MIT22 081JF10 Lec05a

Energy Transmission and Storage
Sustainable Energy
9/23/2010
text readings in Chapter 16

Sections 16.1-16.3, 16.6-16.7
Sustainable Energy - Fall 2010 - Storage

Sustainable Energy Chapter 16
Storage, Transportation, and Distribution of Energy
16.1 Overview of Energy Supply Infrastructure Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

16.2 Connected Efficiencies and Energy Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
16.3 Modes of Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
16.3.1 General characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
16.3.2 Energy storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
16.4 Energy Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
16.4.1 General characteristics of energy transmission systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
16.4.2 Oil transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
16.4.3 Natural gas transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
16.4.4 Coal transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
16.4.5 Electric power transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
16.5 Energy Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
16.5.1 General characteristics of central versus distributed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
16.5.2 Combined heat and power opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
16.5.3 Applications to renewable energy systems and hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
16.6 Sustainability Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
16.6.1 Improved resource utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
16.6.2 Environmental, safety, and health concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
16.6.3 Economic and operational attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
16.7 Opportunities for Advancement of Sustainable Energy Infrastructures . . . . . . . .684
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
Web Sites of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
2
Energy Storage outline of topics
Why do we need storage?

Demand and scale requirements
Technology options
Performance factors and metrics
Economic considerations and status
Storage for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Environmental and sustainability issues
4
Energy Sources and Conversion Processes
Biomass Photosynthesis
Sources
fuels Solar C Photovoltaics
lim
ate
Ocean Wind, hydro,
thermal Direct waves tidal
thermal
Energy Forms
Chemical
Mechanical
Heat Electricity
work
Nuclear
Fission &
Geothermal
fusion To end uses:
Sources
residential, industrial,
transportation
Fossil fuels: Fuel cells
gas, oil coal
Image by MIT OpenCourseWare. 5

Motivation for storage
Variations in Energy Demand
Variations in Energy Supply
Interruptions in Energy Supply
Transmission Congestion
Demand for Portable Energy
Efficiency of Energy Systems
Energy Recovery 6
45
40
35
30 Diurnal
variations
25
GW
for UK
20 electricity
Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Mon Tues
demand in
15
the last
10 week of
August 2010
5
Source: NationalGrid 7
Options to Manage Supply & Demand
Excess capacity plus dispatch system
Demand management
Energy storage
8
Total USA
1050 Generating
Capacity
900
750
Peak hour
600 Demand for
GW Each month
450 of 2008
300
150 Annual
Average
0 Demand
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Source: EIA 2008 9

Example: Nevada Solar One hourly net electricity output
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see slide 36 in Cohen, Gilbert.
"Solargenix Energy: The Natural Power for Good." Las Vegas, NV: IEEE, May 16, 2006.
10
Cost to USA from poor power quality $119 to $188

billion/year (EPRI)
Global market for Uninterruptable Power Supply,
UPS systems, is $7 billion/year
Baxter, Richard. Energy Storage: A Nontechnical Guide. Tulsa, OK: PennWell, 2006. ISBN: 9781593700270.
11
Motivation for storage
Transmission Congestion
Demand for Portable Energy
Efficiency of Energy Systems
Energy Recovery 12
Reality Today
Not much energy storage in US electricity supply system

Pumped storage is only 2% of entire generating capacity
USA system uses excess capacity and dispatch to meet

demand
Installed capacity is more than twice the average demand
Lack of storage impedes large-scale deployment of

intermittent sources
Requires redundancy by conventional power plants
13
Storage demand requirements
a multiscale challenge
Electric power
for grid 10 to 1000 MW hrs on diurnal and seasonal cycles
for non-grid distributed power 10 W to 100 MW
battery back up for PV solar and wind, hybrid vehicles
farm pumping and other remote applications
low-head hydro storage
UPS systems kW to MW for seconds to hours
Thermal energy applications kW to MW
heating and cooling in buildings
passive solar residential
active systems hot water and ice storage
industrial process heating 100 kWh to 100 MWh
14
Storage technology options and modes
Potential energy (pumped hydro, compressed air, springs)

Kinetic energy (mechanical flywheels)
Thermal energy without phase change
passive (adobe) and active (water)
Thermal energy with phase change (ice, molten salts, steam)
Chemical energy (hydrogen, methane, gasoline, coal, oil)
Electrochemical energy (batteries, flow cells)
Electrostatic energy (capacitors)
Electromagnetic energy (superconducting magnets)
15
Pumped Hydro is the conventional large-scale storage option.
More than 20 GW capacity in USA today.
Pumped Storage
Advantages:
Low Cost
Scale
Disadvantages:
Siting
Large footprint
16
Sustainable Energytorag
Images from TVA and Adrian Pingstone on Wikimedia Commons.
Compressed Air electricity
storage starting to be deployed at
10+ MW scale
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.

17
Electric energy storage at kW scale: Lead-Acid Batteries
Heavy
Du
Batter ty
y
e- e-
Load
PbO2 Carbon
Pb Pb2+ + 2 e-
H+ Binder
Acid
Pb metal Current
Current Pb2+ collector
collector
SO42- Pb4+ + 2 e- Pb2+ +
_
Anode Electrolyte Cathode
Image by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Donald Sadoway.

18
Flywheel Technology:
High Power Density but Low Specific Energy
Image of POWERTHRU Flywheel removed due to copyright restrictions.
Pentadyne GTX Flywheel 19

Supercapacitor:
High Power Density but Low Specific Energy
Current Collecting Plate
Active Electrode
Separator
Active Electrode
Current Collecting Plate
Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Opportunities:
Increased effective area
Enhanced dielectric materials
20
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES):
High Power Density but very expensive
Diagram of American Superconductor's D-SMES system removed due to copyright restrictions.
Advantages:
Very high efficiency 95%
Disadvantages:
Very high Costs
American Superconductor 21
Performance factors for energy storage systems
energy capture rate and efficiency

discharge rate and efficiency
dispatchability and load following characteristics
scale flexibility
durability cycle lifetime
mass and volume requirements footprint of both weight and
volume
safety risks of fire, explosion, toxicity
ease of materials recycling and recovery
22
Performance factors for energy storage systems
energy capture rate and efficiency

discharge rate and efficiency
dispatchability and load following characteristics
scale flexibility
durability cycle lifetime
mass and volume requirements footprint of both weight and
volume
Energy and power density are both important!!
23
Comparing Storage Technologies Ragone Plot
Omitted from chart:
Low Energy-Density
Storage for Large
Stationary
Applications:
Hydro, Flow Batteries,
Compressed Air
24
Energy storage in general
Primary Characteristic
Energy Energy Density Application
Mode Type kJ/kg Sector
Pumped Potential 1 (100m head) Electric

Hydropower
Compressed Air Potential 15,000 in kJ/m3 Electric

Energy Storage
Kinetic
Flywheels Kinchi 30-360 Transport
Thermal Enthalpy Water (100-40oC) 250

(sensible + Rock (250-50oC) 180 Buildings
latent) Salt (latent) 300
Fossil Fuels Reaction Oil 42,000 Transport, Electric,

Enthalpy Coal 32,000 Industrial,
Buildings
Biomass Reaction Drywood 15,000 Transport, Electric,

Enthalpy Industrial, Building
Batteries Electrochemical Lead acid 60-180

Nickel Metal hydride Transport,
370 Buildings
Li-ion 400-600
Li-pdgmer ~ 1,400
Superconducting
Magnetic Energy Electromagnetic 100 10,000 Electric
Storage (SMES)
Supercapacitors Electrostatic 18 36 Transport

25
Energy Storage Technology Characteristics
Pumped CAES (a) Flywheels Thermal Batteries Supercapacitors SMES(b)

Hydro
Energy Range 1.8 X 106 180,000 118,000 MJ 1100 1800 110 MJ 1800
36 X 10 6 MJ 18 X 10 6 MJ MJ 180,000 MJ 5.4 X 106 MJ
Power Range 1001000 100100 110 MWe 0.1 to 10 0.1 to 10 0.1-10 MWe 101000
MWe MWe MWe MWe MWe
Overall Cycle 6480% 6070% ~90% ~8090% ~75% ~90% ~95%
Efficiency
Charge/Discharge Hours Hours Minutes Hours Hours Seconds Minutes to
Time Hours
Cycle Life ?10,000 ?10,000 ?10,000 >10,000 ?2,000 >100,000 ?10,000
Footprint/Unit Large if Moderate if Small Moderate Small Small Large
Size above under
ground ground
Siting Ease Difficult Difficult to N/A Easy N/A N/A Unknown
moderate
Maturity Mature Early stage Under Mature Lead acid Available Early R&D
of development mature, stage,
development others under under
development development
Sustainable Energy - Fall 2010 - 26

Storage
Energy storage costs and status
Capital versus operating costs
Current commercial systems
pumped hydro (widely deployed: more than 20 GWe USA capacity)
thermal energy storage (water, ice, passive systems common)
chemical energy storage (natural gas, petroleum, solid fuels)
batteries 1 W to 100 kW scale now common for lead acid
future systems near term
flywheels
supercapacitors
compressed air
Improved batteries Li-ion polymer
future systems long term
hydrogen storage for vehicles and distributed power
SMES
Advanced batteries and fuel cells
27
Cost projections for energy storage systems
Typical Size
System Range MWe $/kWe $/kWh
Pumped hydropower 100-1000 600-1000 10-15
Batteries
Lead acid 0.5100 100-200 150-300
Nickel metal 0.5-50 200-400 300
hydride 0.5-50 200-400
Li-ion 500
Mechanical 1-10 200-500 100-800

flywheels
Compressed air 50-1,000 500-1,000 10-15

energy storage
(CAES)
Superconducting
magnetic energy 10-1,000 300-1,000 300-3,000
storage (SMES)
Supercapacitors 1-10 300 3,600 28

Storage Challenges for Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
Photo by IFCAR on Wikimedia Commons.
Sustainable Energy - Fall 2010 - 29

Storage
Energy Storage for an HEV
Batteries
Lead-acid
Lithium-ion
Nickel-metal hydride
Ultracapacitors
Flywheels
31
Energy Storage in HEVs:
Technical Challenges
Low Specific Energy: Batteries are Heavy!
Cycling Lifetime
Many batteries lose capacity on each charge/discharge
Can ameliorate by not charging/discharging all the way
Power Density
Existing batteries limit ability to absorb energy from regenerative
braking
Opportunities for super capacitors or flywheels
Charging battery-only vehicles rapidly
32
Environmental issues for energy storage
Land use
inundation caused by hydro projects
thermal (hot/cold) island local effects
underground storage systems have special
geotechnical requirements to insure safe operation
Materials toxicity disposal and recycle e.g. batteries
Durability and lifetime of entire system
Emissions during manufacture and operation
33
Relevance of energy storage to sustainability
Essential for effective use of intermittent renewable energy

resources including solar, wind, biomass, and hydro
Storage can provide quality energy when it is needed
Critical for high efficiency hybrid ICE/electric and fuel cell
vehicles
Full life cycle environmental impacts must be considered in
tradeoffs -- especially for pumped hydro and batteries
Continuing advances in technology and deployment will lower
costs to enable broader participation for electric and thermal
storage at scales from 10 W to 100 kW for seconds to 100
hours
Major innovations are needed for new systems to have an
impact at largest scale (> 100 MW, >5 GWh)
34
Energy Transmission outline of topics
Options and costs

Infrastructure and scale
Issues
35
There are many options for
energy transport:
For electricity -- we have

wires (AC and DC)
For fossil fuels gas/oil/coal
we have --
pipelines
Graph removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 16.7 trains
in Tester, Jefferson W., et al. Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options. trucks
MIT Press, 2005. ISBN: 9780262201537.
ships
For hot or cold water, steam
we have --
pipelines
Costs scale with directly with

distance; $0.20-$0.60/bbl/1000 mi for
oil; 10x more for electricity & coal.
Transport very significant cost for
coal & gas far from markets. LNG
affordable to ship by sea, but very
36
expensive to liquefy in first place.
USA Energy Transport Infrastructure is
large and deeply entrenched
400,000+ miles of gas and oil pipelines

160,000+ miles of high voltage transmission lines
Image by jrawle on Flickr.
Image by SystemF92 on Flickr.

Energy transmission scale and performance
Scale of energy transmission is Enormous!

250,000 mi of gas pipelines of various sizes in the US supply
about 30 EJ per year
supertankers carry 200,000 to 300,000 ton (1.4 to 2.1 million bbl
of oil) payloads long distances very efficiently -- 2000+ miles
Oil pipelines can extend for long distances (1000 or more
miles) and have high capacity
e.g. max flow of 2.1 million bbl per day of crude over 900 miles
in 1988 from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez, Alaska
160,000+ miles of electric transmission lines in the US >250 kW
a unit train carries 100,000+ tons of coal.
Many options, but costs, energy consumption increase with distance
Environmental Impacts
-Oil Spills
Security, Political, and Right-of-Way issues
38
Additional transmission issues
Security/Politics
Russian gas pipelines to Europe
How to get Caspian oil to market?
Many places in world rely on a single pipeline.
NIMBY concerns about shipping nuclear materials.
Pipelines, LNG, Electric Grid, Rail require huge upfront
capital investments
Investors taking a lot of risk, want guarantees
Supply resource must last many years
Often hard, expensive to secure right-of-way
To add new power lines or rail into cities
May not be worth it for small projects.
Complex regulations and permitting for electric utilities, pipeline
operations, rail. 39
Assessing Storage/Transmission Issues
for New Energy Options: Stranded Gas
Efficiency:
gas-to-LNG(1-kshipdship)(1-kpipedpipe)gas-to-electricity(1-kwiredwire)
Economics: net present value!
Cost: NPV of LNG plant, terminals, ships,
pipeline, power plant, transmission lines, plus
cost of the gas, plus operating/maintenance
Revenue: NPV of the electricity
Size of resource is crucial: need many years of
revenue to pay back the capital costs
40
Assessing Storage/Transmission Issues
for New Energy Options: Biomass
Efficiency:
(1-ktruckdtruck)biomass-to-fuel(1-kpipedpipe)
Can dramatically improve efficiency by locating conversion

plant next to waste heat source, but large losses in
trucking biomass to this location.
Economics:
Cost: NPV of conversion plant, trucks, pipeline, labor
to collect biomass.
NOTE: will conversion plant be used year-round? If so,
how to store the biomass from the harvest? If not, low
utilization rate of conversion plant.
Revenue: NPV of delivered fuel stream
41
Energy storage and transmission summary
Range of energy storage

- from watts to megawatts
- e.g. from small batteries to pumped hydropower
Modes of energy storage
- potential energy ( pumped hydro , CAES)
- kinetic ( mechanical flywheels)
- thermal ( sensible and latent heat)
- chemical ( heats of reaction and combustion
for biomass, fossil, hydrogen, etc.)
- electrical (electrochemical, electrostatic, electromagnetic
batteries, supercapacitors, and SMES)
Importance of both power and energy density (weight and/or
volume) e.g. Ragone plot of specific power versus specific energy
Transmission many options but costs increase with distance while
performance decreases
Environmental Impacts and sustainability issues
42
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu
22.081J / 2.650J / 10.291J / 1.818J / 2.65J / 10.391J / 11.371J / 22.811J / ESD.166J

Introduction to Sustainable Energy
Fall 2010
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Energy Transmission and Storage

text readings in Chapter 16

Sustainable Energy - Fall 2010 - Storage

16.1 Overview of Energy Supply Infrastructure Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

Why do we need storage?

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare. 5

Variations in Energy Demand

Variations in Energy Supply

Interruptions in Energy Supply

Demand for Portable Energy

Efficiency of Energy Systems

Excess capacity plus dispatch system

Source: EIA 2008 9

Example: Nevada Solar One hourly net electricity output

Cost to USA from poor power quality $119 to $188

Variations in Energy Demand

Variations in Energy Supply

Interruptions in Energy Supply

Demand for Portable Energy

Efficiency of Energy Systems

Not much energy storage in US electricity supply system

USA system uses excess capacity and dispatch to meet

Lack of storage impedes large-scale deployment of

Potential energy (pumped hydro, compressed air, springs)

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Donald Sadoway.

Image of POWERTHRU Flywheel removed due to copyright restrictions.

Pentadyne GTX Flywheel 19

Current Collecting Plate

Current Collecting Plate

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Diagram of American Superconductor's D-SMES system removed due to copyright restrictions.

energy capture rate and efficiency

energy capture rate and efficiency

Energy and power density are both important!!

Omitted from chart:

Pumped Potential 1 (100m head) Electric

Compressed Air Potential 15,000 in kJ/m3 Electric

Thermal Enthalpy Water (100-40oC) 250

Fossil Fuels Reaction Oil 42,000 Transport, Electric,

Biomass Reaction Drywood 15,000 Transport, Electric,

Batteries Electrochemical Lead acid 60-180

Supercapacitors Electrostatic 18 36 Transport

Pumped CAES (a) Flywheels Thermal Batteries Supercapacitors SMES(b)

Sustainable Energy - Fall 2010 - 26

Pumped hydropower 100-1000 600-1000 10-15

Mechanical 1-10 200-500 100-800

Compressed air 50-1,000 500-1,000 10-15

Supercapacitors 1-10 300 3,600 28

Photo by IFCAR on Wikimedia Commons.

Sustainable Energy - Fall 2010 - 29

Essential for effective use of intermittent renewable energy

Options and costs

For electricity -- we have

Costs scale with directly with

400,000+ miles of gas and oil pipelines

Image by jrawle on Flickr.

Image by SystemF92 on Flickr.

Scale of energy transmission is Enormous!

Can dramatically improve efficiency by locating conversion

Range of energy storage

22.081J / 2.650J / 10.291J / 1.818J / 2.65J / 10.391J / 11.371J / 22.811J / ESD.166J

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