In 60 pages he argues that lifewide education of adults.
possible alternative model. It was a model of self
directed learning
addressing the needswhichandwas labelled
interests of the
learners--is within adult education was initiated by Professor is the learner." (Rogers 1989, p. 3) addressing
within adultthe
education
needs and wasinterests
initiatedofbylearners--is
Professor education, self-reflection, and educating the 2. Especially in the USA, 'andragogy' in the
directed learning which was labelled the
andragogical
regularly model, dein
championed rived from the greek
the literature as theword Cyril Houle inmodel,
andragogical his book 'The Inquiring
de rived Mind'word
from the greek in "Adults vote with their feet," a favorite adage of regularly
Cyril Houle
championed
in his bookin'The the Inquiring
literature Mind'
as the in character is the first value in human life. tradition of Malcolm Knowles, labels a specific
for adult,
most ane rway
effective (Knowles,
to teach1980).
adults. 1961.
for Houle
adult, aneoutlining the motivation
r (Knowles, 1980). and progress adult educators, is frequently used to describe a most effective
1961. Houle outlining
way to teach
the motivation
adults. and progress theoretical and practical approach, based on a
of twenty two independent adult learne rs said characteristic of adult learne rs. of twenty two independent adult learne rs said humanistic conception of self-directed and
that 'we do not need to explore every other age in that 'we do not need to explore every other age in autonomous learne rs and teache rs as facilitators
a tedious search for continuing learne rs a tedious search for continuing learne rs of learning.
You now need to establish a study routine
Establish a Study Routine Weekly Revision Plan

Monday Task List Priority
How much time do you have each day? Tuesday

- Organise specific revision time
- Prioritise Wednesday
What do you think
should be recorded
How many weeks until the test/exam? Thursday on your
Revision plan?
Create a series of weekly revision plans Friday
Be realistic about your time - set small tasks Saturday
Stick to your revision plan! Sunday
Five Smart Keys To Goal Setting Establish a Study Routine

Set Specific goals You have organised your time
Goals need to be Measurable You have a revision timetable

Goals should always be Achievable
Establish a suitable working space
Be Realistic in your goal setting
- Have access to everything you need
- Comfortable temperature
Be aware of your Timeframe
- No distractions
(Boyes, 2001)
3
Organise Yourself: Save time
Is this a good Familiarize yourself
study space?
Make your reference materials as user-friendly
as possible
Know the layout of your text books

Note chapter headings and subheadings
Index ideas and concepts
Record important page numbers
Preparation Makes sure you know how the different

Organise Yourself: Quick Retrieval aspects of theory are related
Use some kind of graphic organiser to help you take notes, and
Some tricks learn for the exam.
Develop a system of tabs/sticky notes Examples: A
Colour code 1 2 3
Summarise key sections

Topic A Topic B Topic C
Create flash cards of key concepts (sort
alphabetically)
Draw concept maps or mind maps
Google: Houghton Mifflin Company + graphic organizers
Key Words
Mind Maps
Learning
Drone zone boring
Use Active Revision Strategies
Groan zone - frustrating
Multiple Brains
External conditions
limbic system
intelligence Revision Myths
Multiple intelligence It is not true that you are only working if it is hurting
Learning
Revision time is not time to catch up on all the reading
limbic system Pace/level
Good revision is not: Good revision is:
emotions
Drone zone General reading Reading for understanding
Groan zone Rote learning Summarising information
External Conditions
Mnemonics Being critical & making links
Lighting
Practicing answers
Temperature
Time of day
4
Retrieval of information Techniques In the Exam
Passing exams is a skill

Like all skills it requires practice
practice
and more practice !
Analyse the question Summarise each topic as you

revise
You must understand the exam question
BEFORE you start writing Read Once
Skimming for an general overview
Read the question 2-3 times
Identify the task words - (What have you been asked to do?) Read Second Time
Summarise into key concepts
Identify the topic (what is the question about?)
What is the focus (This is important for multichoice) Read Third Time
Break the question down into smaller tasks Summarise down to key words
Analysing the exam question Speed Reading to Find Information

Task What is the Topic? What is the Focus?
word/phrase? Dont panic if you cant remember the
Discuss whether non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs location of the information
(e.g. aspirin) can precipitate asthma in sensitive individuals
Lapses in memory are completely normal in
Describe the drugs which are used in the treatment of an stressful situations
asthma attack
Use speed reading techniques
- Scanning and Skimming
5
Eye movements for scanning Eye movements for scanning
When you skim and scan you can prevent yourself from slowing down by
using different eye movements than you would use to read closely. Instead
of moving your eyes from left to right along each line, choose one of the
following eye movement patterns to speed up your reading.
When you read closely you move your eyes from
left to right across the page, line by line.
Change your eye movements to speed up your reading
Multi choice: The Most Important Rule

How do I skim a text?
Dont rush through the stem or first part of the question
Question 1 (1 point)
Read the title and subtitles
Pharmacology, defined as the study of the effects of chemical substances
on the function of living systems, was born as a science in:
Examine illustrations, graph & table headings
a. late-18th century
b. mid-19th century
Read the first and last sentence of each paragraph c. late-19th century
d. mid-18th century
Read the introduction
1. Cover up the answer choices before you read the stem
Read the conclusion 2. Read the stem carefully
- watch for negative or qualifying words eg. always, never, sometimes
Assuming that you have the information 3. Answer the question in your head (before you look at the answer choices)
How do you tackle the multichoice questions? 4. Read all of the choices
5. Identify the best response
Another Important Rule

What if I don
dont know the answer?
Dont grab likely answers and stop reading!
Read all of the choices 1. Cross out answer choices that you know are wrong.
2. Skip the question. It only counts one mark and should
Question 1 (1 point)
not take up extra time.
Pharmacology, defined as the study of the effects of
chemical substances on the function of living systems, was 3. If you have time, come back to the question.
born as a science in: - you might have remembered something in answering
another question
a. late-18th century - you might have misread the question the first time
b. mid-19th century 4. Guess the answer only if the marker is not going to use
negative marking
c. late-19th century
d. mid-18th century
6
True/False Questions Multi-Choice Questions
Read the question stem with even more care Multi Choice questions can be tricky
Question 3
Biotechnology refers mainly to the use of recombinant The obvious answer isnt always right!
RNA technology for a wide variety of purposes, some
of which includes the manufacture of therapeutic Choose the answer that most closely resembles
proteins, diagnostics, genotyping and production of yours
transgenic animals
Eliminate answers that are obviously wrong
False
True If two answers say the same thing they are
often incorrect
Multi-Choice Questions Multi-Choice Questions

Example:
Difficult Questions
1. Which was the first building to be built on the East
Precinct campus at Massey? Take care with answers which use absolutes
(e.g. never) or (e.g. always)
a) The gymnasium
b) The Study Centre 1. a b c d e If 2 or three answers seem correct it is often
the all of the above answer which is right
c) The Quads
Think of an
d) Quad A & Quad B If two answers are diametrically opposite
answer first! ( e.g. black and white) one may well be right!
e) The IIMS Building
Short Answer Questions What is expected of you?
Make good use of time Exams do not measure

Quickly review the number of questions How intelligent you are
Note down how much time each could take. How virtuous you are
First answer the questions you are confident about How well you are going to do in later life
Those that you dont need to check in your resources
Exams do measure
Don't over-answer
How well you understand the subject
Aim for concise, accurate, thoughtful answers that
How much you have practised doing exams
are based in evidence.
(Landsberger, 2005)
(Barnett, 2001)
7
Do a little bit of revision, often Fantastic site for open book exams
http://www.cdtl.nus.edu/publications/obe/contents.htm
Take regular breaks and reward yourself
Student Learning Centre
http://student-services.massey.ac.nz/default.asp?articleid=76
References
Barnett, R., & Coate, K. (2004). Engaging the curriculum in higher education.
Maidenhead, United Kingdom: Open University Press.
Boyes, K. 2001. Creating an effective learning environment. Upper-Hutt,

New Zealand: Spectrum Education.
Landsberger, J. (2005, August 15 ). Study guides and strategies.

Retrieved September 12, 2005, from National University of Singapore,
http://www.studygs.net/index.htm
University of New South Wales. (n.d.). Open book and take home exams.
Retrieved September 12, 2005, from University of New South Wales, The
Learning Centre Web site: http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/obe.html
8
REPORTS AND RESEARCH REPORTS
Difference between essay and report

General guidelines only
Essay Report
Title page Title page
Introduction Table of contents
Reports & Research Reports Discussion Abstract
Conclusion Introduction
Issues of Structure and Content References Discussion
Appendices Conclusions
Recommendations
References
Presenter: Vanessa van der Ham Appendices
Student Learning Centre Check whether subtitles are Subtitles always required
E-mail: V.Vanderham@massey.ac.nz required New page for each section
Phone: 414 0800 Ext. 9583
Report
Case Studies
How is a report structured?
In a case study you are given a written description of an organisational
situation (either fictional or based on a real-life situation) and asked to
Sections can vary, depending on what type of report
analyse the situation according to the theoretical principles taught in a is required and on individual course requirements
particular course or discipline.
Title page
Real-life Reports
Table of contents
At other times you will be asked to investigate a real situation (either
one that is given, or one that has to be found). Again, you will usually
Executive summary/Abstract
need to focus on a practical problem, but interpret that problem using Introduction
the theoretical principles of a discipline. Discussion
(Emerson, 2000, p. 32)
Conclusions
Recommendations
Allows the lecturer to assess whether you can apply theoretical concepts
to a real-life situation. Reference List
Proceed from the theory: TheoryCaseTheoryCase
Appendices
How is a report structured?

Note: Reports in Health Sciences Title page
Table of contents
Title page Executive summary/abstract Aims; objectives; main findings
Abstract Context; subject; specific objectives; scope;
Introduction
Acknowledgements assumptions & limitations; preview of structure
Table of contents Discussion Analysis of problem/situation through application of

theory; largest and most important section
Introduction
Conclusions Key findings from Discussion; summarised & numbered
Discussion (including recommendations)
Recommendations Course of action recommended
Conclusion
Reference List
Appendices
Appendices
Reference List
See Emerson (2000), Chapter five for discussion and
examples of each of these sections
1
How is a Research Report structured?
What is a research report?
Sections can vary, depending on what type of report is required and
on individual course requirements. Basic structure:
Communicates the results of your research
Title page
Table of contents
Provides the concrete evidence of your research
Abstract (Emerson, 2000, p. 74)
Introduction
Literature review
Organisation and content requirements depend
Methodology
on your intended audience:
Results
Discussion Academic journals
Conclusions
Theses
Recommendations
Reference List Dissertations
Appendices
Organisation and content How is a research report structured?

depend on intended audience

Title page
Abstract
List of figures Structure will vary according
Research reports produced to meet university course to task and course
List of tables
requirements requirements
List of abbreviations
- generally require separate literature reviews Table of contents
- often require bibliographies Introduction Follow instructions from
Literature review lecturers and supervisors
Research articles prepared for publication in an Method
academic journal Results
Use these slides as a
general guide to structure
- do not generally have separate literature reviews Discussion
or a bibliography Conclusions
Reference List
Bibliography
(Emerson, 2000, p. 74)
Appendices
Example of a Title Page

1. Title page
Date of
Usually contains: submission
Title of report A Practical EMG-based Human
Computer Interface for Users with
The report title Motor Disabilities
The name of the person who commissioned the (5 March 2005)
report/for whom the report has been prepared

Authors
The name of the author of the report name
The date of submission To whom report is

addressed
By: J P Brooks
To: Prof. D Hunter
Check on the requirements for your paper Course number Paper: 219.100
2
How do you create a title? Title Writing Guideline 1
It must reflect the major emphasis of your paper
If only a small number of variables are studied,
It must prepare the reader for the content of the the title should name the variables
report
Example:
- show the nature of the research
The Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Aggressiveness
- introduce the topic of the research
It must conform to the requirements of your Note: Title is not a complete sentence
course (or the journal to which you are Title does not end with a full-stop
submitting your report) Title is not presented as a question
It must not be presented as a question
(Adapted from Pyrczack & Bruce, 2005, p. 39)
Guideline 2
A title should indicate what was studied not the results
2. Abstract
or conclusions of the study
Summarises the whole report
Example:
The Most Prevalent Symptoms of HIV-Infected Women are
Introduces your subject matter
Severe Depression and Muscle Aches, Which Reduce the
Quality of Life Tells your reader what was done in the research
Improved version:
Presents overview of results
The Influence of Symptoms on Quality of Life Among HIV-
Infected Women
Generally done in one paragraph (of about 200 words)
(Adapted from Pyrczack & Bruce, 2005, p. 41)
See Pyrczack and Bruce (2005, Chapter 5) for further guidelines on writing titles
Abstract
Abstract
Summarises the whole report
Introduces your subject matter Half to one page summary of whole report, including:
- why has the report been written?
What question/problem is it addressing? the purpose of the report
Tells your reader what was done in the research
- what kind of study did you do?
the scope or breadth of the investigation
Presents overview of results the methods used in the investigation

- what were the main findings?
- what is the significance of the findings?
the major findings
Can be read independently of the report the main conclusions
- do not refer the reader to the report for more information
Eg. The findings are identified in the report.
the major recommendations or the significance
- tell the reader what the findings were
Purpose: The reader must be able to get a good understanding of the

main points of the report without having to read the whole thing (Deakin University, n.d. Executive summary/abstract)
3
Abstracts: Different requirements
Make your abstract specific and detailed
An abstract of a research paper should state the problem being
researched, the methods, results and conclusions. If you are using a Too general:
quantitative method, it should also give details of such issues as This report considers three energy sources and recommends the best
one.
subject population, research design, test instruments, research
apparatus or data-gathering procedures as specifically as necessary
to reflect their importance in the study. Which three sources?
Best in which way?

An abstract of a review or theoretical or qualitative
How did you compare them?
study should state the topics covered, the central thesis,
What did you conclude from your comparison?
the sources used (e.g. personal observation, published
literature or previous research), and the conclusions you Why is your finding significant?
have drawn.
(Engineering Communication Centre, 2002, Abstract or Summary)
(Emerson, 2000, p. 66)
Make your abstract specific and detailed

Note: Abstracts in Health Sciences
Reports
Too general:
This report considers three energy sources and recommends the best one.
Often require subheadings, particularly if research
Specific and detailed; is quantitative:
This report compares nuclear plants, fossil fuels, and solar generators, Aim
in order to determine which energy source will best meet the nation's
needs. The criteria for comparison were the economic, social, and Background
environmental effects of each alternative. The study concludes that
nuclear energy is the best of these options, because North America is Methods
not self-sufficient in fossil fuels, and solar power is currently too
unreliable for industrial use. Although nuclear plants are potentially very
Results
dangerous, nuclear energy is still the best short-term solution. Conclusions
(Engineering Communication Centre, 2002, Abstract or Summary)
See Pyrczack & Bruce (1980) for a detailed discussion on writing abstracts
3. Table of Contents 4. Introduction

Pyrczack and Bruce (1994, p. 33) describe the purpose of an
Lists the contents of the report introduction as follows:
Shows the reader how the report is The purpose of an introduction in an empirical research report
organised is to introduce the problem area, establish its importance, and
indicate the authors perspective on the problem. Introductions
Allows the reader to access information usually conclude with an explicit statement of the research
easily hypotheses, purposes or questions to be answered by the study.

In a journal article, the introduction is almost always integrated
with the literature review into a single essay. In theses and
Make sure the page numbers in your Table of Contents dissertations, it is common to have the first chapter present the
correspond with the page numbers in the report introduction and the second one present the literature review.
4
Movement from general topic to What do you include in the Introduction?
your specific research area
Why you have undertaken the study and written the report
The assumptions which were made in the study
Description of broad topic Definitions of relevant terms used in the report
The scope of the investigation, i.e. what is covered and
what is not
Narrowing The methods used (often included in a separate
focus
methodology section)
The theories which form the context for this study (often
included in a separate literature review section)
Research hypotheses,
purposes or questions The limitations inherent in the study
An outline of the structure of the report
(Deakin University, n.d. Introduction)
5. Literature review Literature Review

Review of what has been written on your topic Involves synthesising and critiquing existing
What have others said about this topic? knowledge on your topic
What theories address this topic? A literature review tells the story of the literature
What do those theories say? produced so far on the topic and justifies the need
What research has been done previously? for your own research
Do the results of the existing research agree with one Organised by key themes or findings arranged in
another, or is there disagreement? headings and sub-headings as an argument that flows
Are there flaws in the existing literature?
See sample extract on next slide
Which gap in the literature will your research fill?
(Adapted from Davidson & Tolich, 1999, p.94) (Hart, 1998; Davidson & Tollich, 1999)
2.3.4.3. Television advertising and nutrition practices Your voice must guide the review
Television advertising may influence childrens nutrition practices,
particularly in regard to food requests, purchases and consumption (see Where is your voice here? What is the point youre
making about the topic in this paragraph? Which
for example, Hutchings & Moynihan, 1998; Kotz & Story, 1994;
issue does the research highlight?
Research by Brown (2002)
television exposure may impact on actual eating behaviour [but that
further research is required to establish causal links]. Similarly, Kotz and Where is your voice here? What is the relationship
between Browns research and Smiths research?
Story (1994) note that television is such a ubiquitous medium that it is
difficult to measure its behavioural effects. Their report concluded that it Research by Smith (2003)
was not possible to prove that food advertisements aimed at children Where is your voice here? What is the relationship
cause poor eating habits. Whilst these and other such studies report a between Aitkens research and that of Brown and of
positive correlation between television viewing and food requests, Smith?
purchases and consumption, there is limited conclusive evidence to
support a direct cause and effect relationship between the messages
How are all these linked to your research question?
portrayed and the actual eating patterns of children.
(Source of extract: Hawkins, 2003, p. 29)
(Adapted from Graduate School Website of Edith Cowan University)
5
Help with literature review Help with literature review
Postgraduate Seminar: See Albany SLC Postgraduate Support page: A few links:
http://student-services.massey.ac.nz/massey/students/student-services/
slc/albany/postgraduate.cfm
http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu/resources/pg006.html
Notes from Postgraduate Seminars: V.Vanderham@massey.ac.nz
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/litreview.html
Online Seminar - Crafting the Literature Review:
http://owll.massey.ac.nz/workshops.html http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/Resources/research-Education/
research%20education/ researchwrite/ organising.htm#Conceptualising
Notes from the Student Learning Centre (Study Centre, Ground Floor)
http://www.clet.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM
Useful text on literature review:
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html
Hart, C. 1998. Doing a literature review. London: Sage Publications.
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html
Small group consultations at SLC: V.Vanderham@massey.ac.nz
http://www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk/sources.htm
One-to-one consultations: Phone Geraldine: 414 0800 Ext. 9143
Make sure youre attached to Gradlink for announcements about

further support classes. See last page of these notes
6. Methodology Methodology
Describes the procedure you followed in your Must be clear and specific:
investigation
Important section because it provides details that - another researcher should be able to replicate the
others can use to replicate your study research you performed by following the procedures
outlined in this section
In analytical reports, like business reports, this might
include a description of survey methods, participants, focus
groups and use of secondary sources - look at other research reports in your field to see how
detailed you have to be
In scientific reports it might include a description of (Deakin University, n.d., Methodology)
participants, materials, equipment, design and procedure.
Example: Methodology sections of reports in the Health Sciences feature
very extensive details on the ethical aspects of the study and how
(Deakin University, n.d., Methodology) these were addressed.
What is included in the Guidelines for Writing

Method Section? Method Sections
Pyrczak and Bruce (1998, p. 63) identify the following components: The guidelines in the next five slides are adapted from
Writing Empirical Research Reports by Pyrczak and
1. A description of the physical steps taken to gather the data
Bruce (1998). This text provides guidelines on writing
- description of the individuals involved (eg. school children)
each section of an empirical research report and features
or the objects studied (eg. text books) useful examples throughout. In the following slides, the
2. A description of the instrumentation (i.e. measuring tools) and guidelines are followed by page numbers for examples in
any additional procedures the 1998 edition of the book and also the latest edition of
the book, dated 2005. See the References at the end of
this presentation for details.
6
Guidelines for Writing Method Sections
Guidelines for Writing
Guideline 2:
Method Sections Describe your informed consent procedures if any, as well as steps
taken to maintain confidentiality
Guideline 1:
For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, pp. 63-64) and Pyrzcack
Determine how you need to refer to individuals studied and Bruce (2005, p. 86)
in your project
Guideline 3:
subjects? The participants should be described in enough detail for the reader
to visualise them: for example, age, ethnicity, place of residence
participants?
(eg. urban residents) and income.
respondents?
For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, p. 65) and Pyrzcack and
examinees? Bruce (2005, pp. 86-87)
(Adapted from Pyrzcak & Bruce, 1998, p. 63)

(Adapted from Pyrzcak & Bruce, 1998, pp. 66-67)
Guidelines for Writing Method Sections Guidelines for Writing Method Sections
Guideline 5: Guideline 7:
A population should be named, and if only a sample was studied, the Unpublished instruments should be described in detail.
method of sampling should be described
For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, pp. 68-69) and Pyrzcack
For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, p. 67) and Pyrzcack and and Bruce (2005, pp. 91-92).
Bruce (2005, p. 89)
Note: Make sure you acknowledge any weaknesses in the sampling

Guideline 8:
Guideline 6: If a published instrument was used, briefly describe the traits that it
If there was attrition, state the number who dropped out, the reasons for was designed to measure, its format, and the possible range of score
attrition, if known, and information on the drop-outs, if available. values. Note: Ask your supervisor for advice on what to include here.
For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, p. 67) and Pyrzcack and For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, p. 69) and Pyrzcack and
Bruce (2005, pp. 90-91) Bruce (2005, p. 92).
(Adapted from Pyrzcak & Bruce, 1998, pp. 67) (Adapted from Pyrzcak & Bruce, 1998, pp. 68-69)
Guidelines for Writing Method Sections 7. Results

Guideline 8:
For both unpublished and published instruments, information on Presents a factual outline of what was found in
reliability (consistency of results) and validity (whether the instrument
measures what it is designed to measure), when available, should be the study
reported. NOTE: Ask your supervisor how much detail you need here.
For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, pp. 69 -70) and Raw data should not be included in this section.
Pyrzcack and Bruce (2005, pp. 92-93).
If raw data have to be included, these should be
Guideline 9:
presented in an Appendix. Often a statement is
included which describes how the raw data
Experimental procedures, equipment, and other mechanical matters
should be described in sufficient detail so that the study can be replicated. were processed into summary data, e.g.
Survey responses were analysed using SPSS.
For examples, see Pyrzcak and Bruce (1998, pp. 69 -70) and
Pyrzcack and Bruce (2005, pp. 93-94).
(Deakin University, n.d., Results)

(Adapted from Pyrzcak & Bruce, 1998, pp. 69-70)
7
Guidelines for Tables in APA referencing manual
Results (American Psychological Association, 2001, pp 136-176).
Tabular versus textual presentation (pp. 147 -149)

Presents a factual outline of what was found in the study Discussing and citing tables in text (pp. 154 -155)
Table numbers (p.155)
Summary data are generally presented in the form of tables Table titles (pp. 155-156)
or graphs, which must have titles. Headings in tables (pp. 156-159)
It is important that you do not leave it to the reader to Body of a table (pp. 156-160)
interpret your data. Presenting data in specific types of tables (pp. 160-169)
- Sample ANOVA table (p. 162)
Explanations of tables and figures must be included, - Sample regression table (p. 163)
e.g. Table 3 shows the proportion of first year students - Sample LISREL table (pp. 164-165)
who attended Open Day. - Sample model comparison table (pp. 166-167)
(Deakin University, n.d., Results) - Sample word table (p. 168 169)
Notes to a table (pp. 170-173)
Should you include any commentary in your results section? Tables from another source (p. 174)
See Swales and Feak (1994), pp. 170-172 for comments on this issue
NOTE: CHECK THE STYLE GUIDE FOR YOUR OWN COLLEGE!
Table 1
Recognition Memory for Words and Nonwords as a Function of
Age and Viewing Condition
Viewing
condition Adultsa Childrenb Difference
The table example featured in the next two slides is Words
taken from the APA referencing manual (American Dim 91 73 18
Psychological Association, 2001, p. 152) Moderate 88 63 25
Bright 61 45 16
Nonwords
MAKE SURE YOU CONSULT THE STYLE GUIDE FOR Dim 78 58 20
YOUR COLLEGE FOR SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS ON Moderate 65 62 3
FORMATTING YOUR TABLES AND FIGURES Bright 80 51 29
Note. The values represent mean percentages of correctly recognised words
or nonwords.
aAdults were 18-21 years old. bChildren were 12-14 years old.
Number tables as they occur in text;

Table 1 Capitalise first letter
Recognition Memory for Words and Nonwords as a Function of
Age and Viewing Condition Table title in italics Describing statistics in tables
Viewing Indication of specific notes to Table featured below
condition Adultsa Childrenb Difference Do not simply repeat information presented in the table
Words
Dim 91 73 18
Introduce the table: As Table 1 shows...
Moderate 88 63 25
Highlight the main findings for the reader
Bright 61 45 16
Present the findings in coherent paragraphs
Nonwords
78 58 20 - logical grouping of information
Dim
Moderate 65 62 3 - text that flows
Bright 80 51 29
Note. The values represent mean percentages of correctly recognised words Your description must supplement the information in the table
or nonwords. General note to table (refers to whole table)
aAdults were 18-21 years old. bChildren were 12-14 years old.
8
Example: Describing statistics in tables
Example Refer to the table, using the correct number &
4.1.3. Foods featured in New Zealand advertising and the present tense
during each New Zealand programme type As Table 3 shows, the greatest number of food advertisements were
As Table 3 shows, the greatest number of food advertisements for bread, cereals and grains (21.2% of all advertised foods), followed
were for bread, cereals and grains (21.2% of all advertised foods), by beverages (19.7%). Fast food (18.2%) and snacks, sweets and
followed by beverages (19.7%). Fast food (18.2%) and snacks, desserts (16.8%) , comprised a relatively large proportion of
sweets and desserts (16.8%) , comprised a relatively large advertising, whilst all other food groups featured considerably less.
proportion of advertising, whilst all other food groups featured
All food groups featured in advertising. Language of comparison
considerably less. All food groups featured in advertising.
During drama programmes three categories comprised 85% of all During drama programmes three categories comprised 85% of all
food occurrences: meat, fish and poultry; beverages; snacks, food occurrences: meat, fish and poultry; beverages; snacks, sweets
sweets and desserts (28.6% for each of these food groups). A and desserts (28.6% for each of these food groups). A further 14.2%
further 14.2% of food occurrences in drama programmes were
of food occurrences in drama programmes were bread, cereals and
bread, cereals and grains. There were no occurrences of fruit and
vegetables, dairy products, microwave meals, fast food or grains. There were no occurrences of fruit and vegetables, dairy
miscellaneous food portrayed in drama programmes. products, microwave meals, fast food or miscellaneous food portrayed
in drama programmes. Use simple past tense for findings
(Source of extract: Hawkins, 2003, pp. 56-57) Source of extract:: Hawkins, 2003, pp. 56-57
Presenting figures
Identifying and citing figures
According to the APA referencing manual, any type of illustration other
than a table is called a figure (American Psychological Association,
2001, p. 178). Guidelines are provided: The title of a figure is placed below the figure
Deciding to use figures (p.176) Number figures with arabic numerals (Figure 1; Figure 2)
Standards for figures, (p. 177) Number them in the order in which they are presented
Types of figures (pp. 177 - 179)
Referring to figures in your text:
Figure examples (pp. 180 -186)
Overall size and proportion (p. 188) Example:
Preparation of figures (pp.188 -196) ... as shown in Figure 5, the distances travelled are...
Using photographs (pp.197 198) The distances travelled are...(see Figure 5).
Identifying and Citing Figures (pp. 198 199)
Figure legends and captions (pp. 199-200) The table examples featured in the next two slides are taken from the APA
referencing manual (American Psychological Association, 2001, p.182 & p.185)
Sample chart (path model) Note: If your research involves human participants, make sure you follow
the appropriate approval procedure. See http://humanethics.massey.ac.nz/
Z1.82.. Z1.82..
Duration .00 Subjective Duration .00 Subjective

T1 Stress T1 Stress
T2 T2
.46
.46
-.21
-.21
Subjective Subjective
.21
.21
-.03
-.03
.08
.08
Stress -.10 Z3.69.. Stress -.10 Z3.69..

-. 31 -. 31
T1 .01 T1 .01
-0.4
-.45
-0.4
-.45
Depression Depression
-. 0
-. 0
.14 .14
Effectiveness T2 Effectiveness T2
1
T1 .55 T1 .55
-.21
-.21
.0
.0
.53 -.25 .53 -.25

-.43
-.43
2
2
.17
.17
Depression Effectiveness Depression Effectiveness

T1 T2 T1 T2
-.05 -.05
Z2 .70.. R2 = .54 Z2 .70.. R2 = .54
Figure 1. Initial path-analytic model: Influence of care-giving duration, subjective Figure 1. Initial path-analytic model: Influence of care-giving duration, subjective
caregiving stress, and subjective caregiving effectiveness on changes in depression. caregiving stress, and subjective caregiving effectiveness on changes in depression.
9
Sample bar graph
3 8. Discussion
Prelesion
Include discussion on the following elements:
Sham lesion
Support (or otherwise) that the results provide for your research
Postlesion
2
hypothesis/hypotheses; or
Startle amplitude (mV)
Achievement of your research purposes; or

Answers obtained to your research questions
1 Comparison of your results with other investigations and/or literature

- go back to your Literature Review
Factors which may have influenced your results

0 - e.g. design problems
Acoustic Light & Acoustic
Test Condition
Implications of the results
Figure 2. Mean amplitude startle response (+SE) for prelesion (n = 4), sham lesion (n=
2), and postlesion (n = 2) groups in acoustic and light-and-acoustic test conditions (Adapted from Deakin University, n.d., Discussion)
Example
The extract below is from the Introduction section of a research
report in Burton, 2002, p. 94. The three slides that follow this one As anticipated, males and females paired with either friends or dyads who
provide an extract from the Discussion section of the same report. reported similar attitudes and preferred activities. This finding supports the
results of Werner and Parmlee (1979) and Kandel (1978) where same-sex
The present study aimed to determine whether same-sex friends are friends were sampled. The results provide partial support for the hypothesis
more similar than same-sex strangers in their attitudes and preferred that friends would have more similar attitudes than strangers. Results
recreational activities. From the research examined, it was anticipated indicate that friends were more similar than strangers in their attitudes
that irrespective of gender, similarity of both attitudes and activities towards abortion and law and order issues, but no more similar in their
influences friendship development. It was hypothesised that same attitude towards multicultural or environmental issues. Values might have
sex friends would show more similar attitudes to the environment, influenced participants responses to the attitude survey items. The four
abortion, multiculturalism, and law and order than would same-sex categories touch on topics that could be considered controversial in present
strangers. It was also hypothesised that same-sex friends would be day society. As a result, those topics might evoke strong emotional
more similar than same-sex strangers in the active, passive, social responses from participants who feel quite strongly about them.
and creative activities they preferred. For example, 69% of participants in this study hold Christian beliefs. For
those people, abortion issues may have a higher value than environmental
Now look at the Discussion section on the next three slides or cultural issues...
Example cont: Same discussion section Example cont: Same discussion section
Overall conclusion in present tense
The results did not support the hypothesis that friends would be more
similar than strangers in the active, passive, social and creative activities Overall, the results of the study suggest that people do not have to be
they preferred. These findings differ from those of previous studies (e.g. similar in all of their attitudes and preferred activities to become friends. It
Kandel, 1978; Werner & Palmer, 1979), in which activity similarity was may be that similarity of attitudes associated with strongly held values is
reported to be higher between friends than between strangers. This could important in friendship development, but those that are less value-laden
be attributed to the types of activity items used in the present survey. The may not be as important. Further research could include a measure of
12 activity items were very general (e.g., Listening to music), which most values, consider the friendship duration, and cover more diverse
people are likely to enjoy to some extent. There were no survey items activities to clarify the role of similarity in friendship.
relating to more specific, uncommon, or deviant activities. Further
research could incorporate more specific items (e.g. playing tennis and
(Source of example: Burton, 2002, pp. 96-97)
knitting), less common activities (e.g., hang gliding...and rock collecting),
or more deviant activities (e.g. legal or illegal drug use), to determine Note: Overall conclusion is sometimes presented in a
whether they would exert a stronger influence on friendship development separate Conclusions section
than the more subdued activities used in this study.
10
9. Conclusions 10. Recommendations
Summary of your study: If the purpose of the report is to suggest actions
that should be taken, these should be listed
the overall purpose here, usually numbered in a logical sequence.
the steps in the process Make sure the recommendations are clearly
connected to the rest of your report
the overall findings
Make sure you know whether you are required
This should lead to the Recommendations, to use an inductive or a deductive format. In a
if your report requires these deductive report the recommendations follow the
executive summary.
(Deakin University, n.d., Recommendations)
(Deakin University, n.d., Conclusion)
11. References 12. Appendices

Use the referencing system specified in This is where to place extra information, raw data, etc.
your Study Guide Such information is removed from the main body of the
report so that it does not interrupt the flow of the report.
The Reference List features only those Appendices need to be labelled:
sources that you have referred to in the - eg. Appendix A; Appendix B, etc.
report - label according to the specifications of your course
Make sure that both in-text and end-of-text The appendices need to be referred to in the main report
references are correctly formatted Eg. Refer to Appendix A for a detailed description of
(Deakin University, n.d., Appendices)
References
Who is your audience? American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the
American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Your marker Burton, L.J. (2002). An interactive approach to writing essays and research
Other people who are knowledgeable in the field reports in psychology. Sydney, Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Deakin University. (n.d.) Report writing. Retrieved May 4, 2006,
Any intelligent person must be able to read and from the Deakin University Website: http://www.deakin.edu.au/
follow your report studentlife/academic-skills/undergraduate/handouts/report.php#what
Engineering Communication Centre. (2002). Short reports. Retrieved May 4,
2006, from The University of Toronto Web site:
Think about:
http://www.ecf.utoronto.ca/~writing/handbook-shrtrept.html
Clarity Hawkins, J. (2003). A cross-cultural content analysis of the portrayal of food

and nutrition, in television advertising and programmes in New Zealand
Organisation and Japan in 2002/2003. Unpublished masters thesis, Massey
University, Auckland, New Zealand.
Content
11
References (cont.)
Help with reports
Pyrczack, F., & Bruce, R. (1998). Writing empirical research reports (2nd ed.).
Los Angeles, CA: Pyrczack Publishing. Course Study Guide
Pyrczack, F., & Bruce, R. (2005). Writing empirical research reports (5th ed.).
Los Angeles, CA: Pyrczack Publishing. Emerson, L. (2005) Writing Guidelines series
Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students. - Reports
Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. - Research reports
Wednesday Support Classes
- see programme on Albany Student Learning Centre website
Notes from Wednesday Support Classes
- see website above
Small group consultations
Individual consultations
Help with report format GRADLINK

Useful links: Follow the steps below to link your email address to this free e-mailing
service so that the Student Learning Centre can send you news about
http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/handbook.html support seminars and workshops:
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Skills/pack/report.html
Send an email to majordomo@massey.ac.nz
http://writing2.richmond.edu/training/project/biology/biology
Leave the subject line blank
.html
Type the message subscribe gradlink
http://staff.psy.gla.ac.uk/~paul/tutorials/report/info.htm There must be nothing else in the message box,
not even your name
http://www.writing.eng.vt.edu/workbooks/reports.html
(Engineering and Science) Click send
If you have any problems linking your e-mail address to GRADLINK,

please contact Vanessa on 414 0800 Ext. 9583
12
STRUCTURING SENTENCES
Constructing sentences
Rule # 1: Be straightforward
Ask yourself: Is this idea expressed as simply and

Academic Writing clearly as possible?
Avoid Fancy words

Structuring Sentences
Avoid Fancy-sounding sentences
One idea per sentence
Add secondary information carefully
Kate Pritchard Kate Pritchard
Avoid Fancy-sounding Add Secondary Elements

Sentences Carefully
Certain product lines such as CDs that have not Main Subject / Verb-Phrase
been previously recorded upon are now
unavailable with this company, whilst potentially +
remaining available from more mainstream Secondary Elements
suppliers. Introductory
In other words
Phrases
This company no longer sells blank CDs, but you can Interrupters
buy them at other stores.
Trailers
Main
Subject/Verb-Phrase
The Main Subject/Verb-Phrase must have a Who Did what?

Sense of Completion The researcher concluded that stereotypes still exist.
The committee decided upon a new policy.
The question is crucial.
This study has shown a high level of compliance.
Combined, the Subject/Verb-Phrase must state a complete idea.
1
Introductory Phrase Interrupters*
Anything that comes before the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase Anything that comes between the Subject and Verb-
Phrase
Subject Interrupter Verb-Phrase
Introductory Phrase Main Subject/Verb-Phrase
(Compete (Offers Additional Information) Idea)
(Offers Additional Information) (Complete Idea)
The researcher , a leading academic , concluded
Although the study was flawed , the researcher concluded that
The committee , which was formed ad hoc , decided
After the riots began , the committee decided upon
Even in comic strips , women were portrayed as Women , when they appeared at all , were portrayed
While answers are premature , the question is This question , on the other hand , is
Contrasting all previous work , this study has shown This study , although narrow in scope , has shown
Notice the comma between intro phrase and subject/verb-phrase Notice the commas on both sides of the interrupter
Trailers
Remember, you must have
Anything that comes after the Subject/Verb-Phrase
Verb-Phrase
The researcher concluded that stereotypes still exist The Subject / Verb- Phrase must state a complete idea.
Trailer although they are less prevalent Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans.
(Offers Additional Information)

Subject Verb-Phrase
Often, you can add a Trailer Often, you can add an Intro
Phrase
Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans In subsequent trials,

2
Often, you can add both Sometimes, you can add
two Intro Phrases:
Introductory Phrase + Introductory Phrase +

Introductory Phrase + Subject/Verb-Phrase + Trailer.
Subject/Verb-Phrase.
In subsequent trials,
Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans In subsequent trials that proved very successful,
to solve the problem. Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans.
Sometimes, you can add two Rarely, you might add an

or more Trailers Interrupter
Subject/Verb-Phrase
Subject , Interrupter , Verb-Phrase
+ Trailer + Trailer + Trailer.
Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans Lackson and Enscore (1993)
, in their work with split-brain patients,

to solve the problem, which proved very successful
modified their plans.
in subsequent trials.
Its best to keep the Subject and Verb-Phrase close together.
Confusion happens Confusion happens

With sentences that combine too many elements: When the Subject/Verb-Phrase
arrives very late in the sentence:
Subj/Verb-Phrase
+ Trailer + a 2nd Trailer + a 3rd Trailer + 3rd Intro phrase + Subj/Verb-Phrase + a Trailer.
In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial expression, like This time, making his way through the jungles of Papua New
most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was Guinea to the most remote villages where tribesmen had no
culturally determined, that we simply use our face according to a set problems interpreting the expressions on the photographs he
of learned social conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis carried of men and women making a variety of distinctive facial
on motivation and cognition in academic psychology that flourished expressions, Ekman had a breakthrough that established that
at the time. expressions were the universal products of evolution.
3
Confusion happens Steps to Follow
With some sentences that have an if your sentence is too long or
interruption between the Subject and Verb- complicated
Phrase 1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase
Subject + Interrupter + Verb-Phrase. (Make sure its a complete idea)
His book, the man who hired me yesterday said, deals
with politics.
extracted
The man who hired me yesterday said that his book deals with politics. 3. Create new sentences around the extracted
ideas.

In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial -- In the 1960s,
expression, like most social scientists of her day, -- when little study was devoted to facial expression
Mead believed expression was culturally determined,
that we simply use our face according to a set of
In the 1960s, little study was devoted to facial
learned social conventions, a belief that grew from
expression.
the emphasis on motivation and cognition in
academic psychology that flourished at the time.

-- like most social scientists of her day, -- that we simply use our face according to a set of
-- Mead believed expression was culturally determined, learned social conventions
In other words, she believed that we simply use

Like most social scientists of her day, Mead
our face according to a set of learned social
believed expression was culturally determined.
conventions.
4
1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial
(Make sure its a complete idea) expression, like most social scientists of her day, Mead
believed expression was culturally determined, that we
2. Identify the secondary elements that could be extracted simply use our face according to a set of learned social
conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis on
3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas. motivation and cognition in academic psychology that
flourished at the time.
-- a belief that grew from the emphasis on motivation
and cognition In the 1960s, little study was devoted to facial expression.
-- in academic psychology Like most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression
was culturally determined.
-- that flourished at the time.
In other words, she believed we simply use our face according to
This belief grew from the emphasis on motivation a set of learned social conventions.
and cognition in academic psychology that flourished This belief grew from the emphasis on motivation and cognition
at the time. in academic psychology that flourished at the time.

Practice... (Make sure its a complete idea)
How could you make this sentence 2. Identify the secondary elements that could be extracted
simpler and more straightforward? 3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas.
Although they are less prevalent now than in the early Although they are less prevalent now than in the
1960s when research in gender first found its way onto early 1960s when research in gender first found its
university campuses and The Feminine Mystique by way onto university campuses and The Feminine
Betty Friedan was published in 1965, officially Mystique by Betty Friedan was published in 1965,
beginning what is called the second wave of the officially beginning what is called the second wave
womens movement, Matthews (2002) concludes that of the womens movement, Matthews (2002)
gender stereotypes are still firmly embedded in most concludes that gender stereotypes are still firmly
Western cultures. embedded in most Western cultures.
Did you make changes like this? Or this?

Gender stereotypes are much less prevalent
In the early 1960s, gender research was first now than in the early 1960s. At that time,
finding its way onto university campuses. By research into gender was just finding its way
1965, with the publication of The Feminine onto university campuses, and in 1965, Betty
Mystique by Betty Friedan, the second wave of Friedan published The Feminine Mystique.
the womens movement had officially begun. These two events sparked what is called the
However, Matthews (2002) concludes that second wave of the womens movement.
gender stereotypes are still firmly embedded in However, Matthews (2002) concludes, gender
most Western cultures. stereotypes are still firmly imbedded in most
Kate Pritchard Western cultures. Kate Pritchard
5
Remember Now, lets think about
the Rules of Editing: Proofreading
Proofreading deals with correctness
Rule 1: Be Curious Grammar, punctuation, spelling,
Rule 2: Be Imaginative typographical mistakes
Rule 3: Be Straightforward In order to do a good job with
proofreading, you must separate this
writing task from other tasks, like drafting
and editing
Dont worry about proofreading during
Kate Pritchard
your drafting process. Kate Pritchard
To Proofread... Proofreading Issues:

You will have to read through your Grammar:
essay or report many, many times
Sentence Boundaries, Subject/Verb Agreement,
Each time you read through, you should Verb Tense, Clarity
focus on a single proofreading issue
Read your essay or report backwards, Punctuation:
sentence-by-sentence to isolate your Commas, apostrophes, colons, semi-colons
sentences from the context of your work
Read your work slowly and out loud. Spelling
Errors, missing words, typos
Sentence Boundaries Subject / Verb Agreement

Subject must agree in number with the verb form:
Is a sentence complete or a fragment? Subject = plural verb = plural form
Subject = singular verb = singular form
Are two (or more) sentences running
together?
Plural subject has Plural verb form has
Are there too many secondary elements that s ending no s ending
create confusion? The researchers study
Singular subject has Singular verb form has

no --s ending -s ending
A researcher studies
6
HINT: Revised Version
Identify every noun and pronoun
Check the related verb for agreement
The teaching methods in Russia are different
No double-S No non-S.
than in this country. Most Russian students
Practice: have to do a lot of homework after school.
The teachers push them hard to get a good
The teaching methods in Russia is different than in
score. This forces many students to give up
this country. Most Russian students has to do a lot
of homework after school. The teachers pushes their free time.
them hard to get a good score. This force many
students to give up their free time. Start here
Tense Yesterday Now

The tense the time element of a verb
Tomorrow?
needs to be consistent throughout your
writing.
People lost jobs, inflation had been rising,
Decide when you want your writing to and all the economic problems had been
take place either yesterday, now, or causing social and political problems.
tomorrow Since there is high inflation, employees
Check all: cannot buy the same things they buy the
action verbs (buy, rise, cause) month before because prices have been
state-of-being verbs (is, are, was, were) rising 3 times faster than salaries.
Start here
helping verbs (have, had, has)
Revised Version: Now Pronoun Clarity

The economic situation in Peru is dismal. A common problem with pronouns is when
People are losing jobs, inflation is rising, it is unclear what word the pronoun refers
and all the economic problems are to.
causing social and political problems. This is especially common when the
Since there is high inflation, employees referent word is in a previous sentence.
cannot buy the same things they bought Check all your pronouns for any possible
the month before because prices are misunderstandings.
rising 3 times faster than salaries.
7
HINT:
Use the Find and Replace function to
When a solution to a problem
locate your pronouns, especially causes another problem, it should
IT, THEY, THEIR, THEM be reanalysed. ?
What word does the pronoun refer to?
Is it close and clear? When a solution to a problem

causes another problem, the entire
problem-solution process should be
Kate Pritchard
reanalysed. Kate Pritchard
Know this Rule: Commas

A Commas function is The store supplies biking supplies , outdoor
clothing , and camping equipment.
to separate sentence elements: Although the store is open 9-5 Monday through
Items in a list Friday, weekend hours are limited.
Secondary elements from the The store manager said, We want our
subject/verb-phrase customers to be having fun on weekends.
Tag from a quotation The stores hours are 12-3 on Saturday , and it
is closed altogether on Sunday.
Two (or more) sentences joined with a
conjunction.
Apostrophes HINT
Check every word that ends in s
Signal possession Does it need an apostrophe to signal possession?
(Check the following word)
Signal a contraction of words.
Is the word a simple plural requiring no apostrophe?
The researchers hypothesis was supported by the data. Practice:
The chairs fabric was faded and torn.

The hypothesis wasnt supported by the data.
The chairs fabric was faded and torn.
(was not) Compare:
Many chairs have this problem when placed in

sunny windows.
8
Spelling HINT:
Spell-Check is a good place to start, but it is not enough.
Spell-Check doesnt know homonym differences: there / For Spelling and Missing Words:
their / theyre; sight / cite / site; and others
Spell-Check cant tell you when youve made a typo that still
spells a word correctly: take when you meant make, Comb through your papers word-by-word
hat when you meant hate, he when you meant the
Read aloud and slowly
A simple missing word can also send your reader into a
complete state of confusion. Read each word as it is printed on the page.
Thank you
and Happy Writing.
Kate Pritchard
9
USING ACADEMIC SOURCES
Using and acknowledging

your sources
Accessing sources of theory
Reading critically
Using & Acknowledging Summary & quotation
- when and how much should you quote?
Sources
- techniques for summary
- language structures for referring to sources
Presenter: Vanessa van der Ham - establishing your own voice in your writing
Student Learning Centre - synthesising information from sources
V.Vanderham@massey.ac.nz
APA Referencing
1 2
Workshop on avoiding plagiarism: Tuesday, 20 March 5-7pm in QB2
Finding journal articles in the

Sources of Theory at University University databases
Readings in Course Use lecture notes and readings in your handbook to
Lectures Handbook/On Reserve
Other academic gather key terms to be used in your database search
books Chapters of books
Journal articles Find more key terms in the journal articles as
Use KEA catalogue
Prescribed Conference papers you read
Recommended Text(s) University websites
books Databases
Use links provided on the citation page for the article
Can be starting point for
Desk Copy in library understanding and referring Use the abstract of the article on the citation page
to theory Journal articles
- to assess whether content is relevant
PhD Theses Reports Printed copies in library - to get an overview of the content before you start
University databases
Library
University databases reading the article
Eg. NZ Statistics 3 4
Read critically in preparation for How do you include theory in

critical analysis in your assignments your assignments?
Engage actively in processing material you read (and hear)
You can use other writers ideas and data by:
Asking questions
Using ideas from other writers written in their
Relating theory to practice Quoting
words (very limited use 5% of assignment)
Stating an argument and supporting it with evidence
Summarising Using ideas from other writers written
Finding connections in your own words
Making comparisons
Evaluating When you use another writers ideas/information
Identifying problems and solutions you must always acknowledge the writer as the
source, including when youve written the idea in
your own words.
(Deakin University, n.d., How do we think critically?) 5 6
1
Main ideas in definitions are often quoted
Quotation Extract from Inkson and Kolb (2002), p.7:
Organisations are formal entities in which a complex interaction of people,

The EXACT wording from the original source materials, and money is used for the creation and distribution of goods
and services. The organisations in which managers work include not only
Either from speech or a written source the familiar business organisations involved in manufacture, retailing,
Quoted words are encased in quotation marks wholesaling, the supply of services, etc. for profit, but also government
owned organisations , State-Owned enterprises and the like for
Used sparingly, like a strong spice! example, schools, universities, hospitals and government departments.
- when you over-quote, your voice does not Quoting sources: using the exact words of the author
come through in your writing Inkson and Kolb (2002) define organisations as formal entities in which a
complex interaction of people, materials, and money is used for the creation
- gives the impression that you dont
and distribution of goods and services (p.7). They point out that the work of
understand the content
managers is not confined to organisations aimed at the production and
Your voice must guide your writing: youre making supply of goods and services for profit; it also takes place in organisations
the points and using theory to back up what you say 7 owned and run by the government or state, such as universities and schools.
8
Signal phrase Page number
Explain the rest of the definition in your own words
Extract from Inkson and Kolb, page 7.

Summarised material must be...
Organisations are formal entities in which a complex interaction of people,
materials, and money is used for the creation and distribution of goods and
services. The organisations in which managers work include not only the familiar Accurate: Report what the author means
business organisations involved in manufacture, retailing, wholesaling, the supply
of services, etc. for profit, but also government owned organisations , State-
Owned enterprises and the like for example, schools, universities, hospitals and
Objective: Stay neutral
government departments.
Acknowledged: Give credit to the original
Summarising sources: Using the authors ideas and your own
Example: words and own sentence structure source
Inkson and Kolb (2002) define organisations as formal entities in which a Translated: Use your own words and your own
complex interaction of people, materials, and money is used for the creation sentence structure
and distribution of goods and services (p.7). They point out that the work of
managers is not confined to organisations aimed at the production and
supply of goods and services for profit; it also takes place in organisations Dont plagiarise!
owned and run by the government or state, such as universities and
9 10
schools. Signal phrase
Using theory from your sources

Student voice introducing quotation Source of quoted material Using theory from your sources
Socialisation refers to the process by which individuals acquire the
knowledge, skills and dispositions that enable them to participate as Include appropriate author signal phrases:
members of society (Mowen & Minor, 1998, p. 534). From a consumer Signal phrases
behaviour perspective, socialisation refers to how people acquire skills,
knowledge and attitudes that enable them to function as consumers in the Cowell (2001) discusses four main consumer socialising agents in
marketplace (Assael, 1998, p. 22). Cowell (2001) discusses four main the lives of children, namely parents, schools, peers and television.
consumer socialising agents in the lives of children, namely parents,
He points out that because of its wide reach, television can influence
schools, peers and television. He points out that because of its wide
much behaviour, both positively and negatively (p.76).
reach, television can influence much behaviour, both positively and
negatively (p. 76). Preston (2004) points out, for example, that the
advertising used on television helps children to acquire the tools of social Which writer makes the point/provides the information?
interaction (p. 365). On the other hand, Silverblatt (2004) argues that the What kind of information is provided?
explicit sexual and violent content of programs in mass media systems
such as television can exert a strongly negative influence on the public. - what is the writer doing in the text?
11 12
(Adapted from Summers & Smith, 2003)
2
Providing clear author signals
What is the writer doing in the text youre summarising or quoting?
Use clear author signals
Defining a concept?
They help you to:
Jones (2003) defines poverty as
Showing a cause and effect(s)?` Distinguish your ideas from a sources
Jones (2003) identifies five causes of..
ideas
Providing an example?
Jones (2003) uses the example of Give credit to the original source
Explaining why something happens?
Jones (2003) explains that Avoid plagiarism
Explaining how something happens?
According to Jones (2003), the process begins with
Comparing or contrasting things?
Jones (2003) contrasts this kind of situation with
13 Kate Pritchard, 2004 14
Identify main and supporting points

How to Summarise Identify what the writer is doing in the text
Example:
Read the original text carefully The message is likely to be altered by distortions
Distortions, also known as noise or barriers, are anything that obstructs
Mark-up the text
or changes the message and thereby misleads a receiver. Distortions
- identify the central idea and main supporting points can be physical, such as rattles from an old assembly line drowning out
- identify what the writer is doing in the main & supporting conversations held beside it, static on a poor telephone connection, or
points low quality sound systems distorting announcements at an airport.
Explain the idea out loud: How would you say it? They can also be psychological, and this kind of distortion usually
refers to problems at the encoding and decoding stages. A listener may
Write the idea using your words and your sentence structure
be half-thinking of some other topic. Someone trying to read a book may
Check for accuracy with the original source be hungry, tired, thinking of tomorrows work, yesterdays love affair or
Acknowledge the original source the Christmas vacation. When a public speaker uses a large number of
ums or ahs, or displays a poor vocabulary ir distracting physical
mannerisms, any of these may constitute noise and create distortions in
Check: Does this sound like me? 15 the perceived message. 16
(Text adapted from Sligo et al., 2000, pp. 28-29)
The message is likely to be altered by distortions Definition The message is likely to be altered by distortions
Distortions, also known as noise or barriers, are anything Distortions, also known as noise or barriers, are anything that
Main idea Main idea
that obstructs or changes the message and thereby misleads obstructs or changes the message and thereby misleads a
Supporting
a receiver. Distortions can be physical, such as rattles from receiver. Distortions can be physical, such as rattles from an old
idea 1
an old assembly line drowning out conversations held beside assembly line drowning out conversations held beside it, static
+
it, static on a poor telephone connection, or low quality sound on a poor telephone connection, or low quality sound systems
Details
systems distorting announcements at an airport. distorting announcements at an airport. Examples
They can also be psychological, and this kind of distortion They can also be psychological, and this kind of distortion
usually refers to problems at the encoding and decoding usually refers to problems at the encoding and decoding stages.
stages. A listener may be half-thinking of some other topic. A listener may be half-thinking of some other topic. Someone
Someone trying to read a book may be hungry, tired, thinking trying to read a book may be hungry, tired, thinking of
of tomorrows work, yesterdays love affair or the Christmas tomorrows work, yesterdays love affair or the Christmas
vacation. When a public speaker uses a large number of vacation. When a public speaker uses a large number of ums or
ums or ahs, or displays a poor vocabulary or distracting ahs, or displays a poor vocabulary or distracting physical
physical mannerisms, any of these may constitute noise and mannerisms, any of these may constitute noise and create
create distortions in the perceived message. 17 distortions in the perceived message. 18
3
The message is likely to be altered by distortions The message is likely to be altered by distortions
Distortions, also known as noise or barriers, are anything that obstructs or changes the
Distortions, also known as noise or barriers, are anything that
Main idea message and thereby misleads a receiver. Distortions can be physical, such as rattles
obstructs or changes the message and thereby misleads a from an old assembly line drowning out conversations held beside it, static on a poor telephone
Supporting
receiver. Distortions can be physical, such as rattles from connection, or low quality sound systems distorting announcements at an airport.
idea 1
an old assembly line drowning out conversations held beside They can also be psychological, and this kind of distortion usually refers to problems
+ at the encoding and decoding stages. A listener may be half-thinking of some other topic.
it, static on a poor telephone connection, or low quality sound
Details Someone trying to read a book may be hungry, tired, thinking of tomorrows work, yesterdays
systems distorting announcements at an airport. love affair or the Christmas vacation. When a public speaker uses a large number of ums or
They can also be psychological, and this kind of distortion ahs, or displays a poor vocabulary or distracting physical mannerisms, any of these may
Supporting constitute noise and create distortions in the perceived message.
idea 2 usually refers to problems at the encoding and decoding
+ stages. A listener may be half-thinking of some other topic.
Sligo et al. (2000) define distortions as anything that obstructs
Details Someone trying to read a book may be hungry, tired, thinking
or changes the message and thereby misleads a receiver (p. 28).
of tomorrows work, yesterdays love affair or the Christmas
They distinguish between physical distortions, such as those
vacation. When a public speaker uses a large number of ums
created by poor quality public sound systems, and psychological
or ahs, or displays a poor vocabulary or distracting physical
distortions such as hunger or anxiety which may distract the
mannerisms, any of these may constitute noise and create
Summary receiver and obstruct the message (pp. 28-29).
distortions in the perceived message. 19 20
Author signals
What is the writer doing in the text? Language structures for

Extract from: Pakenham, 1998, p. 13: referring to sources
The cheapest and most effective solution to the problem of heart
disease is for people to start taking more responsibility for
maintaining their own health. They can do this by developing Choosing appropriate verbs
healthier eating habits, by taking more exercise, by reducing stress
in their lives and by avoiding activities like smoking that increase the Verb structures for referring to sources
risk of heart attack.
Pakenham (1998) argues that lifestyle changes provide

the most effective means of solving the problem of heart
disease. He advocates changes to dietary and exercise
habits, a reduction in stress levels
21 22
Choose appropriate verbs

Verb patterns for referring to
What is the writer doing in the text? More examples:
sources
Jones (1992) defines system failure as
Jones distinguishes betweenand goes on to argue that Pattern 1: reporting verb + that + subject + verb
Smith (1998) attributes the failure of the system to acknowledge admit agree allege argue
assert assume believe claim conclude
Smith argues that
consider decide demonstrate deny determine
In addition, Smith points out that discover doubt emphasise explain find
hypothesise imply indicate infer note
Smith (1998) lists several possible consequences object observe point out prove reveal
say show state suggest think
Jones et al. (2003) report that in recent years
They cite the example of 1. Da Souza argues that previous researchers have misinterpreted the data.
Jones et al. suggest that the problem has its origins in
2. Researchers have demonstrated that the procedure is harmful.
They conclude that the solution may be found in
23 24
See Manchester Universitys Academic Phrasebank (2006) for more examples (Smollet, Proctor & Plotnick, 2004)
4
Pattern 1: reporting verb + that + subject + verb Compare:
show shows that
Common errors
reveal reveals that
Incorrect: demonstrate demonstrates that
The researchers expressed that indicate indicates that
Correct: must be followed by a noun suggest suggests that
The researchers expressed the view that

Verbs that cannot be followed by informative statements:
Incorrect: present presents that
Jones discussed that display displays that
Correct: must be followed by a noun summarise summarises that
Jones discussed the use of give gives that

25 discusses discusses that 26
These verbs can also be used with as + subject + verb Verb patterns for referring to
sources
acknowledge admit agree allege argue
assert assume believe claim conclude Pattern 2: reporting verb + somebody/something + for + noun
consider decide demonstrate deny determine
discover doubt emphasise explain find
applaud blame censure criticise disparage
hypothesise imply indicate infer note
fault praise ridicule single out thank
object observe point out prove reveal
say show state suggest think
1. Smith (2000) praises the institution for its use of improved safety
As Da Souza argues, the problems need to be corrected. equipment.
As researchers have demonstrated, the procedure is 2. The report criticises the school for its use of outdated safety
equipment in the classrooms.
harmful.
(Smollet et al., 2004) 27 (Smollet et al., 2004) 28
Choose appropriate verbs:

Verbs for referring to souces Referring to research projects
Pattern 3: reporting verb + somebody/something + as + noun/adjective What did the researcher(s) do?
Jones and Smith (1996) investigated the link between
appraise assess characterise class classify They concluded that
define depict describe evaluate identify
interpret portray present refer view
Smith and Collins (2001) analysed the relationship..
1. Jones (1992) describes the response as inadequate. Engelwood (2003) studied the effects of
The findings of Englewoods study indicated that
2. Smith identifies the mothers presence as a source of interference.
3. Jones (1993) defines an organisation as

Wilson (1993) compared two systems of
Johns (2000) examined the extent to which

The results showed that
29 30
(Smollet et al., 2004)
5
Referring to the research of What do you include?
other writers Depending on the detail needed:
What do you include? Who did the study?

Citation and tense When was it done?
Who were the participants?
The language of critique
What was done?
- verbs and adjectives used to situate critique
How was it done?
- indicating gaps in research
What were the findings?
What are the implications of the findings for your topic?
(What further research is required?)
31 32
Citation and tense

Referring to Others Work Swales and Feak (1994) point out three main patterns:
A study by Smith (1998) showed that gender differences exist
online. Jones (1987) investigated the causes of illiteracy.
Smith (1998) investigated the existence of gender 2. Present perfect researcher activity not as agent
differences in chatroom participation. By measuring the The causes of illiteracy have been widely investigated (Jones,1987;
proportion of responses made by male and female Ferrara,1990; Hyon,1994).
participants, taking into account the amount of time spent There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy
accessing the chatroom, findings showed that males were
more likely than females to post messages (67% and 33% 3. Present no reference to researcher activity
respectively). This evidence supports the view The causes of illiteracy are complex (Jones,1987; Ferrara,1990;
Hyon,1994).
Illiteracy appears to have a complex set of causes (Jones,1987;
33 34
Make sure that your voice is Example

heard in your paragraphs For example To illustrate Such as For
instance Specifically This can be seen in One
The body of your essay should be an interplay
example of this is
between:
- summaries of your source material Television is a useful medium for developing desired
- your own interpretations, applications, and analysis of
modelling scenarios where people engage in certain
the ideas in the source material
behaviours and subsequently receive reinforcement
Dont let your sources do all the talking for you!
(Loudon & Della Bitta, 1993, pp. 29-31). An example of
Provide your: this kind of scenario is where a situation comedy shows
examples someone telling the truth about a transgression and
interpretation instead of being punished, they are rewarded for their
application honesty. For instance, in the episode of Friends entitled
analysis 35 36
(Adapted from Summers & Smith, 2003)
6
Interpretation Application
Therefore, However Obviously
In other words This means In short Likewise In contrast It stands to reason
What the author means is Another way of This applies to X in that
stating this is
According to Aikens and Jeron (2004), each year about 12
million children in developing countries die before their first
Desantes (2001) attributes much of the confusion
birthday from diseases such as diptheria, measles, whopping
associated with immigrant culture shock to an ignorance of
cough, and simple diarrhea. Yet there are inexpensive and
the unwritten rules for social behaviour (p. 23) in the new
effective preventative vaccines for many of these diseases
country. In other words, new immigrants are often unaware
(pp. 21 25). It stands to reason, then, that developing
of the system of rules that governs how people in the new
countries should spend their limited resources on the
country interact. For example,
37 prevention of these diseases. 38
Evaluation Synthesise information from the

This is important because This is a valid point becauseThis makes
sense because The strength of this is The weakness of this is different sources
Richmond (2003) cautions against the assumption that overpopulation is Bringing Ideas Together
the cause of poverty in developing countries. He points out that poorer
Making Connections
people in develping countries often need large families to help them
survive their poverty. He uses the example of certain agrarian societies in
which children are needed to work in the fields cultivating crops that This relates to This is similar to Another
sustain their families. Therefore, he argues, overpopulation is a view is In another study Likewise In
consequence, rather than a cause of poverty in some developing contrast The theory behind this This point
countries (p. 45). is supported by As a result
This analysis of the relationship between poverty and overpopulation
provides a valid counter-argument to the popular view that birth-control is
the most effective way of alleviating poverty in developing countries. Move beyond description to analysis and critique
39 40
What does it mean to synthesise the Synthesise information on existing

information on existing knowledge? research on your topic
Dont just list what the different researchers found or what Summarising existing research on a topic does not involve simply writing a
they say on the topic separate summary paragraph on each reading:
- highlight issues on the topic
- youre constructing an argument Research by Brown (2002)
Example: When youre looking at definitions of a concept: Research by Smith (2003)

Are there areas of commonality or of difference that emerge from
your analysis of the definitions of different authors?
Highlight similarities and differences
- points of view Guide the discussion using your voice
- research findings Show the relationship between the studies
41
Show how the research is linked to your research project 42
Your voice must guide the discussion
7
Synthesise information on existing 2.3.4. Television advertising and nutrition practices
research on your topic Television advertising may influence childrens nutrition practices,
Where is your voice here? What is the point youre particularly in regard to food requests, purchases and consumption
making about the topic in this paragraph? Which (see for example, Kotz & Story, 1994; Hutchings & Moynihan, 1998;
issue does the research highlight?
Research by Brown (2002) television exposure may impact on actual eating behaviour [but that
Where is your voice here? What is the relationship further research is required to establish causal links]. Similarly, Kotz and
between Browns research and Smiths research? Story (1994) note that television is such a ubiquitous medium that it is
Research by Smith (2003) difficult to measure its behavioural effects. Their report concluded that it
was not possible to prove that food advertisements aimed at children
Where is your voice here? What is the relationship
between Aitkens research and that of Brown and of cause poor eating habits. Whilst these and other such studies report a
Smith? positive correlation between television viewing and food requests,
Research by Aitkens (2003) purchases and consumption, there is limited conclusive evidence to
support a direct cause and effect relationship between the messages
How are all these linked to your research question/
essay topic portrayed and the actual eating patterns of children.
43 44
(Adapted from Graduate School Website of Edith Cowan University) (Source of extract: Hawkins, 2003, p. 29)
Indicating gaps in research Indicating gaps:

Negative openings
Swales and Feak (1994) identify four strategies:
However, little information However, few studies
Using negative subjects little attention few investigations
little work few researchers
Using contrastive statements
little data few attempts
Raising a question, a hypthesis or a need
little reseach
Useful alternative: Use a contrastive statement:

45 46
(Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189)
Indicating gaps: Indicating gaps:

Raising questions, hypotheses or needs
Contrastive statements
However, it remains unclear whether ...
It would thus be of interest to learn how...
These studies have emphasised ...as opposed to... If these results could be confirmed, they would provide
strong evidence for...
Although considerable research has been devoted to..., These findings suggest that this treatment might not be
rather less attention has been paid to... so effective when applied to...
It would seem, therefore, that further investigations are

needed in order to...
(Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189) 47 48
(Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189)
8
Situating Critique Situating Critique
How negative are the following verbs (a to l)? How negative are the following adjectives (a to g)?
Definitely or strongly negative? Definitely or strongly negative?
Neutral or slightly negative? Neutral or slightly negative?
However, previous research in this field has _________ Nevertheless, these attempts to establish a link
between secondary smoke and lung cancer are at
a. concentrated on x. g. neglected to consider x. present ______________________
b. disregarded x. h. overestimated x.
c. failed to consider x. a. controversial e. questionable
i. overlooked x.
d. ignored x. b. incomplete f. unconvincing
j. been restricted to x.
e. been limited to x. c. inconclusive g. unsatisfactory
k. suffered from x.
f. misinterpreted x d. misguided
l. underestimated x
49 50
(Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189) (Swales & Feak, 1994, p. 189)
How do you include theory in How do you include theory in

your assignments? your assignments?
Important rule #2:
Most important rule:
Always acknowledge your sources
Dont cut and paste from your sources
Reference List at end of essay showing full
The marker wants to hear your voice guiding the publication details of sources
assignment In-text reference every time you use information
Use your sources to back up what you say about from one of your sources
the topic - name of writer
- year of publication
Use appropriate signals and structures to refer to - page numbers where information is located
your sources
51
Use clear signal phrases 52
References References
Deakin University. (n.d). Critical analysis. Retrieved February 17, 2005, Pakenham, K.J. (2001). Making connections: Academic reading
from Deakin University, Academic Skills website: techniques. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University
http://www.deakin.edu.au/studentlife/academic-skills/undergraduate/ Press.
Smollet, R., Proctor, M., & Plotnik, J. (2004). Verbs for referring to
handouts/critical-analysis.php
sources. Retrieved May 5, 2006, from University of Toronto
Hawkins, J. (2003). A cross-cultural content analysis of the portrayal of
website: http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/reporting.html
food and nutrition, in television advertising and programmes in New
Summers, J., & Smith, B. (2003). Communication skills handbook.
Zealand and Japan in 2002/2003. Unpublished masters thesis,
Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd.
Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand.
Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate
Inkson, K., & Kolb, D. (2002). Management: Perspectives for New Zealand
students. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
(3rd ed.). Auckland, New Zealand: Prentice Hall.
Manchester University. (2006). Academic phrasebank. Retrieved May 22,
2006, from http://www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk/index.htm
53 54
9
The following extracts are from a PhD thesis:
Whitehead, A.J. (2001). Teacher burnout: A study of
END occupational stress and burnout in New Zealand school
teachers. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Massey
University, Auckland, New Zealand
55 56
2.1. The Nature of Stress

In order to study stress in teachers, a clear definition of what is meant by
There are, however, three general perspectives which
the term stress is needed. Stress has taken on many different meanings
which are often contradictory and confusing. The word stress has have been identified. One is that stress is a result of
become a word commonly used in a variety of settings, with different
meanings attached to the situation in which it is used. Selye (1956), one
something outside of the individual, i.e. external
of the pioneers in the field, points out that stress as a concept suffers factors are the cause of the stress; the second is that
from the mixed blessings of being too well known and too little
understood (p. 53). This elusive nature of stress is demonstrated by the stress is internal, it is what goes on inside the
fact that there are many definitions of stress, and it is used in the literature individual as they interpret or react to what is going on
in fundamentally different ways: as an environmental condition, as an
appraisal of an environmental condition, as a response to that condition, around them (Gold & Roth, 1993); and the third major
and as some form of relationship between the environmental demands perspective is the transactional view of Lazarus and
and the persons ability to meet those demands. Cooper (1998) also
stated that there have been numerous attempts to abandon the use of the colleagues which focuses on the cognitive processes
term stress on the grounds that it is an abstraction which does not
and emotional reactions of individuals to stress in their
correspond to clinical reality (p. vi) and it is also very difficult to observe
stress. However, as shown by the numerous papers presented at the Life environments (Lazarus, 1978).
of Stress Congress held in June 1997 to commemorate the 90th
anniversary of Hans Selyes birth (Csermely, 1997), the concept of 57 58
stress in research is alive and flourishing.
As well as the conceptual confusion over the meaning of Stress research covers a wide range of traditional
stress, there has been further confusion due to the multiplicity disciplines and an understanding of the major
of methods employed to investigate its existence and nature.
perspectives is essential for the development of some
Measuring work stress has also proved difficult because of the
constraint on empirical development imposed by what many conceptual precision which can be utilised for this study.
have described as a ritualised reliance on quantitative The following discussion will discuss the development
methodology (Van Maanen, 1979; Payne, Jick & Burke, 1982; of stress historically and will explore various
Kasl, 1987). Pearlin (1981) claims that the methodology
employed will dictate the particular manifestation of stress that perspectives with their corresponding strengths and
may be observed in the functioning of the individual where the weaknesses.
stress response is most clearly reflected (e.g. physiological,
behavioural or psychological). Additional criticisms of stress
research result from its heavy reliance upon correlational data,
which limits inferences about causality and does not consider
the role of intervening variables (Travers & Cooper, 1996).
59 60
10
The earliest figure associated with the establishment of stress as a
2.2. History of the Stress Concept legitimate subject for academic study was American physiologist Walter
According to Newton (1995), stress discourse and its Cannon who used the term stress to refer to patterns of physiological
response of organisms to emotional stimuli (Beehr & Franz, 1987). While
development has been largely unrepresented since Cannon in his 1914 paper refers to problems of great emotional stress, his
World War II. Although the word stress has been in primary concern was with developing a physiological theory of emotions
and of instincts. Cannon did make reference to stress, but it was not central
use for some time, the development of academic to his theorising. Cannons primary concern was with the physiology of
homeostasis, not with psychological stress per se. Cannon introduced the
theories of stress remains largely confined to the post-
term homeostasis to designate the maintenance of the internal milieu
war period. However the term stress was first applied in (Cannon, 1922). This research focused on the specific reactions that are
critical in maintaining internal balance during emergencies such as nervous
engineering in the early 1800s. In this context stress irritation. In his later work he adopted the term stress and spoke of critical
was construed as the load of force acting upon an stress levels which he defined as those which could bring about a state of
collapse of homeostatic mechanisms in relation to social and industrial
object, divided by the area over which it acted, and organisation (Cannon, 1935; 1939). Cannons work is still regarded as
strain to the effects of the force on the object, including influential because of the way in which it is currently used in order to
portray stress as a struggle between our primitive biological nature and
weakening and changes in shape. the complexity of a modern and rapidly changing society (Newton, 1995).
61 Cannons classic studies established... 62
It was against this cumulative background that Hans Selye, an

In the last few decades, research on stress has broadened and become
endocrinologist, began his notable studies of stress and established
influenced largely by behavioural scientists, moving away from the strict
the most widely used definition of stress. This provided much of the
impetus for current psychological investigation and led others to regard focus on physical stimuli and their physiological consequences (Travers
him as the father of stress (Rice, 1987). Selye began to notice that & Cooper, 1996). There has also been a shift of orientation from
many diverse medical conditions exhibited similar signs and symptoms physical stressors, such as mechanical trauma, towards psychological
and thus he began to study the commonalities of illness. That is, he stressors such as role ambiguity and the impact of psychological and
accepted that while each disorder or disease is unique, all diseases social influences upon the individual. However it has been observed
have similar symptoms in common i.e. a variety of dissimilar that responses to a stimulus will not have the same stressful
situations emotional arousal, effort, fatigue, pain, fear, concentration, implications for all individuals. Certain characteristics of the individual
humiliation, loss of blood and even great and unexpected success (e.g. age, sex, education, personality characteristics, coping style,
are capable of producing stress within their bodies which respond in a
social situations and past experiences) can all lead to variations as to
stereotyped pattern of biochemical change. Thus Selye defined stress
what constitutes a stressful experience (Travers & Cooper, 1996). This
as the non-specific (that is, common) result of any demand upon the
recognition of the complexity of the interacting or intervening factors
body, be the effect mental or somatic (Selye, 1956, p.58). This
definition gives the name stress to the unified response rather than to which determine behavioural and physiological responses to stress, led
the multifarious stimuli that might have produced it. Selye also subsequent researchers to adopt a broad, many-sided perspective, and
suggested that these stimuli, or evocative agents be referred to as to avoid simplistic, one-sided definitions (Ursin & Olff, 1993).
stressors, which set the stage for much of the current terminology. 63 64
2.15 Correlates of Burnout

Job and organisational correlates Studies on Teacher Stress and Burnout
. Biographical variables
.. Another important organisational variable that has consistently been linked with
A review of research on teachers stress and biographical variables
burnout reduction is social support. Schaufeli and Enzmann (1986) noted that clear
such as sex, age, experience, and position have provided important
evidence exists for a positive relationship between lack of support and burnout. A
lack of social support from supervisors is especially related to burnout. Lee and insights into the nature of stressor relationships. While there is
Ashforth (1996) (13 studies) show that on average, lack of support from contrary evidence regarding the significance between these
supervisors explains 14% of the variance of emotional exhaustion, 6% of variables and stress, it is important to acknowledge that biographical
depersonalisation, and 2% of personal accomplishment. Lack of feedback has also variables do have a part to play in teachers perceptions of stress.
been positively related to all three dimensions of burnout. Although there are only Kyriacou and Sutcliffes (1978) study and the research of Borg et al.
a few studies available, they are consistent: a meta-analysis of six studies showed (1991); Brown and Ralph (1992); and Pierce and Molloy (1990a), all
that lack of feedback explained 18% of the variance of emotional exhaustion, 12% found no significant relationships between biographical variables and
of depersonalisation, and 9% of reduced personal accomplishment (Pfennig &
stress. However four studies by Williams (1981), Laughlan (1983),
Husch, 1994). Two studies that link social support with burnout reduction were
Coates and Thoresen (1976) and Friedman (1991), have found that
conducted by Greenglass, Burke and Konarski (1998) and Jackson et al. (1986).
The former found that support from co-workers led to reduced emotional
biological variables do play a major role in teachers perceptions of
exhaustion among female teachers, while both supervisor and co-worker support stress. These studies found that sex, age, type of school (i.e. primary
increased personal accomplishment in their make colleagues. The latter obtained or secondary), positions held, and qualifications can be significant in
significant increases in teachers personal accomplishment when support was 65 predicting stress among teachers. 66
given from the principal.
11
The study by Williams (1981), sampled 956 teachers in
Alberta Canada using the Organisational Stress
Changes to a Quotation
instrument. Factor analysis provided five factors that
If you delete any part of the quoted
contributed to teacher stress, including: relationships
passage, show that by using ellipses, like
with students, relationships with colleagues, teacher
this:
tasks, work load and job security. Relationships between
stressor factors and biographical variables found that
females reported statistically significant greater stress Eckholm (1999) reports that a 7 year-old
than males on factors related to job security and work pygmy chimpanzee . . . has demonstrated the
load. Age differences showed 25-34 year olds had more most human-like banana-eating skills ever
stress from workload and colleague relationships than
documented (p. 17).
others, whilst job security was an important stressor for
teachers with less than two years experience. 67 (Omitted material: with whom Dr. Dole has worked for several years)
68
Changes to a Quotation Avoid Hanging Quotations

If you add anything to the original, show A hanging quotation does not identify the
this by placing square brackets [ ] speaker/writer.
around the additions youve made:
A few exotic dancers have decried the
expense of natural ostrich feathers. We
Robbins (2001) states, Disney is responsible for
much of this misrepresentation of the animal should be using artificial feathers
kingdom. For example, [Chip and Dale] do not exclusively and saving a fortune.
demonstrate realistic chipmunk behavior (p. 6). Use signal phrases to identify the speaker/writer
69 Kate Pritchard, 2004 70
Kate Pritchard, 2004
Complete-Sentence Quotation: Other Ways to Quote:

Signal Phrase Partial-Sentence Quotation:
A few exotic dancers have decried the Kelly & Roberts (2003) believe that artificial ostrich
feathers have revolutionised the costume industry
expense of natural ostrich feathers. (p. 66).
According to Kelly and Roberts (2003), Parenthetical Citation Signal Phrases
Costume designers could be using
artificial feathers exclusively and saving Keyword Quotation:
a fortune (p. 7). Complete Sentence quoted They go on to say that other artificial exotic bird
feathers will be equally transformative (p. 67).
Parenthetical Citation
71 72
Kate Pritchard, 2004 Kate Pritchard, 2004
12

Notes From Postgrad Writing Workshop - Master PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Notes From Postgrad Writing Workshop - Master PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Part 1: Academic English vocabulary and style

1a Key features of academic style and

1c Academic vocabulary strategies

Everyday English Academic English

11 words: 45 % of Latin origin But its expressed impersonally

Task 1: Matching exercise

repeats the same basic vocabulary

Roman written Latin spoken Latin

uses a larger vocabulary fulfilled the employment specifications

connects clauses and However

is less personal No one could claim

assist (x 2) serve competitive edge retain

Task 3: Academic English test Task 3: Academic English test

Task 3: Academic English test Task 3: Academic English test

Task 3: Academic English test Task 3: Academic English test

Resources for building up basic Academic English vocabulary

1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies 1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies

1) Which of these words is closest in meaning to acquisition?

3) Which of these words is the opposite of analysis?

4) Which of these are assumptions not usually based on?

5) Which of these would you be happy to receive from someone?

6) Which form of categorization is often used for social class?

1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies 1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies

Personal questions: another way to activate basic academic vocabulary

1) purchase General academic vocabulary

1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies 1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies

Time-saving kitchen appliances could be aimed at women

1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies 1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies

1c Academic Vocabulary Strategies Part 1: Academic English vocabulary and style

Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading

1b Academic vocabulary test & feedback

Will it be usable in your own writing?

Not frequently enough asked questions

2a Essay and report structure

How do I write an introduction?

2c Sentence structure How do I write a conclusion?

How do I summarise someone elses text?

What is flow and how do I get more of it?

2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure

2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure

2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure

How to Write a Thesis Statement How to Write a Thesis Statement

Step 1: Write an arguable statement of Step 2: Add elements of support

New Zealand should not make a foreign language

2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure

How to Write a Thesis Statement Opinion Statement

Step 3: Address the antithesis (the opposite

General, Broad Overview Key Questions for the Introduction

How can you lead your reader into your

What point are you making about this

New Zealand organisations are increasingly involved in

As we have seen, successful leadership needs to be dynamic

2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure

Degree applicants 'copy from web'

2a Essay and Report Structure

2a Essay and Report Structure 2a Essay and Report Structure

2a Essay and Report Structure 2b Paragraph Structure

Efficient management of human resources, likewise, requires Unity

2b Paragraph Structure 2b Paragraph Structure

Three qualities make a successful paragraph:

This names the subject or main idea of the Coherence

2b Paragraph Structure 2b Paragraph Structure

Use linking words and expressions guiding reader through