Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
First, 2012/2013
Solar Energy Concept: Energy from Sun
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at
the upper atmosphere.
Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds,
oceans and land masses.
The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible
and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises
their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
causing atmospheric circulation or convection.
When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor
condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water
cycle.
Solar Energy Concept: Energy from Sun
Solar Energy Concept: Energy from Sun
Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average
temperature of 14 C.
By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which
produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year.
Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly
depending on distance from the equator.
Below Table shows the yearly solar fluxes and human energy consumption:
Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply
with solar electricity. 18 TW [=568 Exajoule (EJ)] per year.
Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2 or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m2/day.
Solar Energy Applications
Agriculture and
horticulture Heating, cooling and
Photovoltaic (PV) ventilation
Solar lighting
Water treatment
Cooking
Solar Energy Analysis, Introduction
Solar energy is defined as that radiant energy transmitted by the sun and
intercepted by earth.
Two motions of the earth relative to the sun are important in determining the
intensity of solar flux at any time:
The earths rotation about its axis, and
The annual motion of the earth and its axis about the sun. below.
The earth rotates about its axis once in a day called. Hence the definition of a Solar
Day is the time that elapses between two successive crossings of the local meridian
by the sun.
Solar Energy Analysis, Introduction
The local meridian at any point is the plane formed by projecting a northsouth
longitude line through the point out into space from the center of the earth.
The length of a solar day on the average is slightly less than 24 hour, owing to the
forward motion of the earth in its solar orbit. Any given day will also differ from the
average day owing to orbital eccentricity, axis precession, and other secondary effects
embodied in the equation of time described below.
Solar Energy Analysis, Introduction
The earths orbit about the sun is elliptical with eccentricity of 0.0167. This results in
variation of solar flux on the outer atmosphere of about 7% over the course of a year.
Of more importance is the variation of solar intensity caused by the inclination of the
earths axis relative to the ecliptic plane of the earths orbit. The angle between the
ecliptic plane and the earths equatorial plane is 23.45o.
Solar Energy Analysis, Introduction
The earths motion is quantified by two angles varying with season and time of day.
First: The angle varying on a seasonal basis that is used to characterize the
earths location in its orbit is called the solar declination. It is the angle between
the earthsun line and the equatorial plane. The declination s is taken to be
positive when the earthsun line is north of the equator and negative otherwise.
The declination varies between 23.45o on the summer solstice (June 21 or 22) and
23.45o on the winter solstice (December 21 or 22).
Solar Energy Analysis, Introduction
Solar Energy Analysis, Introduction
Another parameter used for solar energy calculation is the solar time, as
determined by the position of the sun, and clock time is variable and differ for two
reasons.
First, the length of a day varies because of the ellipticity of the earths orbit; and
Second, standard time is determined by the standard meridian passing through
the approximate center of each time zone.
Any position away from the standard meridian has a difference between solar and
clock time given by [(local longitude - standard meridian longitude) / 15] in units of
hours. Therefore, solar time and local standard time (LST) are related by:
In unit hour, and EoT is the Equation of Time expressed in hours as:
The sun is imagined to move on the celestial sphere, an imaginary surface centered
at the earths center and having a large but unspecified radius.
Since the sun moves on a spherical surface, two angles are sufficient to locate the
sun at any instant. The two most commonly used angles are:
The solar-altitude angle (), and
Azimuth angle (as).
The solar-altitude angle is related to the previously defined declination and hour
angles by:
in which L is the latitude, taken positive for sites north of the equator and negative for
sites south of the equator.
Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Position
To find the value of as, the location of the sun relative to the eastwest line through the
site must be known. This is accounted for by the following two expressions for the
azimuth angle:
Where typical values of altitude (L) and azimuth (as) angles for different latitudes are
listed in Tables (will be uploaded on Ritaj)
Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Position
This occurs when the center of the sun intersects the horizon plane. The hour
angle for sunrise (hsr) and sunset (hss) can be found by equating solar- to zero. If
this is done, the hour angles for sunrise and sunset are found to by equating solar
azimuth angle equation to ZERO.
=0
Then, the hour angles of the for sunrise and sunset are found to be:
Solar Energy Analysis, Sunrise and
Sunset
Example: The Equinoxes
The path of the sun for the solstices and the equinoxes (length of day and night are
both 12 hr on the equinoxes). This drawing indicates the very different azimuth and
altitude angles that occur at different times of year at identical clock times. The
sunrise and sunset hour angles can be read from the figures where the sun paths
intersect the horizon plane.
E.g. Sun paths for the summer solstice (6/21), the equinoxes (3/21 and 9/21), and the winter solstice
(12/21) for a site at 40 N.
Isometric View
Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Incident
Angle
For a number of reasons, many solar collection surfaces do not directly face the sun
continuously.
The angle between the sunearth line and the normal to any surface is called the
incidence angle (i).
Example, the figure shows a fixed planar surface with solar radiation intersecting the
plane at the incidence angle i measured relative to the surface normal. The intensity of
flux at the surface is Ib cos i, where Ib is the beam radiation along the sunearth line;
Ib is called the direct, normal radiation. For a fixed surface such as that in Fig. 5 facing
the equator, the incidence angle is given by
Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Incident
Angle
Example, the figure shows a fixed planar surface with solar radiation intersecting the
plane at the incidence angle i measured relative to the surface normal. The intensity of
flux at the surface is Ib x cos i, where Ib is the beam radiation along the sunearth
line; Ib is called the direct, normal radiation. For a fixed surface facing the equator, the
incidence angle is given by:
And the daily total horizontal radiation denoted by Io is given by the integration;
beam
The beam component of the terrestrial flux is then given by the empirical equation;
The separate values of horizontal beam and diffuse radiation can be used to find
radiation on any surface by applying appropriate geometric tilt factors to each
component and forming the sum accounting for any radiation reflected from the
foreground.
The beam radiation incident on any surface is simply Ib cos i. If one assumes that
the diffuse component is isotropically distributed over the sky dome, the amount
intercepted by any surface tilted at an angle is Id.h cos2(/2).
in which is the monthly averaged, daily total of horizontal solar flux and is the
overall tilt factor given by the equation below for a fixed, equator-facing surface:
The sunrise hour angle is found from equation and the value of hsr is the smaller
of (1) the sunrise hour angle hsr and (2) the collection surface sunrise hour angle
found by setting i = 90o in Eq. (11). That is, hsr is given by;
Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Flux
Quantification
Expressions for solar flux on a tracking surface on a monthly averaged basis are of
the form;
Average Daily Total Solar Radiation (MJ/m2) on South-Facing Surfaces in Northern Hemisphere;
Latitude 30oN, with clearness number=1.0, and ground reflection=0.2.
Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors
Flat-Plate Collectors
Collectors that are capable of producing heat at
temperatures up to 100C.
Flat-plate collectors are so named since all
components are planar (figure).
From the top down it contains a glazing system;
normally one pane of glass, a dark colored metal
absorbing plate, insulation to the rear of the absorber,
and, finally, a metal or plastic weatherproof housing.
The glazing system is sealed to the housing to
prohibit the ingress of water, moisture, and dust.
The piping shown is thermally bonded to the
absorber plate and contains the working fluid by which
the heat produced is transferred to its end use. The
pipes shown are manifolded together so that one inlet
and one outlet connection, only, are present.
Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors
Flat-Plate Collectors
The energy produced by flat-plate collectors is the difference between the solar
flux absorbed by the absorber plate and that lost from it by convection and radiation
from the upper (or front) surface and that lost by conduction from the lower (or
back) surface.
The solar flux absorbed is the incident flux Ic multiplied by the glazing system
transmittance and by the absorber plate absorptance .
The heat lost from the absorber in steady state is given by an overall thermal
conductance Uc multiplied by the difference in temperature between the collector
absorber temperature Tc and the surrounding, ambient temperature Ta.
In equation form the net heat produced qu (called utilizable) is then:
Flat-Plate Collectors
Collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat produced to incident flux, i.e.;
FR depends on the absorber plate thermal characteristics and heat loss conductance.
Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors
Flat-Plate Collectors
Efficiency can be plotted with the group of operational characteristics as the
independent variable as shown. The intercept of the efficiency curve is the optical
efficiency o= and the slope is -FRUc.
The glazing transmittance and absorber absorptance decrease with solar incidence
angle, then the efficiency curve migrates toward the origin with increasing incidence
angle, as shown in the figure.
Flat-Plate Collectors
Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors
Flat-Plate Collectors
Efficiencies for
different fluids and
selective surfaces:
o
Test o U U/o
(FR = 1) W/ m2 k W/m2 k Comments
Single collector 0.79 9.00 11.39 Measured
value
Tow in series 0.63 7.13 11.32 Theoretical
Tests conducted accordance to
value ASHRAE in the Renewable Energy
Tow in series 0.66 7.38 11.18 Measured and Environment Research Unit of
Palestine Polytechnic University.
value
o
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
Ration of the Drawn-Off volum to the storage volume
Concentrating Collectors
A method of improving the efficiency of solar collectors is to reduce the parasitic
heat loss by reducing the size of the absorber relative to the aperture area.
Relatively speaking, the area from which heat is lost is smaller than the heat
collection area and efficiency increases.
Collectors that focus sunlight onto a relatively small absorber can achieve excellent
efficiency at temperatures above which flat-plate collectors produce no net heat
output. The are called concentrating collectors.
A concentrating
collector type in
Parabolic trough
which the mirror is
Collector that
fixed and the
could track the
absorber pipe
sun by moving
moves to maintain
collector.
a focus on the
focal line.
o
Concentrating Collectors
Concentrating Collectors
The useful heat produced Qu by any concentrator is given by;
in which the concentrator optical efficiency is 0, the aperture area is Aa, the receiver or
absorber area is Ar, and the absorber heat loss conductance
is Uc.
Collector efficiency can be found from;
The aperture area-receiver area ratio Aa /Ar >1 is called the geometric
concentration ratio CR. It is the factor by which absorber heat losses are reduced
relative to the aperture area:
o
Concentrating Collectors
Based on Flat-Plate collector, and by assigning Tf,i, efficiency could be expressed
as;
Where;
o
Paraboloidal dish
concentrator focuses
solar flux at a point
instead of along a
line as with trough
collectors.
As a result the
achievable For very large aperture areas it is impractical to
concentration ratios construct paraboloidal dishes consisting of a
are approximately single reflector. Instead the mirror is segmented
the square of what as shown.
can be realized with
single curvature, This collector system called the central receiver
trough collectors. has been used in several solar thermal power
plants in the 1- to 15-MW range. This power
production method is discussed in the next
section.
o
A PV Cell
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Benefits of Solar Energy:
Incident Solar
Radiation
Electricity
Silicon PV Cell
Dissipated
Heat
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
An individual PV cell typically produces
about 1 or 2 watts of power. To boost
the power output of PV cells, they are
connected together to form larger units
called modules. Modules, in turn, can
be connected to form even larger units
called arrays, which can be
interconnected to produce more power.
Systems also include structures that point them toward the sun and components that
take the direct-current electricity produced by modules and "condition" that electricity,
usually by converting it to alternate-current electricity. PV systems may also include
batteries. These items are referred to as the balance of system (BOS) components.
Combining modules with BOS components creates an entire PV system. This system
is usually everything needed to meet a particular energy demand, such as powering a
water pump, the appliances and lights in a home, providing electrical requirements of
a community.
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Specifications:
Battery AC Loads
PV Array Distribution
Inverter Panel
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System:
AC Loads
PV Array Distribution
Inverter Panel
Electric
Utility
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System:
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve:
Module Marking:
Maximum Power: P
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve:
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve and Resistance Loads:
Low Resistance
High Resistance
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve and Temperature and Shading (Low Ic):
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
PV Power Rating:
Module are rated at Standard Test Conditions (STC) which are the following:
Surface Temperature
Insolation
Function:
An electronic device used to convert direct current (DC) electricity into alternating
current (AC) electricity.
Drawbacks:
Efficiency penalty
Complexity (read: a component which can fail)
Cost
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Different Design and Use:
Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The PV System
Photovoltaic System Size and Delivery: