Main Editorial Panel

D. J. Littler, BSc, PhD, ARCS, CPhys, FlnstP, CEng. FIEE (Chairman)

* Professor E. J. Davies, DSc, PhD, CEng, FIEE

H. E. Johnson

F. Kirkby, BSc, CEng, MIMechE, AMIEE

P. B. Myerscough, CEng, FIMechE, FINucE

W. Wright, MSc, ARCST, CEng, FIEE, FIMechE, FInstE, FBIM

Volume Consulting Editor

* Professor E. J . Davies, DSc, PhD, CEng, FIEE

Volume Advisory Editor

P. Hambling, CEng, MIMechE

Authors
Chapters 1 8 - 2 G. F. Hunt, BSc(Eng), CEng, MIEE

Chapter 3 M . Douglass, CEng, MIMechE

Chapter 4 A. R. Woodward, BSc(Eng)

D. L. Howard, BSc, CEng, MIMechE
E. F. C. Andrews, CEng, MIMechE, ABTC

Chapter 5 B. J. Beecher, BSc, CEng, MIMechE

Chapter 6 * J. J. Arnold, BSc, CEng, MIEE

J. R. Capener, BSc, CEng, MIEE

Series Production
Managing Editor P. M. Reynolds

Production Editor H. E. Johnson

Resources and T. A. Dolling

Co-ordination J. R. Jackson
 MODERN
POWER STATION PRACTICE
Third Edition

Incorporating Modern Power System Practice

British Electricity International, London

Volume C
Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant

PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD . NEW YORK . SEOUL . TOKYO
 U.K. Pergamon Press pic, Headington Hill Hall,
Oxford 0X3 OBW, England
U.S.A. Pergamon Press, Inc., (395, Saw Mill River Road,)
Elmsford, New York 10523, U.S.A.

SEOUL Pergamon Press Korea, KPO Box 315, Seoul 110-603,

Korea

JAPAN Pergamon Press, 8th Floor, Matsuoka Central Building,

1-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160, Japan

Copyright 1991 British Electricity International Ltd

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic,
magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without permission in writing from the copy-
right holder.
First edition 1963
Second edition 1971
Third edition 1991
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Modern power station practice: incorporating modern
power system practice/British Electricity International.
3rd ed. p. cm.
Includes index.
1. Electric power-plants. I. British Electricity Inter-
national.
TK1191.M49 1990
62.3V21 dc20 90-43748

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

British Electricity International
Modern power station practice. 3rd. ed.
1. Electric power-plants. Design and construction
I. Title II. Central Electricity Generating Board
621.3121.
ISBN 0-08-040510-X (12 Volume Set)
ISBN 0-08-040513-4 (Volume C)

Printed in the Republic of Singapore

by Singapore National Printers Ltd
 Colour Plates
(between pp 482 and 483)

FIG. 4.24 Heysham 2 condenser modular construction

FIG. 6.31 Flux test on completed core
FIG. 6.41 View of a 660 MW generator stator end-windings
FIG. 6.90 Condition monitor (NEI Parsons Ltd)
FIG. 6.97 Dinorwig motor-generator during site winding

VI
 Foreword
G. A. W. Blackman, CBE, FEng
Chairman, Central Electricity Generating Board
and Chairman, British Electricity International Ltd

FOR OVER THIRTY YEARS, since its formation in 1958, the Central Electricity Generating
Board (CEGB) has been at the forefront of technological advances in the design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of power plant and transmission systems. During
this time capacity increased almost fivefold, involving the introduction of thermal and
nuclear generating units of 500 MW and 660 MW, to supply one of the largest integrated
power systems in the world. In fulfilling its statutory responsibility to ensure continuity of a
safe and economic supply of electricity, the CEGB built up a powerful engineering and
scientific capability, and accumulated a wealth of experience in the operation and
maintenance of power plant and systems. With the privatisation of the CEGB this
experience and capability is being carried forward by its four successor companies
National Power, PowerGen, Nuclear Electric and National Grid.
At the heart of the CEGB's success has been an awareness of the need to sustain and
improve the skills and knowledge of its engineering and technical staff. This was achieved
through formal and on-job training, aided by a series of textbooks covering the theory
and practice for the whole range of technology to be found on a modern power station. A
second edition of the series, known as Modern Power Station Practice, was produced in
the early 1970s, and it was sold throughout the world to provide electricity undertakings,
engineers and students with an account of the CEGB's practices and hard-won experience.
The edition had substantial worldwide sales and achieved recognition as the authoritative
reference work on power generation.
A completely revised and enlarged (third) edition has now been produced which updates
the relevant information in the earlier edition together with a comprehensive account of
the solutions to the many engineering and environmental challenges encountered, and which
puts on record the achievements of the CEGB during its lifetime as one of the world's
leading public electricity utilities.
In producing this third edition, the opportunity has been taken to restructure the
information in the original eight volumes to provide a more logical and detailed exposition
of the technical content. The series has also been extended to include three new volumes on
'Station Commissioning', 'EHV Transmission' and 'System Operation'. Each of the eleven
subject volumes had an Advisory Editor for the technical validation of the many
contributions by individual authors, all of whom are recognised as authorities in their
particular field of technology.
All subject volumes carry their own index and a twelfth volume provides a consolidated
index for the series overall. Particular attention has been paid to the production of draft
material, with text refined through a number of technical and language editorial stages and
complemented by a large number of high quality illustrations. The result is a high standard
of presentation designed to appeal to a wide international readership.
It is with much pleasure therefore that I introduce this new series, which has been
attributed to British Electricity International on behalf of the CEGB and its successor
companies. I have been closely associated with its production and have no doubt that it will
be invaluable to engineers worldwide who are engaged in the design, construction,
commissioning, operation and maintenance of modern power stations and systems.

March 1990

VII
 Preface

The increase in generating capacity of the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB)
during the last thirty years has involved the introduction of new 500 MW and 660 MW
turbine-generator plant for a variety of operational duties from base load to that of flexible
two-shift operation. These plants have been installed in nuclear, coal and oil fired power
stations.
The early operational experience of the 500 MW units provided important data for the
design development of the 660 MW turbine-generator plant. These latter machines
benefited from the high quality approach to the design of major components by UK
manufacturers using their developed analysis techniques in the areas of aerodynamics and
stress analysis. The soundness of this approach has been demonstrated by the improved
reliability and performance of the later plants.
The Third Edition of Modern Power Station Practice gives a detailed account of ex-
perience obtained in the development, design, manufacture, operation and testing of
large turbine-generators in the last twenty years. The practice of testing and evaluation of
modern plant has proceeded as before; the advance in analytical and computational
techniques has however meant that the application of this experience to future design and
operation of large turbine-generator plant is of greater benefit than ever before.
One of the major tasks of the Turbine-generator Plant Branch in the CEGB was to secure
the development of Turbine-generators and their associated Plants to meet the needs of the
CEGB with due regard to economics, performance and reliability. As Head of the Branch
for some years I have felt privileged to have been asked to edit Volume C.
The authors of this volume have wide experience of the plant engineering field and all
are authorities in their particular field of Technology. I would like to record my sincere
thanks to these colleagues who have produced Volume C. They have undertaken the task
with an enthusiasm derived from the knowledge that this work will be of the greatest
assistance to engineers in this field of technology worldwide.

P. HAMBLING
Advisory Editor Volume C

IX
 Contents of All Volumes

Volume A Station Planning and Design

Power station siting and site layout
Station design and layout
Civil engineering and building works

Volume B Boilers and Ancillary Plant

Furnace design, gas side characteristics and combustion equipment
Boiler unit thermal and pressure parts design
Ancillary plant and fittings
Dust extraction, draught systems and flue gas desulphurisation

Volume C Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant

The steam turbine
Turbine plant systems
Feedwater heating systems
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
Hydraulic turbines
The generator

Volume D Electrical Systems and Equipment

Electrical system design
Electrical system analysis
Transformers
Generator main connections
Switchgear and control gear
Cabling
Motors
Telecommunications
Emergency supply equipment
Mechanical plant electrical services
Protection
Synchronising

Volume E Chemistry and Metallurgy

Chemistry
Fuel and oil
Corrosion: feed and boiler water
Water treatment plant and cooling water systems
Plant cleaning and inspection
Metallurgy
Introduction to metallurgy
Materials behaviour
Non-ferrous metals and alloys
Non-metallic materials
Materials selection

xi
Contents of All Volumes

Welding processes
Non-destructive testing
Defect analysis and life assessment
Environmental effects

Volume F Control and Instrumentation

Introduction
Automatic control
Automation, protection and interlocks and manual controls
Boiler and turbine instrumentation and actuators
Electrical instruments and metering
Central control rooms
On-line computer systems
Control and instrumentation system considerations

Volume G Station Operation and Maintenance

Introduction
Power plant operation
Performance and operation of generators
The planning and management of work
Power plant maintenance
Safety
Plant performance and performance monitoring

Volume H Station Commissioning

Introduction
Principles of commissioning
Common equipment and station plant commissioning
Boiler pre-steam to set commissioning
Turbine-generator/feedheating systems pre-steam to set commissioning
Unit commissioning and post-commissioning activities

Volume J Nuclear Power Generation

Nuclear physics and basic technology
Nuclear power station design
Nuclear power station operation
Nuclear safety

Volume K EHV Transmission

Transmission planning and development
Transmission network design
Overhead line design
Cable design
Switching station design and equipment
Transformer and reactor design
Reactive compensation plant
HVDC transmission plant design
Insulation co-ordination and surge protection
Interference
Power system protection and automatic switching
Telecommunications for power system management
Transmission operation and maintenance

XII
 Contents of All Volumes

Volume L System Operation

System operation in England and Wales
Operational planning demand and generation
Operational planning power system
Operational procedures philosophy, principles and outline contents
Control in real time
System control structure, supporting services and staffing

Volume M Index
Complete contents of all volumes
Cumulative index

xiii
 Evan John Davies
Emeritus Professor of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
at Aston University in Birmingham, died on 14 April 1991.

John was an engineer, an intellectual and a respected author

in his own right. It was this rare combination of talents that
he brought to Modern Power Station Practice as Consulting
Editor of seven volumes and, in so doing, bequeathed a
legacy from which practising and future engineers will
continue to benefit for many years.

xiv
 C H A P T E R 1

The steam turbine

Introduction
4 Economics of t h e steam cycle
1 Turbine types 4.1 Choice of exhaust pressure
1.1 Direction of flow 4.1.1 Thermodynamic optimisation
1.2 Cylinder and exhaust arrangements 4.1.2 General economic optimisation of plant
1.3 Speed of rotation 4.1.3 Economic optimisation of exhaust pressure, condenser
and C W system
2 Efficiency and output 4.2 Regenerative feedheating
2.1 Output limitations 4.2.1 Feedheating plant stages superheat cycles
2.1.1 Steam valve pressure drop 4.2.2 Feedheating plant stages w e t steam cycle
2.1.2 Swallowing capacity 4.2.3 Feedwater de-aeration
2.2 Moving blades 4.2.4 Low pressure feedwater heaters
2.2.1 Impulse-type turbine 4.2.5 High pressure feedwater heaters
2.2.2 Reaction-type turbine 4.2.6 Summary
2.2.3 Effect on turbine design 4.3 Choice of feed pump and drive system
2.2.4 Blade efficiency 4.3.1 Feed pump size and number
2.2.5 Modern blading designs 4.3.2 Feed pump duty, margins, and the need for variable
2.2.6 LP turbine blading speed
2.3 The effect of clearances on real designs 4.3.3 Economic comparison of steam turbine drives with
2.3.1 Profile loss electric motor drives
2.3.2 Secondary loss 4.3.4 Economic comparison of variable-speed motor (VSM)
2.3.3 Tip leakage drive with induction motor plus fluid-coupling drive
2.3.4 Disc windage 4.3.5 Example of the results of an overall comparison of the
2.3.5 Lacing wires through-life costs of four feed pump system options.
2.3.6 Other losses 4.4 Turbine by-pass systems
2.3.7 Wetness loss 4.4.1 Superheat plant
2.3.8 Annulus loss 4.4.2 By-pass capacity
2.4 Stage efficiency and the condition line 4.4.3 System effects
2.4.1 Efficiency of stage 4.4.4 Improvement of start-up capability
2.4.2 The condition line 4.4.5 PWR wet steam plant
2.4.3 Cylinder efficiency
5 Turbine blading
2.4.4 Leaving loss
2.4.5 Hood loss 5.1 Impulse stages
2.4.6 Wetness loss 5.1.1 Moving blades details and construction
2.4.7 Partial admission 5.1.2 Fixed blades details and construction
5.1.3 Velocity-compounded stage
3 Thermodynamics of t h e steam cycle 5.2 Reaction stages
3.1 Development of the modern steam cycle 5.2.1 Fixed and moving blades details and construction
3.1.1 The steam cycle 5.3 Low pressure stages
3.1.2 The Rankine cycle 5.3.1 Aerodynamic and mechanical constraints
3.1.3 Practical cycle using superheat 5.3.2 Blade tip restraint
3.1.4 The reheat cycle 5.3.3 Baumann exhaust
3.1.5 Regenerative feedheating 5.4 Moving blade root attachments
3.2 Cycle efficiency and heat rate 5.4.1 Fir-tree roots
3.2.1 Cylinder efficiency 5.4.2 Pinned roots
3.2.2 Heat rate 5.5 Diaphragm construction and support
3.3 Terminal conditions 5.5.1 Kinematic support
3.3.1 Effect of steam inlet conditions 5.5.2 Radial support pads
3.3.2 Effect of reheat conditions 5.5.3 Diaphragm construction
3.3.3 Effect of pressure loss in pipework and valves 5.6 Blading materials
3.3.4 Effect of final feed temperatures 5.6.1 12% Cr steels
3.3.5 Effect of exhaust pressure 5.6.2 Titanium
3.4 Superheat cycle 5.7 Blade vibration control
3.4.1 Steam conditions 5.7.1 Natural frequencies and excitation frequencies
3.4.2 Reheat 5.7.2 Sources of vibration excitation
3.4.3 Double reheat 5.7.3 Verification of estimated natural frequencies and wheel
3.4.4 CEGB cycles chamber tests
3.4.5 Turbine designs 5.7.4 Methods of vibration control
3.5 W e t steam cycle 5.8 Erosion protection
3.5.1 The PWR steam cycle 5.8.1 Erosion mechanism
3.5.2 Cycle considerations 5.8.2 Erosion progression
3.5.3 Full-speed or half-speed machines 5.8.3 Protection and erosion shield materials

1
The steam turbine Chapter 1

6 Turbine casings 7.3.4 Critical speeds

6.1 Forms of casing construction 7.3.5 Rotor fast fracture risk assessment
6.1.1 High pressure casings 7.4 Couplings
6.1.2 Intermediate pressure casings 7.4.1 Flexible couplings
6.1.3 Low pressure casings 7.4.2 Semiflexible couplings
7.4.3 Rigid couplings
6.2 Horizontal joints
7.5 Rotor alignment
6.2.1 Flange design
7.5.1 Alignment technique
6.2.2 Bolting
7.5.2 On-line monitoring
6.3 External connections
6.3.1 Steam inlets HP and IP 8 Bearings, pedestals and turning gear
6.3.2 HP exhausts 8.1 Journal bearings
6.3.3 IP exhausts 8.1.1 Construction
6.3.4 Use of thermal skirts and piston rings 8.1.2 Instrumentation
6.3.5 LP cylinders 8.1.3 Bearing performance
6.3.6 Bled-steam connections 8.1.4 Factors affecting bearing life
6.4 Casing materials 8.2 Thrust bearings
6.5 Support and alignment 8.3 Pedestals
6.5.1 HP and IP cylinder supports 8.4 Oil sealing arrangements
6.5.2 LP cylinder supports 8.5 Turning gear
6.6 Casing and diaphragm glands 8.5.1 Hand barring arrangement
6.7 Lagging 8.5.2 Electrical turning gear (ETG)
7 Turbine rotors and couplings 9 Turbine applications
7.1 Types of rotor construction 9.1 Power generation
7.1.1 Design for high temperature operation 9.2 Mechanical drive
7.1.2 Cooling of IP rotors 9.3 Combined heat and power (CHP)
7.2 Rotor materials 9.4 Combined-cycle plant
7.2.1 HP and IP rotors
10 Future outlook
7.2.2 LP rotors
7.3 Rotor testing and balancing 10.1 Unit size and rating
7.3.1 Thermal stability 10.2 Supercritical plant
7.3.2 Overspeed testing 10.3 Turbine blading development
7.3.3 Rotor balancing 11 References

Introduction turbine have been presented by Traupel [1] and Harris

In order to function, a turbine requires a suitable
working fluid, a source of high grade energy and a sink
for low grade energy. When the fluid flows through
the turbine, part of the energy content is continuously
extracted and converted into useful mechanical work.
Steam and gas turbines use heat energy, while water
turbines use pressure energy. The main objectives of
the turbine designer are to ensure that this process is
carried out with 'maximum efficiency by means of
plant having 'maximum reliability9 at 'minimum cost\
Second objectives are that the plant should require
'minimum supervision' and 'minimum starting time\
These five objectives conflict with each other and
the final outcome will be an acceptable compromise
between them.
Chapters 1 and 2 outline modern power station
practice as implemented by UK turbine makers. The
reasons behind every facet of turbine development are
explained and, where necessary, technical terms are
defined quantitatively and qualitatively to emphasise
standard practice.
1 Turbine types
Thorough reviews of the development of the steam
[2].
1.1 Direction of flow
Almost without exception, modern large steam turbines
are of the axial-flow type (Fig 1.1). Even from the
early days in the late nineteenth century, this has been
the preferred solution for steam turbines of all ratings.
The principal exception to this rule has been the
radial-flow turbine (Fig 1.2), originally introduced by
Ljungstrom, and developed to its most recent form
by Stal-Laval (now ASEA-Stal). In this design, steam
is admitted to the centre of the machine, expanding
outwards through two contra-rotating rotors to the
exhaust at the periphery. The concept was success-
fully executed and has been applied at ratings up to
about 60 MW. ASEA-Stal still offer the radial-flow
turbine for small industrial sets up to about 30 MW
output. However, the design is not adaptable to large
outputs because of the mass of the blades which would
be mounted at the outer periphery. The largest ap-
plication of the radial-flow turbine is for the high
pressure (HP) cylinder of a 460 MW unit associated with
a boiling water reactor at Oskarshamn in Sweden.
Axial flow is therefore the characteristic feature of
modern steam turbines. These are often categorised

FIG. 1.1 Axial-flow turbine
f
\i m
W M\
mM
mm
M m\
p M\
FlG. 1.2 Radial-flow turbine
according to the type of blading used (see Section 5
of this chapter), but in terms of direction of flow,
the steam approaches a group of stages at one end,
flows axially through the radially-mounted blading
and exhausts at the other end of the group of stages.
The simplest configuration of blading is in single-flow
(Fig 1.3 (a)).
Groups of stages within a turbine cylinder may be
arranged for flow in opposing axial directions. The
normal situation for this is the double-flow turbine
Turbine types
(a) Single flow
(b) Double flow
(c) Reversed flow
FIG. 1.3 Direction of flow for different categories
of turbine
(Fig 1.3 (b)), in which the steam is admitted at the
centre of the cylinder and is divided to flow in op-
posite axial directions towards the ends of the rotor.
This arrangement is used to avoid the excessively
long blades which would be incurred by a single-flow
arrangement. For turbines of large output, it is nor-
mal to have several double-flow low pressure (LP)
cylinders operating in parallel. The second benefit is
that the double-flow cylinder effectively reduces to
zero the axial thrust caused by the steam forces on
the moving blading.
One or both of these objectives are also the reasons
for other arrangements of stage groups within a tur-
bine cylinder. Thrust reduction is the main target for
the reversed-flow cylinder (Fig 1.3 (c)), in which the
steam flows in one direction through one group of
stages and is then ducted (internally or externally) to
flow through a second group of stages in the opposite
axial direction. In some cases, the second group of
stages may have several sections in parallel to accom-
modate the increasing volumetric flow rate.
3
The steam turbine
In axial turbines, the steam is admitted to the cyl-
inder and exhausted from it, by one or more circular
pipes in a radial or near-radial orientation (see Section
6 of this chapter). At the LP turbine exhaust, the
connection flange(s) to the condenser will however
normally be rectangular, at an appropriate location
and orientation to match the condenser design. This
always involves radial flow in one or more directions.
The steam is therefore required to turn through a
right angle to enter the axial-flow blading and to
exhaust from it, at the same time redistributing itself
around the circumference. The inlet and exhaust areas
therefore require sufficient space to allow an orderly
flow without undue pressure loss or flow separation.
In some cases, particularly low pressure turbine ex-
hausts, flow guides may be incorporated.
1.2 Cylinder and exhaust arrangements
For turbines driving electrical generators, the limit of
a single-cylinder turbine is around 100 MW, depending
on the design concepts, the initial steam conditions
(pressure and temperature), whether or not a reheat
cycle is used, the exhaust conditions and the speed
of rotation.
Frequently turbines of this size are designed and
built on a modular basis, with the inlet sections, blad-
ing sections, and exhaust sections selected from a range
of standard designs to suit a range of output powers,
initial and exhaust conditions and special applications
such as extraction steam for process heating or district
heating.
For larger machines, multi-cylinder designs are used
(Fig 1.4). The number of cylinders depends on a simi-
lar list of terminal conditions and design considerations.
A typical turbine of 500-900 MW output in a fossil-
fired power station (coal, oil, or gas) or a gas-cooled
nuclear station would have one HP turbine, one inter-
mediate pressure (IP) turbine and two (LP) turbines,
rotating at 3000 or 3600 r/min, depending on the grid
frequency (see Section 1.3 of this chapter). The IP and
LP turbines would probably be double-flow.
In a power station with a water-cooled reactor
(PWR, BWR, CANDU, etc.), the initial steam is at lower
pressure and temperature, so the steam mass flow rate
and volumetric flow rate are likely to be much higher
for a given output. The turbine might then have one
double-flow HP turbine and two or three LP turbines.
The turbine with a number of cylinders on a single
shaft is described as a tandem-compound machine (Fig
1.5 (a)). The other main type is the cross-compound
machine (Fig 1.5 (b)), in which the turbine cylinders
are mounted on two separate parallel shafts driving
two separate generators. The steam connections and
the auxiliary systems are arranged as for a single
generating unit. This design of plant has been more
widely used where the grid frequency is 60 Hz and
the available LP turbine blading results in a large
4
Chapter 1
number of LP cylinders being required: the use of a
very long shaft can be avoided by the use of a cross-
compound machine. Further, the number of LP cylin-
ders can be reduced if the LP turbine shaft rotates at
1800 r/min, while the HP shaft rotates at 3600 r/min.
The arrangement of the LP turbine and its con-
nection to the condenser depends critically on the
location of the condenser, and the orientation of the
condenser tubes with respect to the turbine axis.
The condenser has traditionally been mounted below
the turbine, with the condenser tubes either axial or
transverse. During the 1960s and 1970s, many 500 MW
and 660 MW turbines were built in the UK with side-
mounted condensers and axial tubes. Variants of this
design are called the pannier condenser (Fig 1.6 (a))
and the integral condenser (Fig 1.6 (b)). The main
objective was to reduce the overall height of the
turbine, with a view to reducing the height and size
of the turbine hall. Because the tubes were axial, the
condenser steam space could be sectionalised, thus
allowing a lower condenser pressure in the cold end.
This provided a small efficiency benefit.
The main disadvantage of this design is that the
condenser becomes an important part of the turbine in
terms of structural integrity, loading, foundations, etc.
This makes the condenser design dependent on the
number and size of LP turbines, thus inhibiting the
concept of modular design and complicating the de-
sign interface between a turbine maker and a number
of possible condenser makers. This design may also
complicate access to the turbine for maintenance,
for example, to the bearing pedestals.
Later plant in British stations has therefore reverted
to the use of underslung condensers with transverse
tubes (Fig 1.6 (c)), using a connecting duct between
the turbine outlet flange and the condenser inlet flange.
Because the condenser tubes are normally much longer
than the width of the turbine casing, this duct is
trapezoidal in shape.
On some turbines built between 1920 and 1960, where
the available last stage blading provided a limitation
on turbine output or efficiency, the Baumann exhaust
turbine (Fig 1.7) has been used by certain manufac-
turers, particularly Metropolitan-Vickers in the UK.
In this design, the penultimate turbine stage is divided:
the steam flow through the outer annular part of
the stage is led directly to the condenser, while that
flowing through the inner part flows through the final
stage on its way to the condenser. Because the two
parts of the penultimate stage moving-blading have
different duties, there is a discontinuity in the blade
profile which makes it a difficult concept to use in
the most highly-rated turbines.
1.3 Speed of rotation
In the normal case, steam turbines are directly cou-
pled to the electrical generator, no gearbox being
 Turbine types

GENERATOR

/'

GENERATOR

I I REHEATER I I

1
"-rWr-

GENERATOR

HP IP

I I REHEATER I I

LU/

I REHEATER I

rjWr-i
GENERATOR

A/

4wH
ncncien i

FIG. 1.4 Multi-cylinder turbine arrangements

5
The steam turbine Chapter 1

(a) Tandem-compound

GENERATOR B

GENERATORA

(b) Cross-compound

FIG. 1.5 Tandem-compound and cross-compound machines

necessary. The speed of rotation is thus given Machine type Rotational speed (r/min)
by: System frequency 50 Hz 60 Hz
f = pn Two-pole (full-speed) 3000 (50 Hz) 3600 (60 Hz)
where f = frequency of the electrical grid system Four-pole (half-speed) 1500 (25 Hz) 1800 (30 Hz)

p = number of generator pole pairs

n = the rotational speed
Although there have been exceptions in the past,
effectively the only two grid frequencies in use world-
wide are 50 Hz and 60 Hz, and generators are usually
either of two pole or four pole design. Large turbine-
generators therefore fall into one of the following
four categories:
It is, however, not uncommon for smaller turbines
particularly those associated with special applications
such as Combined Heat and Power, or Combined Cycle
to operate at a higher speed, but driving the
generator through a speed-reducing gearbox. This re-
sults in a smaller and less costly turbine, although the
gearbox may introduce losses and affect availability.
Mechanically-driven turbines are required to operate
at variable speed to cover the operational range of

6
 Turbine types

EXHAUST

(a) Pannier or side-mounted

FIG. 1.7 The Baumann exhaust turbine

(b) Radial or integral

Relative size and weights, affecting cost and transport.

/ ^ " \ TURBINE AXIS ^ * \ Relative expectations of reliability, operational flexi-

X ^. X ^ - " OF ROTATION \ X ^ X bility and ease of maintenance.
Relative thermal efficiency and economic comparison
of alternatives.

m Available LP turbine modules, with choice of exhaust

s ^:TBE$r
23
" U
AXIAL TRANSVERSE
(c) Underslung or bridge
FlG. 1.6 Types o f condenser i n c o m m o n use
the driven machine. In the power generation field,
the largest such turbines are used to drive the boiler
feed pumps for large units (see Section 4.3 of this
chapter). The maximum operational speed range may
be as high as 8500 r/min. Variable-speed turbines
have also been used to drive the gas circulators in
some gas-cooled reactors, and small single-stage tur-
bines may also be used to drive emergency feed pumps
in nuclear stations.
The selection of the rotational speed of a turbine-
generator depends on a number of factors, as follows:
Unit size, initial steam conditions and availability
of designs.
Standardisation, affecting spares holdings.
area to suit output and exhaust pressure.
For superheat plant, a full-speed machine is normally
preferred. However, when a plant is proposed of
higher output than a current range which would have
led to very high stresses or very high LP turbine
exhaust loadings, this favours a half-speed machine.
Half-speed tandem-compound machines are almost
unknown for superheat plant, but cross-compound
machines with a full-speed HP/IP line and a half-
speed LP line have been used, particularly in 60 Hz
systems where the exhaust loading is exacerbated.
For saturated-steam plant, the balance is much
more even. The higher steam volumetric flow rate for
a given output makes the exhaust loading more critical
so, for 60 Hz systems, the rotational speed is almost
universally 1800 r/min. In 50 Hz systems, this exhaust
loading is less critical, so there are a number of full-
speed machines. However, at the time the choice was
made of standard reactor sizes, 1500 r/min machines
were often chosen as stress levels on 3000 r/min ma-
chines would have been beyond the experience at that
time. In some cases, including Sizewell B (the first
PWR in the UK), two half-size, but full-speed, ma-
chines were selected, to take advantage of modules
such as the LP turbine and the generator developed

7
The steam turbine
and proven for the full-speed superheat machines then
in service. A comprehensive review of the choice of
speed for saturated-steam machines in 50 Hz systems
has been made by Harris and Kalderon [3]. They
indicate that 1500 r/min machines may be more
economical for the lowest optimum exhaust pressures,
i.e., in those countries with the lowest cooling water
temperatures. By contrast, 3600 r/min machines could
only become the preferred solution in 60 Hz systems
where the optimum exhaust pressure is above 90 mbar;
such high values are rarely the optimum, even in the
warmest climates.
2 Efficiency and output
2.1 Output limitations
When steam passes through a narrow orifice or noz-
zle, it acquires kinetic energy at the expense of heat
(enthalpy). The expansion of steam beyond the nozzle
causes some of the generated kinetic energy to be
converted to frictional heat. The result is the retention
of some enthalpy, but a loss in pressure and increase
in entropy (loss in availability of energy).
2.1.1 Steam valve pressure drop
An example of this occurs in turbine governor valves,
where the steam expands rapidly after passing through
the valve, converting all its generated kinetic energy
to frictional reheat. This has the effect of maintain-
ing the enthalpy at the valve inlet value, but at the
expense of a large increase in entropy and pressure
drop. This is known as throttling and is used to shed
load. More load is shed by reducing the valve area, so
permitting less mass flow and increasing the pressure
drop across the valve.
2.1.2 Swallowing capacity
Whilst the effect of pressure drop is useful in throttle
valves for reducing load it is a restriction on the
turbine itself. The pressure drop produced at the
nozzles of the turbine inlet and all subsequent fixed
blades restricts the mass flow through the turbine
and hence the power output. A relationship between
mass flow and the fall in pressure across the turbine
was first produced by Stodola in 1927 [4].
qm - K(p! Pi (1.1)
where qm is the mass flow rate, p{ and p 2 are the
inlet and exhaust pressures and K is a constant. The
8
Chapter 1
relationship is known as the Klipse Law'.
The relationship was later modified to include the
effect of inlet temperature:
K
qm = P,2 - P22^ (1.2)
VT:
where Tj is the inlet absolute temperature.
A more comprehensive analysis is given by Traupel [5]
who showed that:
qm = K ( P i / V j P,/P, n + 1/n (1.3)
where V represents the specific volume and n is the
polytropic exponent, related to the efficiency and
isentropic exponent k by:
k - 1 n - 1
X
The Ellipse Law is a useful tool when modelling
the effects of partial load on a turbine. Generally,
sufficient accuracy is obtained by using the version
given in Equation (1.2) where steam is the working
fluid. The Ellipse Law constant K can be obtained
from either design or test data for the turbine, and
knowing the required flow, the pressures at each stage
of the unit can be evaluated successively from the
exhaust end where the conditions remain at constant
condenser levels.
2.2 Moving blades
The moving blades of a turbine stage receive steam
that has been accelerated in a nozzle or fixed blades
and convert its kinetic energy into mechanical work on
the turbine shaft. The impingement of the steam on
the blades produces a change in direction of motion
of the steam which gives rise to a change in momen-
tum and therefore to a force. Ideally, the angle through
which the steam is turned is as near to 180 as
possible. Figure 1.8 shows a typical velocity vector
diagram in relation to the moving blade profile.
The manner by which the transfer of energy occurs
in the moving blades is dependent upon whether the
turbine is of an impulse or reaction type.
2.2.1 Impulse-type turbine
Invented by Professor Rteau, an impulse turbine
converts a proportion of the heat in the steam into
velocity in the fixed blades. There is no heat drop
and therefore no pressure drop across the moving
blades. The mechanical work done in the moving
blades is therefore solely due to the loss of a propor-
tion of the velocity gained in the fixed blades.

FIG. 1.8 Typical blade velocity vector diagram
U = linear velocity of moving blade, m/s
Cj = absolute velocity of steam at moving blade inlet, m/s
C2 = absolute velocity of steam at moving blade outlet, m/s
Wj = steam velocity relative to moving blade at inlet, m/s
W2= steam velocity relative to moving blade at outlet, m/s
a = outlet angle of fixed blade
= outlet angle of moving blade
= inlet angle of moving blade
= inlet angle of steam to following stage
Figure 1.9 shows a typical impulse-type stage velocity
diagram. The relative velocity of the steam leaving the
moving blades (W 2 ) is less than the relative velocity
of the steam entering the moving blades (Wj). This
emphasises the point stressed earlier that conversion
of kinetic energy to mechanical energy takes place in
the moving blades.
X v
- - - '
FIG. 1.9 Impulse-type stage velocity diagram
Efficiency and output
2.2.2 Reaction-type turbine
Strictly speaking such turbines should be termed
'impulse/50% reaction' turbines. The term 50% reaction
was used because only half the stage heat drop occurs
in the fixed blades, the remaining half occurring in the
moving blades. This results in a rise in steam velocity
at the moving blades, creating a thrust or reaction in
the opposite direction to the flow leaving the blades.
Some impulse also occurs in the moving blades due
to the change of direction of the flow but it is not
sufficient to cause a net drop in velocity. The fixed
blades behave in the same way as the impulse turbine
fixed blades by converting heat drop into velocity.
Figure 1.10 shows a typical reaction-type stage
velocity diagram. The relative velocity of the steam
leaving the moving blades (W 2 ) is greater than the
relative velocity of the steam entering the moving
blades (Wj): this is because of the increase in velocity
through the moving blades due to the presence of
the heat drop there.
FIG. 1.10 Reaction-type stage velocity diagram
2.2.3 Effect on turbine design
The different characteristics of impulse and reaction
blading means that there are significant differences
in the turbine designs. Impulse-turbine moving blades
are carried on discs which are either integral with or
attached to a small diameter shaft. The axial thrust
on the rotor is small since there is no pressure drop
across the blades and therefore no pressure forces
across the discs. The presence of a pressure drop
across the moving blades of the reaction turbine makes
discs unviable. Instead, the discs are replaced by a
greatly expanded hollow shaft known as a drum rotor.
2.2.4 Blade efficiency
The efficiency with which the transfer of energy to
the moving blades occurs is essentially dependent
upon the ratio of moving blade velocity and the steam
absolute velocity (U/Cj = ). As one might expect,
the effect of the velocity ratio on efficiency in an
impulse stage is somewhat different to that in a
reaction stage.
9
The steam turbine
Ideal impulse-stage blade efficiency
Work done by moving blades
Blade efficiency (77) =
Available energy
For the simplest case we will assume W 2 = Wj and
= (no friction present) as shown in Fig 1.9.
For the work done WD = mUAV, where m is the
mass flow rate and AV = Wjcos + W 2 cos =
2WJCOS . Also, Wjcos = Cjcos a - U. Therefore
WD = mUAV = 2mU (C,cos a - U).
The available energy to the rotor blades is that
delivered by the fixed blades = (mC 1 ) 2 /2.
Hence = 2mU(C1cos a - Vy^mCrf/l]
= (4U/C!)/(cos a - U/CO
= 4(cos a - 0 VELOCITY RATIO
This describes a parabola and is shown in Fig 1.11.
The maximum value of efficiency may be derived by
differentiating the above expression with respect to
U and equating to zero.
drj/dU = (4/C,)(cos a - 2Q = 0
Therefore rymax = cos 2 a when = cos a / 2 . By
inspection of Fig 1.11, it can be seen this occurs
when the outlet velocity is axial (</> = 90).
Ideal reaction-stage blade efficiency
For an ideal 50% reaction stage the velocity diagram
will appear as Fig 1.11. Since the fixed and moving
blades have the same shape, = a and = , AW
= 2C,(cos a - U). Therefore, WD = mUAV =
mU(2C,cos a - U).
In a reaction stage, there is an enthalpy drop across
the moving blade as well as the fixed; the available
energy is therefore:
mKCj) 2 /^ + (W 2 2 - W^/2]
and since by symmetry W 2 = Cx the available energy
= m(C! 2 - W, 2 )/2 furthermore W ^ = C, 2 + U2 -
2 Q U cos a, therefore, available energy = m/2(C 1 2 -
U2 + 2C1Ucos a)
and hence
= 2U(2C1cos a - U ) / [ ( C 1 ) 2 - U 2 + 2C 1 Ucos a]
= 2(2cosa - 0/(1 - 2 + 2 cos a)
and
^max = 2cos 2 a/l + cos 2a when = cos a
Figure 1.11 shows the diagram efficiency of a reaction
stage in comparison to the impulse stage.
10
Chapter 1
0.6
FIG. 1.11 Ideal efficiency curves
In reality there are a number of factors that affect
blade efficiency and these will be discussed in section
2.3 of this chapter. To achieve the best efficiency for
both designs, reaction turbines require twice the num-
ber of stages of an impulse turbine. This is because
the high velocity ratio (U/Cj) for the reaction turbine
means only a small heat drop can be accommodated
at each stage.
2.2.5 Modern blading designs
Modern turbines are neither purely impulse or re-
action but a combination of both, for the following
reasons. Impulse turbines began employing reaction
of up to 20% at the root of the moving blades in
order to counteract the poor efficiency incurred from
zero or even negative reaction. On the other hand,
reaction at the root of reaction turbines has come
down to as little as 30-40% resulting in the reduction
of the number of stages required and the sustaining
of 50% reaction at the midpoint. Today it may be
more accurate to describe the two designs as:
'Disc and diaphragm' turbine, using low reaction
blading.
Orum-rotor' turbine, using high reaction blading [2].
2.2.6 LP turbine blading
Steam passing through the stages of an LP turbine ex-
pands rapidly and accelerates to a high velocity, often
supersonic. Steam at exit from the cylinder can have
up to 10% moisture content. The flow then is complex
and the design of LP blading reflects this. The blades
are long and have a highly-twisted profile so that the
inlet and outlet angles conform to the three-dimensional
flow characteristics at all blade heights.

When large plant was being designed in the late
1950s and early 1960s there were no analytical tools
available to confidently predict the three-dimensional
nature of the flow in LP cylinders. Today, traverse
tests on these machines reveal the significant radial
components of velocity in the highly divergent flow.
Techniques of through-flow analysis now employed
permit the calculation in detail of the flow around
each individual blade, using modern computational
techniques, and have enabled the complex flow field
in LP cylinders to be analysed effectively. These methods
have been refined and validated by input of data
from flow measurement probes on model turbines in
manufacturers' works and on full-scale machines in
service. The accuracy of prediction of flow is now
high and blading can be designed to obtain the de-
sired three-dimensional flow pattern. Modern final
stage blades are twisted considerably, since the flow
is at its most complex at the exit plane. The cross-
sectional area at the tip is only around 15% of that
at the root (Fig 1.12).
SECTION AT
TIP DIAMETER
SECTION AT
MEAN DIAMETER
FIG. 1.12 LP last stage moving blade
To illustrate the point let us assume, for the
moment, that the final stage is designed to have a
fairly low degree of reaction at the base diameter,
near the periphery of the rotor disc. The fixed and
moving blade profiles are then as shown in Fig 1.13.
Let us now move to the region half-way up the
moving blade, i.e., to the stage mean diameter. Typi-
cally, on modern blading, the tip diameter is about
double the base diameter so at the mean, the blade
pitch (i.e., the circumferential distance between ad-
jacent blades) is about 1.5 times the pitch at the base
diameter. The peripheral speed of the blading is also
1.5 times as great as at the base. If the same moving
blade section was used at the mean diameter as at
the base, the flow passage through the moving blading
would be rendered incorrect by the increased pitch;
whilst the effect of increased blade speed would be
Efficiency and output
MOVING BLADE LEAVING
VELOCITY, DESIRED TO
BE UNIFORMLY AXIAL.
TIP
MEAN
ROOT
FIG. 1.13 LP last stage velocity profiles
to change the direction of the incident velocity of
the steam relative to the moving blade, so the blade
inlet angle would not line up with the direction of
the oncoming steam flow. Furthermore, the leaving
velocity would depart substantially from the axial
direction, thus increasing the leaving loss and reduc-
ing efficiency. This is overcome by changing the shape
of the moving blade section. The outlet angle is re-
duced to restrict the flow area so that a pressure
drop develops across the moving blades, and the
steam leaves the moving blades at a higher speed to
offset the higher peripheral speed and arrive at an
axial leaving velocity. This causes the pressure drop
across the fixed blading to fall in order to maintain
the same pressure drop over the stage as a whole.
There is therefore a substantial degree of reaction at
the mean diameter. Figure 1.13 shows the effect that
increasing reaction from root to tip has on the profile
and on the velocity vectors at root, mean and tip
sections.
The effect of these changes leads to a more order-
ly streamline flow with substantial increase in the
efficiency of LP turbines. The pressure losses after
the last stage moving blades (proportional to the
velocity squared) have also been reduced by achieving
a reduced and substantially uniform velocity over the
11
The steam turbine Chapter 1

annular region immediately downstream of the last

stage blades. A further beneficial effect of reducing
crowding of flow at the blade-tip is that the excessive
steam leakage over the moving blade-tips, which did
no useful work, has been reduced. TIP

2.3 The effect of clearances on real designs

Blade efficiencies are far from ideal and the main
causes of this are aerodynamic factors. The three
most important factors are profile loss, secondary
loss and tip leakage loss. These are of roughly the same
magnitude whilst other sources of aerodynamic loss,
such as windage and lacing wires, are much smaller.

2.3.1 Profile loss

ROOT
This is due to the formation of boundary layers on
the blade surfaces. The fluid in the boundary layer
is subject to viscous forces which slow it down and
increase its entropy relative to the flow in the main-
stream. This results in the steam downstream of the
moving blades having a higher entropy than the steam
upstream. At a given flow rate this would result in a
larger pressure drop across the blades than there would
be in isentropic flow. Since the pressures in a turbine FIG. 1.14 Secondary flows
are fixed, the flow rate becomes less than isentropic
and the entropy of the exhaust steam greater than
isentropic. This means the heat drop obtained across
the stage is less than that for an isentropic expansion
and is therefore less efficient. cumference of the moving blades, joining the tips.
Profile loss is a boundary layer phenomenon and The shroud is sealed against the casing by several
is therefore subject to factors that influence bound- knife edges.
ary layer development. These factors are Reynolds The extent of the leakage depends on whether the
Number, Surface Roughness, Exit Mach Number and turbine is of an impulse or reaction type. Reaction
Trailing Edge Thickness. turbines suffer a pressure drop across the moving
blades, so encouraging flow through the clearances.
Consequently, it is more important for a reaction
2.3.2 Secondary loss turbine to have good tip sealing than it is for an
impulse turbine (Fig 1.15).
This is due to friction on the casing wall and on the
blade root and tip. It is a boundary layer effect and
therefore dependent upon the same considerations as
those for profile loss. Figure 1.14 shows how the
interaction of the boundary layer phenomenon be-
tween tip and casing and between root and shaft,
creates the secondary flows A and B.

FIXED BLADES
2.3.3 Tip leakage
This leakage, as its name implies, arises from steam
passing through the small clearance required between MOVING BLADE

the moving blade tip and the casing, or between the

end of the fixed blades and the rotating shaft. The
problem is overcome to a certain extent through the
use of inter-stage seals. At the blade tips there is a
shroud band which extends around the entire cir- FIG. 1.15 Reaction and impulse turbine interstage sealing

12

2.3.4 Disc windage
This is the friction loss due to the surface friction
created on the discs of an impulse turbine as the disc
rotates in the steam atmosphere. The result is the
forfeiture of shaft power for an increase in kinetic
and heat energy of the steam.
2.3.5 Lacing wires
The long blades of the LP cylinder are stiffened
towards the tip with lacing wires. Their purpose is
to damp vibrations and raise the resonant frequency
of the blade so that it does not coincide with any
exciting frequency present in the turbine. The pre-
sence of these wires, however, produces losses in blade
efficiency because of the passage area that they block.
2.3.6 Other losses
There are further losses which, though not due to
the design of the moving blades, do affect the blade
efficiency. These losses are Wetness loss and Annulus
loss.
2.3.7 Wetness loss
This is incurred by moisture entrained in the low
pressure steam towards the exit plarie of the LP tur-
bine. The loss is a combination of two effects; the
first is the reduction in efficiency due to absorption
of energy by the water droplets and the second is
the erosion of the final moving blades leading-edges.
Erosion occurs because the water droplets travel
far slower than steam, consequently their velocity
relative to the blades is significantly different in di-
rection as well as speed. The result is the impact of
condensation droplets on the blades, in particular at
the tip where the blade rotational velocity is highest.
In the past, the leading edge has been protected
either by an edge-hardening process or by the brazing-
on of stellite, which is a very hard material. More
recently, a better understanding of the mechanism of
droplet erosion has produced means of alleviating
much of the problem. Higher last-stage heat drops
are employed, along with higher mass flow loading.
The result is a higher pressure at the inlet to the
moving blades leading to the reduction in the size
of droplets.
2.3.8 Annulus loss
This occurs when there is a significant amount of
diffusion between two adjacent stages or where wall
cavities occur between the fixed and moving blades.
The extent of the loss is greatly reduced at high an-
nulus area ratios (inlet/outlet) if the expansion of
the steam is controlled by a flared casing wall.
Efficiency and output
2.4 Stage efficiency and the condition line
2.4.1 Efficiency of stage
The efficiency of a turbine stage will always be some-
what less than ideal because of the losses discussed
in Section 2.2 of this chapter. The efficiency of a
well designed stage in a modern HP turbine is about
85-90%. This stage efficiency is obtained in the
following way:
Actual stage heat drop
100% or:
Isentropic stage heat drop
(enthalpy at fixed blade inlet) -
(enthalpy at moving blade outlet) |
x lOOvo
(enthalpy at fixed blade inlet) -
(enthalpy at isentropic moving blade outlet)
This can be more clearly envisaged through the
use of a turbine condition line.
2.4.2 The condition line
The condition line is the locus of the conditions of
the steam as it passes from the stop valve at the inlet
to the HP cylinder, through all the turbine stages to
the exit plane of the final moving blade of the LP
cylinder (Fig 1.16). Ideally the expansion of steam
through the turbine will occur isentropically, that is,
at constant entropy shown by the vertical dotted line.
In reality the friction effects, such as profile and sec-
ondary loss, cause an increase in the heat and entropy
of the steam.
Figure 1.17 shows a section of the condition line
displaying one stage only.
Hj - H 2 represents the isentropic heat drop and
Hj - H3 the actual heat drop. Cylinder efficiency
then is obtained for HP, IP and LP turbines by
considering the heat drop across all the stages of the
cylinder.
2.4.3 Cylinder efficiency
There are two commonly used cylinder efficiency
definitions for HP and IP turbines. The first is the
one described above and is known as the internal
efficiency. The second includes the effect of the pres-
sure drop through the stop and governor valves on
the HP turbine and intercept, stop and governor
valves on the IP turbine and is known as the external
efficiency (Fig 1.18).
It can be seen that, though the pressure drop across
the valves is at constant enthalpy, the change in
entropy affects the moving blade-exit isentropic en-
thalpy so that:
13
The steam turbine Chapter 1

SPECIFIC ENTROPY

FIG. 1.16 Turbine condition line FIG. 1.17 Stage condition line

H, - H 2 x 100% and Both exhaust conditions are displayed in Fig 1.19

(internal) =
H, - H 3 from which the following LP efficiencies can be
obtained:
H, - H 2 x 100%
(external) =
H, HA Total Static/Total Static efficiency (TS/TS)

Hi . _ ^
1 4
H, H, x 100%
For HP and IP steam turbines, the kinetic energy
effects at inlet and exhaust are small and usually
ignored. The kinetic energy at inlet to the LP turbine Total Total/Total Static efficiency (TT/TS)
is also negligible but at the exhaust it is not. As
Hl
a result LP efficiencies are derived by considering ~ Hl x 100%
H, - H 5
either:

The total exhaust conditions which includes Total Total/Total Total efficiency (TT/TT)
the steam kinetic energy and is measurable with a
Hj - H 2
correctly aligned pitot. x 100%
H, H,
The static exhaust conditions which represents
conditions when the kinetic energy has been re- TT/TS efficiencies are usually obtained from heat
duced to zero and is measurable with pressure gauge. rate tests (see Section 3 of this chapter). The exhaust

14

FIG. 1.18 HP and IP cylinder efficiencies
total enthalpy is derived from the measured power
output and the static isentropic enthalpy is normally
taken at condenser pressure. TT/TT efficiencies are
commonly derived from wetness probe (traverse) tests.
The isentropic exhaust enthalpy in this case is at the
blade exit plane total pressure/Traverse tests measure
the wetness and other properties of the steam along
the height of a moving blade. The test is restricted
to the measurement across LP turbine stages where
there is sufficient distance between stages to permit
the free passage of the probe.
2.4.4 Leaving loss
Steam leaves the final stage of an LP turbine with
kinetic energy at the total pressure and enthalpy
shown in Fig 1.19. If the steam could be slowed down
isentropically to zero kinetic energy, it would be at
static pressure and enthalpy. In practice the steam
does slow down after leaving the last blade, but
Efficiency and output
TOTAL P,
STATIC P,
Fl. 1.19 LP cylinder efficiency
through the conversion of its kinetic energy to flow
friction losses. This is a constant enthalpy process
since the steam cannot do work on blades that it
has already left. Consequently the steam comes to
rest at the point X on Fig 1.19.
The heat loss between the total conditions at blade
exit (H2) and the static pressure line (H4) is known as
the leaving loss. The significance leaving loss has on
efficiency can be seen in the following example:
Leaving loss = v e 2 /2 J/kg
where ve is the velocity of steam leaving the last row
of blades. For a 500 MW turbine, the velocity ve is
typically 170 m/s:
1702
thus leaving loss = = 14450 J/kg = 14.45 kJ/kg
This would be responsible for a 2% reduction in LP
cylinder efficiency.
2.4.5 Hood loss
Another loss which occurs between the final stage
and the condenser inlet is a pressure drop known as
15
The steam turbine
hood loss (Fig 1.20). Normally the condenser static
pressure is less than that at blade exit. The steam
expands in the hood which joins the exhaust of the
LP cylinder to the condenser inlet. The expansion
converts enthalpy to kinetic energy which is then
converted back to heat by flow friction losses.
In some cases the hood loss is negative and the
condenser pressure is higher than blade-exit static
conditions. This occurs when the steam kinetic energy
is converted to pressure, a process known as diffusion.
FIG. 1.20 Hood loss
2.4.6 Wetness loss
Figure 1.16 shows how the condition line curves sub-
stantially towards higher entropy values below the
saturation line. The reason for this is the increasing
wetness towards the exhaust in an LP turbine, dis-
cussed in Section 2.2 of this chapter. If the efficiency
is adjusted to exclude the wetness loss, it is called the
dry stage efficiency. It is common practice to assume
that the total wetness loss is proportional to the
mean stage wetness. Baumann suggested that 1% total
wetness loss be assumed per 1% mean stage wetness.
16
Chapter 1
2.4.7 Partial admission
Partial admission gives a loss in turbine efficiency if
the steam supply to the turbine is governed by the
number of nozzles in use. The alternative means of
steam governing is throttle-control, where admission
is over the complete circumference of the first stage,
and control is achieved by reducing the main steam
supply. Partial admission is therefore not experienced
by throttle-controlled turbines.
The problem with reducing steam flow by the use of
nozzle-control is that when the blades are aligned with
a nozzle group they run full of steam, but when they
pass into a blank arc, eddies are produced, so caus-
ing a loss. The first and last blades in line with the
nozzle group will only be partially full of steam and
therefore the flow in them will be considerably dis-
turbed. This is often referred to as 'blade windage',
'blade ventilation' or Vane action' loss.
There is also an additional factor to consider. As
the idle blades come under the influence of the noz-
zles, the steam in the blade passages has to be ac-
celerated rapidly, so causing a loss in power. The
magnitude of this loss increases with the work done
per row, the heat drop, the blade speed, blade width
and height, and the number of steam admissions. This
factor, known as the steam inertia loss, can account
for 15-20% of the total windage loss in a stage with
single arc admission.
In the UK, there are many interconnected units in
service so that each can be kept in efficient operation
at high load. System load reduction is achieved by
shutting down complete units, so that there is no
benefit from the adoption of nozzle control for individual
units. Alternatively, load reduction is accomplished
by reducing the boiler pressure, so that the turbine
valves are maintained wide open over most of the
load range up to 100%. Part-load efficiencies obtained
in this manner are comparable to nozzle-governed
machines, whilst the full-load efficiency is better.
3 T h e r m o d y n a m i c s of t h e s t e a m cycle
3.1 Development of the modern steam cycle
This section will outline a modern steam cycle and
then discuss its development from the basic thermo-
dynamic power cycle. Having developed a modern
steam cycle, the means of assessing its efficiency and
economic implications will be introduced.
3.1.1 The steam cycle
A power station operates using a closed steam power
cycle, where water undergoes various thermodynamic

TO CONDENSER
FIG. 1.21 Simplified steam power plant cycle
processes in a cyclic process. Figure 1.21 is a sim-
plified diagram of a modern steam plant, showing
most of the essential elements.
One half of the cycle consists of the boiler (or heat
source) and its auxiliaries; the other, the turbine
cycle, consists of turbine, generator, condenser, feed
pump and feed water heaters.
Consider first the boiler plant involved in the cycle.
Feedwater is supplied to the boiler drum, where water
is boiled and converted into dry saturated steam.
This dry steam is further superheated in the super-
heater and then fed to the HP cylinder of the tur-
bine. The steam expands in the turbine giving up heat
energy, a high proportion of which is transferred
into work energy on the turbine shaft. The shaft
turns an electrical generator which produces electric
power. Steam leaving the HP cylinder returns to the
boiler, where it is reheated. The reheated steam is
further expanded in the IP and LP cylinders, before
passing into the condenser.
In the condenser, which is a large surface-type heat
exchanger, the steam is condensed by transferring its
latent heat of vaporisation to the cooling water (CW).
Thermodynamics of the steam cycle
LP
HEATERS CONDENSATE
EXTRACTION
PUMP
The main steam, having been condensed in the
condenser, is now in a liquid state at a very low pressure
and approximately saturation temperature. This water
drains from the condenser, where it enters the hotwell.
The water in the hotwell is pumped by the condensate
extraction pump through the low pressure feedheating
system to another pump, the boiler feed pump.
In a modern regenerative cycle, some of the steam
passing through the turbine cylinders is bled from a
series of extraction belts located after selected moving
blade stages and fed to the condensate and feedwater
heaters. This steam is used to heat the condensate in
the LP heaters and the feedwater in the HP heaters,
which are of a surface type.
The boiler feed pump increases the water pressure
to a level in excess of the drum pressure, to provide
for the pressure loss in the boiler circuit and HP
feedheating train. The cycle is now complete.
3.1.2 The Rankine cycle
Having presented a modern practical steam power
cycle, attention will now be given to the development
17
The steam turbine
of such a cycle from a basic vapour power cycle
the Rankine cycle.
For the purpose of illustrating the various power
cycles, the Temperature-Entropy (T-S) and Enthalpy-
Entropy (H-S) diagrams will be used. An understand-
ing of thermodynamic properties Entropy and
Enthalpy is assumed. However, in the context of
the following description of steam cycles, a review of
Entropy will be beneficial.
Entropy is an abstract property of steam which
increases when heat is added and decreases when
heat is rejected. Its magnitude is such that if the
temperature at which heat is transferred is multiplied
by the change in entropy that results in the pro-
cess, then that product equals the amount of heat
transferred.
Now consider the simple Rankine cycle for steam,
shown schematically in Fig 1.22 and on the T-S dia-
gram in Fig 1.23.
Water is pumped into the boiler by the feed pump
(process A-B). In the ideal Rankine cycle, there is no
temperature rise across the pump and points A-B are
coincident. The water is then heated to produce dry
saturated steam (process B-C). The dry saturated
BOILER
((I!
&
FEEDPUMP
FIG. 1.22 Simple Rankine cycle power plant
18
Chapter 1
steam is expanded through the turbine isentropically,
i.e., without loss. This process (C-D) produces work
along the turbine shaft. Finally the wet steam issuing
from the turbine gives up its heat in the condenser and
returns to water (process O-A).
The heat input to the boiler or 'the energy paid
for' is represented by the area EABCDF on the T-S
diagram. The work done by the cycle is represented
by the area within the polygon ABCD. The heat
rejected to the condenser is represented by the rec-
tangle ADFE. In the context of power generation,
Thermal Efficiency is defined as:
Work done = (Energy for generation)/Heat input
(i.e., energy paid for). Hence the Thermal Efficiency
of the Rankine cycle, based upon Fig 1.23, 1.23 is
(Rankine) = Area ABCD/Area EABCDF.
The economic implication of cycle efficiency is a
major factor behind the development of the cycle,
whilst maintaining or reducing capital cost per elec-
trical unit supplied. The other major consideration in
the choice of cycle, is the engineering feasibility of
LL 'WORK
HEAT
REJECTED
CONDENSER

ENTROPY, S F sure and temperature of the steam entering the turbine.
FIG. 1.23 Rankine cycle T-S diagram
various terminal conditions. The effect of changing
terminal conditions is dealt with thoroughly in Section
3.3 of this chapter. However, it is useful to consider
the following criteria when attempting to change
cycle terminal conditions:
FIG. 1.24 Superheat cycle plant
Thermodynamics of the steam cycle
No saturated steam must enter the condenser, i.e.,
point D must be within the vapour boundary (Fig
1.23).
The exhaust wetness in the last turbine stage must
not exceed 12%, i.e., DD' must be less than 12%
of AD'.
Material properties limit the maximum temperature
within the cycle.
3.1.3 Practical cycle using superheat
The first development of the Rankine cycle into a
more practical steam cycle involves raising the pres-
The superheated steam cycle is shown schematically
in Fig 1.24, and on the T-S diagram in Fig 1.25.
In the superheat cycle, the saturated dry steam leaving
the boiler drum is further heated before entering the
turbine. For the same quality of steam entering the
condenser (i.e., same point D), the increase in work done
is shown on Fig 1.25. The quantity of heat rejected to
the condenser is the same as for the Rankine cycle.
Hence, there is an improvement in the cycle efficiency.
19
The steam turbine Chapter 1

The superheat efficiency is greater than the Rankine

efficiency as Area (P + Q)/(P + Q + R) is greater
than Q/(Q + R).
This superheat cycle was chosen to have the same
turbine exhaust conditions as the previous Rankine
SUPERHEAT
REGION
cycle. However, a major advantage of superheating
steam is that for increasing cycle temperature and
ADDITIONAL (AREA A) pressure, the exhaust wetness in the turbine can be
WORK DONE
maintained within the physical limits mentioned earlier.

AREAB

3.1.4 The reheat cycle

AREA C The desire for further increases in cycle conditions and
consequent increases in cycle efficiency, led to the
addition of steam reheat during turbine expansion. The
reheat cycle is shown schematically in Fig 1.26 and
FIG. 1.25 Superheat cycle T-S diagram on the T-S diagram in Fig 1.27.
In the reheat cycle, steam at a given initial tem-
perature is partially expanded through the turbine
Area ABCtD (process C-D) doing some work, and then is fed back
^(Superheat) _
Area EABQDF to the boiler, where it is reheated to about original
temperature (process D-E). The heated steam is then fed
Area (P + Q) through the remainder of the turbine before being
Area (P + Q + R) condensed (process E-F).

BOILER TURBINE

WORK

FIG. 1.26 Reheat cycle plant

20
 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

thermal efficiency from the T-S diagram is *?(Reheat) =

c E (Area ABCDEF)/(Area GABCDEFH).
The reheat cycle benefits from reduced wetness in
the turbine exhaust, but presents an increased capital
outlay in terms of reheater pipework to, from and within
the boiler. The turbine is usually split into HP and
LP cylinders to avoid the high thermal gradients
which would be introduced between stages of reheat
on a single-cylinder machine.

3.1.5 Regenerative feedheating

G ENTROPY, S
FlG. 1.27 Reheat cycle T-S diagram
The reheat cycle incorporates an improvement in
thermal efficiency over the superheat cycle. The
To complete the cycle development of the steam cycle
to that of Fig 1.21, the inclusion of regenerative
H feedheating must be discussed. Physically, a propor-
tion of the steam is bled from various points on the
turbine, which is then condensed to heat feedwater
on its return to the boiler. Figure 1.28 illustrates
the improvement in thermal efficiency for a simple
Rankine cycle (Fig 1.29), by virtue of the bled-steam
releasing all of its heat to the feedwater, and little

BOILER

(111 HEAT IN

FEEDHEATERS

Q>
FEED CONDENSATE
PUMP EXTRACTION PUMP

FIG. 1.28 Rankine cycle with regenerative feedheating

21
The steam turbine Chapter 1

3.2 Cycle efficiency and heat rate

The last section dealt with the theoretical aspects of
steam cycles. An attempt is now made to investigate
the differences between an ideal turbine expansion
(one which is isentropic) and an actual turbine ex-
pansion, leading to expressions for turbine heat rate
/ __BLED^ FH and efficiency.
/ STEM_ FHI @ j The general cycle efficiency was illustrated with the
/ FH j
\ WORK LOST TO CYCLE
use of the T-S diagram; for the turbine alone, effi-
/ FHJ_ * ciency is best discussed using the Mollier or enthalpy-

^v ,
\ HEAT GAIN TO CYCLE entropy (H-S) diagram. A comparison of actual and
isentropic turbine expansions is illustrated in Fig 1.31.
/ j HEAT REJECTED |l|)Pilll The turbine expansion shown is that for an HP cylin-
der, i.e., wholly in the superheat region.
ENTROPY, S

FIG. 1.29 T-S diagram for the Rankine cycle

with feedheating

or none to the condenser. There will be a small

loss of work available from the bled-steam not ex-
panding in the turbine; however, this loss is out-
weighed by the gain in cycle efficiency.
The greater the number of feedheaters installed,
the greater the improvement in thermal efficiency.
However, the incremental gain for each additional
feedheater reduces as the number of heaters increases.
The methods of optimising the number of heaters for
a particular size of plant are covered in Section 4.2.
of this chapter.
The cycle has now been developed to the modern
plant cycle that was first considered. Before going
on to discuss this in detail, the T-S diagram for a
reheat cycle with regenerative feedheating is given in
Fig 1.30.

ENTROPY,
> HP HEATERS

FIG. 1.31 Comparison of isentropic and

actual turbine expansions

3.2.1 Cylinder efficiency

In Section 2, the stage efficiency was defined. Re-
ferring to Fig 1.31, the overall cylinder efficiency is
given by:

HA Hr (Useful work done)

FIG. 1.30 Rankine cycle with reheat and V (cylinder)
regenerative feedheating HA ~~ H B (Isentropic enthalpy change)
22
 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

A real turbine expansion incorporates losses or ir- H, - H 2

HP cylinder
reversibilities corresponding to an increase in entropy. H, - H' 2
It can be seen from the Mollier diagram, that for
an expansion between two pressures, the greater the H3 - H4
IP cylinder
entropy rise (i.e., the greater number of losses), the H 3 - H' 4
less energy there is available for work. Refinement
in turbine design aims to reduce the losses and in- H4 - H5
LP cylinder
crease the available energy. H 4 - H' 5
Now consider the whole turbine expansion process
through HP, IP and LP cylinders on a Mollier dia- In the case of the HP and IP cylinders, these are
gram, as shown in Fig 1.32. external efficiencies because the throttling loss is
included.
One small advantage of the irreversibilities in the
IP and LP turbines is the reduction in exhaust steam

P, p2 p3
wetness, causing less erosion on the final stages of
/ / REHEATER
blading. The condition of the plant can be monitored
1 /PRESSURE LOSS
/ ^ ^ ^ e * T, - INLET AND by measuring the temperature and pressure of the
3 / .>
steam at points between the cylinder, hence deriving
/PRESSURE LOSS, REHEAT TEMPERATURE

1 |p
/4 the steam enthalpy. It should then be possible to
Id
compare cylinder efficiencies with the original design
1 CYLINDER /

values. Turbine blade erosion or steam leakage results

in a reduced cylinder efficiency. In practice, the LP
cylinder exhaust enthalpy is not directly measurable
X4 and it must be derived from an overall heat balance.
HP
CYLINDER
j
[ /'- y
2
^ I 1 LP CYLINDER

3.2.2 Heat rate

The principles of stage and cylinder efficiency having
**0s4P^ been introduced, consideration is now given to the
~\ definition of turbine heat rate. The heat rate is deter-

'* 1 1 \^ X
mined by measurement of various plant operating
parameters. These include:
Je5
\

~^~ !
**>^ j " " ^ - ^ ^ LEAVING / HOOD LOSSES Flow rate, using a differential pressure device.
1 ^r*^^.^

Sb' Enthalpy, based on calibrated pressure and tem-

yt
perature measurement.
Electric power, based on calibrated voltage and
ACTUAL PROCESS 12345
current measurements.
ISENTROPIC PROCESS 12'34'5'
P, -HP INLET PRESSURE
P2 - HP EXHAUST PRESSURE
P3- IP INLET PRESSURE
P4 - LP INLET PRESSURE
P5 - CONDENSER PRESSURE
Consider a steam cycle with single reheat and re-
generative feedheating, shown in Fig 1.33.

The heat rate is defined by:

FIG. 1.32 Mollier chart for actual turbine expansion
Heat input from boiler (kJ/h)
HEAT RATE =
Electrical output from generator (kW)
Using measurements around the cycle from Fig 1.33
The actual turbine expansion line includes the ma-
jor losses encountered: HP throttling loss through M^H, - H f ) + M3(H3 - H2)
the governor valve and associated pipework; reheater HEAT RATE = ^ ^ kJ/kWh
pressure loss through pipework (to, within and from
the boiler); the leaving and hood losses at the last
The corresponding thermal efficiency is given by:
stage of the LP turbine (see Section 2 of this chapter).
From Fig 1.32 it is possible to derive the following 3600 (kW)
x 100%
cylinder efficiencies: HEAT RATE (kJ/s)
23
The steam turbine Chapter 1

M 1 - FLOW RATE OF SUPERHEATED STEAM FROM BOILER (kg/h)

H, - ENTHALPY OF SUPERHEATED STEAM BASED UPON PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE T., (kJ/kg)
P g - ELECTRICAL POWER AT THE GENERATOR TERMINALS ( kW)

FIG. 1.33 Cycle used for derivation of heat rate

A means of measuring cycle heat rate having been

defined, consideration can now be given to varia-
tions between the design heat rates quoted by the
turbine manufacturers and the heat rates achieved
in operation.
First, consider the variation of the hourly heat
consumed by the turbine-generator with the load
produced. This characteristic is known as Willans
line (Fig 1.34), and is based on turbine test runs at
100%, 80%, 60% and 40% load. It is British practice
to specify performance and test at these four loads.
A linear relationship exists and extrapolation to the
no-load output condition reveals a no-load heat con-
sumption of about 3% of the full-load value. The
variation in heat rate with load (Fig 1.35) shows the
high thermal cost of operating plant on part-load.
The optimum heat rate (i.e., the minimum condition)
should correspond to the design output (100% load).
NO LOAD HEAT CONSUMPTION
The major contributory loss comes from the throttling -l 1

loss across the turbine governor valves. The effects LOAD, o/oMCR
of throttling are discussed later in this chapter.
Operating the unit at part-load is one of the
'external' factors preventing the achievement of the FIG. 1.34 Willans line for a typical 660 MW unit
design heat rate. The other major external factor,
which increases average heat rate, is the need to start
the unit as required by the operating regime. During Plant operating losses cause the other major in-
start-up, the unit is unloaded and additional works crease in design heat rate. In practice, turbine heat
power is needed for start-up systems. rates increase due to:
24

FIG. 1.35 Variation of heat rate with load for a typical
660 MW unit (throttle governed)
Deterioration of cylinder clearances.
Deterioration in feedheating efficiency.
Poor control of superheat and reheat temperature,
(particularly in older designs).
These factors become more prevalent as the plant
ages.
3.3 Terminal conditions
In this section, the effects of certain terminal con-
ditions of the steam cycle are considered in detail.
The impact on efficiency is evaluated and the con-
straints faced by the designer are discussed.
3.3.1 Effect of steam inlet conditions
Firstly, consider the effect of steam inlet conditions
to the turbine. The temperature of the steam supplied
to the turbine stop valve is a major factor in the
cycle efficiency and the efficiency of the turbine in
converting available energy into work. The effect of
increasing the steam inlet temperature for a turbine
expanding between set pressures is shown on the
Mollier diagram (Fig 1.36). The expansion process
shown is for a single-cylinder turbine with no increase
Thermodynamics of the steam cycle
ENTROPY, S
FIG. 1.36 The effect of increasing temperature
on available energy
As temperature is increased from Tj to T 3 the available
energy increases, as the slope of the constant pressure line
is greater than the condenser pressure line, i.e.,
A3B3 > A 1 B 1
in entropy. As the temperature is increased from Tj
to T 3 , the available energy increases, since A3B3 >
AiBp
Now consider the effect of increasing the inlet steam
pressure at a constant temperature. The additional
available energy is shown on Fig 1.37. The increase in
available energy is less than that for temperature for
the same entropy change. The significant advantage
of increasing both temperature and pressure is illus-
trated on Fig 1.38.
There are limitations to the selection of inlet steam
conditions. As mentioned in the previous section
there are criteria which affect the choice of inlet
conditions:
Maximum turbine exhaust wetness 12%.
No dry steam to enter the condenser.
Metallurgical constraints on the choice of turbine
and boiler materials.
The metallurgical limit on temperature is 565C for
coal-fired plant brought into service with the CEGB
25
The steam turbine Chapter 1

ENTROPY, S ENTROPY, S

FIG. 1.37 The effect of increasing pressure on FIG. 1.38 The effect of increasing both pressure and
available energy temperature upon available energy
As pressure increases from Pj to P3 the available energy
increases, as the slope of the condenser pressure line is
greater than the temperature line, i.e., A 3 B 3 > A i B j

over the years 1960 to 1986. This limit reflects

a compromise between ease of manufacture, creep
strength and cost. The practice on CEGB 500 MW
and 660 MW sub-critical units has been to select a
pressure of 159 bar at the turbine stop valve.

3.3.2 Effect of reheat conditions

Now consider the selection of reheat conditions for
a single reheat cycle. Having established the steam
conditions at entry to the HP turbine, there are several
design compromises involved in the choice of reheat
pressure and temperature. First, consider the boundary
conditions. The HP cylinder exhaust steam must be
sufficiently superheated to avoid any wetness in the
cold reheat pipework, which would cause severe ero-
sion. As in the previous section, the exhaust steam
from the LP cylinder must be wet, but not greater
than 12% wetness. These boundaries are illustrated,
together with the effects of changing pressure, on
the Mollier diagram (Fig 1.39). Now consider the
effect of changing reheat temperature for a constant ENTROPY, S
pressure drop in the HP cylinder (Fig 1.40). The
effect of reducing the pressure or of raising the
temperature of the reheat steam is to reduce LP FIG. 1.39 Boundary conditions for a reheat line and the
exhaust wetness. effect of changing pressure at constant temperature

26
 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

has been mentioned in previous sections and is now

discussed in more detail. Simply, the effect of pres-
sure loss anywhere in the steam path causes a loss
in cycle efficiency by reducing the energy available for
conversion into work.
Valve gear at the inlet to the HP and IP turbines
is used to control the inlet mass flow and hence the
load on the machine by a throttling process. Figure
1.41 shows a Mollier diagram comparing the condition
lines of a reheat turbine at full load with all the
valves wide open and one at part load, where the load
has been reduced by 40% by throttling on the inlet
valves to the HP turbine. Other pressure losses are
neglected. The throttling effect is to reduce the inlet
pressure by a constant enthalpy process (represented
by horizontal line AB). The result is a loss in en-
tropy and also a slight fall in temperature with some
reduction in the available heat drop. This accounts
for a small loss in efficiency. However, the major
flow reduction which results is the main reason for
the reduction of work done in the HP, IP and LP
cylinders. In this example, the condenser pressure is
assumed to remain constant and the pressure drop

ENTROPY, S

FIG. 1.40 The effect of variation in reheat temperature

Although reducing LP exhaust wetness is desirable,

too high a temperature could lead to some diffi-
culties with materials. The common practice has been
to reheat to the original superheat steam condition,
i.e., 565C.
Another important factor in the design of the re-
heater is the effect of pressure losses in the pipework.
The pressure loss results from a throttling effect which
reduces the available energy for work (to be discussed
later in this section). The pressure at which steam is
reheated is about 25% of the stop valve condition,
representing approximately a fourfold increase in
volume. This necessitates the use of increased pipe
sizes which are expensive and inflexible. The plant
designer has to weigh the merit of using larger pipes,
or pipe runs in parallel, versus the improvement in
cycle efficiency. The usual pressure drop is 7.5 to
10% of the HP cylinder exhaust pressure. Finally,
constraints will exist in the boiler on the range of
conditions attainable.
ENTROPY, S

3.3.3 Effect of pressure loss in pipework and

valves FIG. 1.41 Loss of available energy due to throttling
The effect of pressure loss in pipework and valves the governor valve

27
The steam turbine Chapter 1

across the turbine cylinders is controlled by the Ellipse

law relationship described in Section 2.1.2 of this
chapter.
Pressure losses along pipe runs can be calculated
using equations and charts [6]. Pressure loss is associated
with pipe diameter, of surface roughness, steam flow rate
and the pipe geometry (number of bends, expansions,
contractions). Simply reducing piping losses by re-
designing pipe runs, or by adding to the number of
pipes, may increase the capital cost of the plant in
excess of the benefit gained in running costs.

3.3.4 Effect of final feed temperatures

In the previous section, the concept of regenerative
feedheating was introduced as a means of improving
cycle efficiency. The thermodynamic optimum final
feed temperature for Rankine cycle plant is, by defini-
tion, that which gives the highest cycle efficiency.
However, raising the final feed temperature would
reduce the required size of the boiler conomiser
surface. In order to avoid an increase in the stack
temperature, the air heater would have to be increased
in size, and the cost of this would exceed any sav-
ing on the conomiser. Consequently the economic
optimum feed temperature is somewhat lower than
the thermodynamic optimum.
Raising the final feed temperature also has impli-
cations for the design of the HP turbine. Past prac-
tice has been to use bled-steam from the HP turbine
exhaust. The saturation temperature of the bled-steam
controls the maximum feed temperature obtainable.
To provide steam at a higher pressure with a higher
saturation temperature, requires steam to be bled
from an intermediate point on the HP cylinder. This
is an additional complication and cost to the turbine
plant. Despite the increases in capital cost, the benefit
from improved cycle efficiency is such that the addi-
tional heater is worth including.
The design of the Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor
(AGR) has resulted in limitations on the final feed
temperature. The feed train is curtailed in order to
limit the final feed temperature to about 150C. This
limitation is imposed because of the allowable tem-
peratures in the gas cooling circuit.
3.3.5 Effect of exhaust pressure
The efficiency of the cycle is strongly influenced
by the LP turbine exhaust pressure. The back pres-
sure of the condenser sets the saturation temperature
at which the expanded steam rejects its latent heat
of vaporisation to the cooling water. Consequently,
changes in back pressure affect the temperature of
cycle heat rejection. The effect of a change in con-
denser saturation temperature on the cycle work done
is shown on a T-S diagram in Fig 1.42. Generally,
a low exhaust pressure is sought as it improves cycle
efficiency.
28
FIG. 1.42 The effect of condenser saturation temperature
on cycle work done
However, there are several plant constraints affect-
ing the selection design exhaust pressure. Consider
the effect of lowering the exhaust pressure on the tur-
bine condition line on the Mollier diagram (Fig 1.43).
Expansion to a lower pressure results in increased
wetness, and increased specific volume at the exhaust.
The increase in exhaust wetness tends to increase
the erosion of the last-stage blades. However, more
significant is the effect of increased specific volume,
implying the need for a higher volume flow rate.
The volume flow rate through the condenser is the
product of the mean steam axial velocity and the
annular exhaust area. The annular exhaust area is
limited by the maximum length of LP blade. At 3000
r/min, the centrifugal forces on the long blades be-
come very high and there is a limit to the mechani-
cal stress which blade roots can sustain. Hence, having
established a maximum annular area, the increase in
volume flow rate must be accommodated by an in-
crease in exit velocity. Steam issuing from the last
stage of the turbine with high residual velocity re-
presents a loss of kinetic energy. This kinetic energy
performs no useful work on the turbine blades and
therefore is a loss of available energy, known as the
'leaving loss\ and varies with the square of velocity.
The other loss associated with the turbine exhaust is
the 'hood loss\ which defines the hydraulic pressure
loss between the last row of moving blades and the
condenser; this also varies with the square of the
same velocity.

ENTROPY, S
FIG. 1.43 The effect of exhaust pressure on turbine
expansion
The sizing of the LP turbine exhaust area affects
the overall design of machine, in particular the ther-
mal design of the condenser (see Chapter 3). The
requirement to provide a certain volume flow rate
affects the configuration of the LP cylinders since
1, 2, 3 or even 4 double-flow LP cylinders may be
operated in parallel to give the desired flow rate.
The number and size of the chosen arrangement of
LP turbines affects many other areas of design the
rotor dynamics; the plant arrangement; size of civil
structures.
Having introduced all factors against decreasing
exhaust pressure, the design compromise is once more
between improvements in cycle efficiency versus the
increase in plant complexity and therefore reliability
and cost. Finally, a major factor affecting the choice
of exhaust pressure is the ambient temperature at
which the CW can reject heat. This factor seasonally
effects the thermal efficiency of the plant.
3.4 Superheat cycle
This section deals with the superheated steam cycle
Thermodynamics of the steam cycle
and its development to the current reheat cycle used
in CEGB fossil-fuel and AGR power stations.
3.4.1 Steam conditions
The effects of increasing turbine stop valve pressure
and temperature and the effect of reheat have been
discussed in regard to cycle efficiency in Section 3.3
of this chapter.
It is also relevant to consider the major influences
on turbine efficiency. The most important factor in
turbine efficiency is blade length. Generally, an in-
crease in blade lengths implies reduced leakage losses
and secondary losses [5,7].
An increase in steam pressure at a given steam flow
reduces the volumetric steam flow and hence reduces
blade length. Increased steam pressure also requires
thicker casing walls and larger horizontal joint flanges
and joint bolts. It also implies thicker steam pipe
walls which require additional length to obtain the
required flexibility. These difficulties are only partly
mitigated by the reduction in casing size and pipe
diameter made possible by the smaller volume flow.
Another important effect of increased steam pres-
sure is the requirement of increased pumping power
to raise the feed water to the higher pressure.
It follows that increases in steam pressure are only
a benefit in practice when associated with an increase
in unit size and/or an increase in steam temperature.
An increase in steam temperature has the effect of
increasing the specific volume and hence blade length
and therefore tends to increase turbine efficiency with-
out any increase in unit size. There are practical
disadvantages, which include the required increase in
casing size and pipe diameter, and increased thermal
stresses especially when starting and loading.
The influence of the combined effects of tem-
perature and pressure changes and turbine efficiency
considerations on unit size can be illustrated by a
study of the 'standard' steam conditions specified by
the BEA and CEGB from 1945 onwards.
Table 1.1 has been simplified by the exclusion of
a number of units of close to the 'standard' 60 MW
size, some of which employed reheat. It shows the
general trend.
There is a progressive increase in unit size accom-
panied by a series of step increases of pressure and
temperature, with a few notable exceptions. The main
exceptions are the two 375 MW supercritical units
for Drakelow C, commissioned in 1967-68 and the
two 550 MW cross-compound units for Thorpe Marsh,
commissioned in 1963-65. These units could be said
to have been ordered before their time and have not
been followed by further development.
The steam temperatures can be seen to reach a
plateau of 538C and 565C. The 538C limit applies
to oil-fired units to avoid the use of austenitic ma-
terials in the boiler. These suffer heavy corrosion due
to the sodium and vanadium content of the fuel oil.
29
The steam turbine Chapter 1

1.1
The influence of the combined effects of oerature and pressure changes on unit size

Year TSV TSV Reheat Reheat

Station Rating (fully pressure temp EV EV
(typical) (MW) commissioned) (bar) (C) pressure temp
(bar) (C)

Blackwall 30 45-58 42.4 454

Point
Uskmouth 60 45-60 63.1 482
Castle 100 56-69 104.4 566
Donnington
Ferrybridge B 100 57-63 104.4 528 25 528
Blythe A 120 59-63 104.4 538 25 538
High Marnham 200 59-63 160 565 29 538
Blythe B 275 62-63 160 566 40 566
Thorpe Marsh 550 63-65 160 566 40 566
West Thurrock 300 64-66 160 566 41 566
Tilbury B 350 65-72 160 566 40 566
Drakelow C 375 67-68 242 593 47 566
West Burton 500 67-73 160 566 26 566
Grain 660 74 160 538 26 538

The 565C limit for coal-fired plant is to avoid at the blading.

increasing costs due to the extended use of austenitic
materials to avoid creep failure. Creep is the phe-
nomenon of slow progressive yielding which occurs
at high temperature. In the turbine, it leads to re-
duced clearances and increased stress levels over a
period of time, and in the boiler (where temperatures
are higher) to time-dependent tube failures.
Current worldwide practice for modern large units
is to limit steam temperatures to the 540C level.
3.4.2 Reheat
Table 1.1 also shows the general adoption of reheat
for all units over 100 MW. It has been shown earlier
in this chapter that reheat allows a closer approach
to the ideal Carnot cycle. Its adoption has cost and
design significance. There is, of course, the require-
ment of additional piping to and from the boiler,
the latter requiring high temperature with larger bore
size than the HP steam pipes. The higher volume
flow of the reheated steam requires the IP turbine
to have a larger rotor diameter and longer blades
than the HP turbine. Sometimes there is a choice
between increased outlet blade angle and double flow
in the IP cylinder, resolved in the case of CEGB 500
and 660 MW units by using double flow.
To reduce creep in the high temperature regions,
it is common to admit a supply of lower temperature
cooling steam to the space between the inlet fixed
blades and rotor. This steam tends to flow through
the balance holes in the discs and the diaphragm
glands, thus shielding the rotor from the hotter steam
30
The IP turbine casing has to provide openings
large enough to pass the exhaust steam on to the
LP turbine at moderate velocities without unduly
reducing its stiffness. The casing inlet end must be
carefully designed to reduce thermal stress.
The pipework to and from the reheater and in the
reheater section of the boiler represents a significant
storage volume. It is therefore necessary to supply
additional valves to protect the turbine from over-
speeding in the event of a sudden loss of load. As in
the HP turbine, these valves must be in series-pairs
to provide back-up in the event of one valve failing
to close when required. They operate at the same high
temperature but must be considerably larger than the
HP valves. To handle the flow, up to four sets of
valves may be provided.
3.4.3 Double reheat
A further approach to the Rankine cycle can be made
by using additional stages of reheat. A second stage
of reheat involves similar additional cost and design
considerations to those already described for single
reheat. There are obviously greater difficulties in
matching steam and metal temperatures during start-
ing and load changes.
Figure 1.44 shows a simplified Mollier diagram for
a single and double reheat supercritical cycle, and
Fig 1.45 shows the T-S diagram. In practice a second
stage of reheat is only normally justifiable with a
supercritical cycle.
 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

into superheated steam without boiling in the accepted

sense. The latent heat of vaporisation is zero and,
since the densities of the water and steam are the
same, there is no well defined water-to-steam transi-
tion interface.
A brief explanation from physical data source may
be helpful. Water at high temperature consists of
clusters of molecules held together by strong potential
binding forces of short duration. These clusters per-
mit angular or linear displacement which gives rise
to the liquid characteristics.
Evaporation of a liquid into a gaseous space nor-
mally consists, at the molecular level, of a surface
molecule in a liquid cluster acquiring sufficient thermal
(and thus kinetic) energy to overcome the potential
binding forces of its neighbouring molecules to break
away clear of the cluster and leave the surface of the
liquid to enter the gaseous space. The binding forces
between the surface molecule and molecules well below
the surface are not significant as potential forces drop
off extremely rapidly with increasing distance. Liquids
subjected to high pressures logically require higher
thermal energy, and therefore higher temperature, for
the surface molecule to break free of the molecular
cluster. At supercritical pressures, the potential forces
exerted between molecules in a molecular cluster are
too large to be overcome by increases in thermal
ENTROPY, S
energy and hence no surface molecules escape from
the molecular clusters. However, as the supercritical
FIG. 1.44 Single and double reheat cycles H-S diagram pressure fluid undergoes a temperature rise, the aver-
age size of its clusters diminishes. With further in-
creases in fluid temperature, the molecular clusters are
reduced to isolated molecules and all traces of any
form of crystalline structure has disappeared. Thus
the supercritical pressure fluid acquires its steam-like
qualities not by evaporation of isolated surface mole-
cules, but rather by the gradual diminution in the
number of molecules contained within molecular
clusters.
A double-reheat supercritical cycle can show ap-
proximately a 3.9% efficiency advantage over a single
reheat subcritical cycle (242 bar/540C/540C compared
with 166 bar/540C/540C).
For single-reheat, the reheat pressure is commonly
about 25% of the initial pressure while for double-
reheat the first reheat is usually at about 30% and the
second 10% or less. There are no known proposals
for triple-reheat, and it is most unlikely that the
additional cost could be justified. There is also the
difficulty of designing an LP turbine with the high
inlet temperature required. This is already about 370C
ENTROPY. S
for double-reheat machines.
FIG. 1.45 Single and double reheat cycles T-S diagram

3.4.4 CEGB cycles

It is instructive to consider some recent and current
The critical pressure of steam CEGB design cycles by comparing their Mollier diagrams
At 221.1 bar, water heated to 374C turns directly (Fig 1.46), the selected cycles are:
31
The steam turbine Chapter 1

(b) 660 MW AGR 160 bar/530C reheating to 538C at

37.4 bar (23.3% TSV) with 41 mbar condenser
pressure.
(c) New subcritical coal-fired 176 bar/565C reheating
to 565C at 50 bar (20.8% TSV) with 57 mbar
condenser pressure.
(d) New supercritical coal-fired 240 bar/565C re-
heating to 565C at 60 bar (25.0% TSV) with
57 mbar condenser pressure.

In this example, single-reheat has been selected for

the supercritical cycle. The advantages and disadvantages
of double-reheat require careful consideration. All CEGB
coal or oil-fired plant is designed to be capable of
'two-shifting' for a significant part of its life. It is
clearly more difficult to achieve this kind of flexibility
with double-reheat and the type of plant eventually
built will need to take these factors into account.
The two 660 MW cycles are typical of the latest
units in service, although the coal-fired 660 MW units
use 565C TSV and reheat temperatures.
Both the AGR and the oil-fired 660 MW units use
a back pressure boiler feed pump turbine, supplied
with steam from the HP exhaust and returning it to
the IP/LP crossover point.
The oil-fired unit has bled-steam extractions at HP
exhaust, at BFPT midpoint, at BFPT/IP turbine ex-
haust and from three positions in the LP turbine.
The AGR requires cooler feedwater and takes bled-
steam from the BFPT/IP exhaust and from four posi-
tions in the LP turbine.
The new large coal-fired units will use motor-driven
feed pumps. They can take advantage of higher final
feed temperature and the economics justify bled-steam
ENTROPY, S
extraction from the HP turbines at approximately 70-76
(1)660MWOIL
(2) 660MW AGR
(3) NEW COAL SUBCRITICAL
bar. They also have bled-steam extraction from HP
(4) NEW COAL SUPERCRITICAL exhaust, IP exhaust and four stages from the LP
turbine.
FIG. 1.46 Condition lines for current CEGB designs The diagram shows how much larger are the IP
and LP heat drops than those of the HP turbines.
It is also notable how close together are the IP and
(a) 660 MW oil-fired with BFP turbine. LP expansion lines for all four examples. The HP
expansion line for the subcritical coal-fired machine
(b) 660 MW AGR with BFP turbine. is not very different from that for the two 660 MW
units, although its higher pressures will mean reduced
(c) New subcritical coal-fired with motor-driven feed specific volumes throughout. The new supercritical unit
pump. has larger HP and IP heat drop than the subcritical
machine. This implies additional available work but
(d) New supercritical coal-fired with motor-driven feed this is bought at the price of increased feed pump
pump. power.
The feed pump power is an important part of the
The steam conditions for these cycles are summarised cycle selection.
below: The low back pressure of the AGR is clearly ap-
parent. This pressure is largely site-dependent and is
(a) 660 MW oil-fired 160 bar/538C reheating to a function of the mean year-round cooling water
538C at 39 bar (24.4% TSV) with 61 mbar con- temperature. The oil-fired 660 MW unit is located
denser pressure. on the Thames where the water temperature is quite
32

high. The two new coal units assume tower cooling,
while the AGR is at a coastal site with cold water.
3.4.5 Turbine designs
It is now proposed to consider these cycles from the
viewpoint of turbine cylinder designs. The 660 MW
fossil fuel and the 660 MW AGR turbines are quite
similar. The use of the same steam conditions and
rating clearly implies this. In fact, the AGR machine
has about 15% less HP steam flow and 5% more
IP steam flow for similar power output due to its
reduced feedheating requirement. It also has about
7% greater LP turbine inlet steam flow.
These differences are accommodated by small blade
height or pressure level changes. In the cases chosen,
there is an apparent contradiction in that LP inlet
pressure for the oil-fired unit is lower, while its re-
heater pressure is higher. This arises from the fact
that this machine uses a four-flow LP turbine with
only five stages while the AGR uses six flows with
six stages. The IP turbines are also rather different.
The choice of IP exhaust/LP inlet pressure is en-
tirely a matter for the turbine designer. It is the point
where steam passes from the two flows of the IP
turbine to the four or six flows of the LP. A low
pressure results in large crossover pipework and long
last-stage IP blading, while a high pressure results
in short LP inlet blading and higher LP inlet tem-
perature. The selected pressure represents a com-
promise between these considerations and must give
heat drops in the IP and LP turbine appropriate to
the number of stages and the stage diameters required.
With modern designs, an effort is made to select
pressures to permit the use of standard turbine mod-
ules. This leads to increased reliability and reduced
manufacturing costs and also reduces the number of
spares required notably spare rotors.
Turning now to the new coal-fired proposals, it
must be remembered that, although the condition lines
are similar, these turbines will be very different from
the 660 MW units because they will be designed for
something of the order of 30% increase in power
output. They will also embody the most recent blading
and a whole range of detail design improvements.
It is noticeable how little difference there appears
between the subcritical and supercritical condition
lines for the IP and LP sections. It should be added
that the reheater pressures quoted are approximate
and are not fully optmised values.
The IP exhaust/LP inlet 'crossover' pipework merits
comment. This pipework handles low pressure steam
and is of large diameter to minimise pressure losses.
The pipework has separate branches where the IP
exhaust steam enters and where the LP inlet steam
leaves. It is always provided with a number of flexible
sections to allow for pipe/casing expansion differ-
entials. It is sometimes installed above, and sometimes
Thermodynamics of the steam cycle
below, the turbine centreline. The 'above centreline'
arrangement requires removal of the pipework before
the LP turbine can be opened for inspection. The
'below centreline' location has sometimes been thought
to be responsible for some turbine misalignment, due
to heat transmission to bearing pedestals and casings.
The IP exhaust is considered to be the most suit-
able point for connection to the de-aerator. This is a
direct contact heater which is vented to the condenser
and designed to remove air from the feedwater before
it enters the main feed pumps. It is always combined
with a large capacity storage vessel and elevated to
provide a static head to the main feed pump suction.
The CEGB has used reheat cycles for all power
station turbines above 100 MW rating. This is not
true worldwide. In some countries there is a need for
large units operating on a simple non-reheat cycle for
peak-load lopping duty. These machines run for only
a few hours a year, so maximum efficiency is not
important, but they must be able to run-up to full-
load quickly and be inexpensive.
For this class of turbine, the feedheating cycle is
kept as simple as possible and the expense and com-
plication of reheating is not economic. A typical
machine of this type would deliver 280 MW from a
single-casing condensing turbine in double-flow.
3.5 W e t steam cycle
The wet steam cycle is mainly associated with the
evolution of nuclear power. Nuclear power has been
developed mainly on conventional lines, by using the
nuclear fission reaction as a source of heat for the
steam cycle. In this section, discussion will be con-
centrated upon the thermodynamic and economic
aspects of nuclear-powered plants, in particular those
aspects relating to the steam cycle for a Pressurised
Water Reactor (PWR).
3.5.1 The PWR steam cycle
The PWR power plant features three principal heat
transfer processes. In the primary circuit, fuel is
irradiated, liberating heat which is transferred to a
secondary steam cycle. In a nuclear power station
the plant performing this function is known as the
Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS). In the second
cycle, the steam generated is expanded to drive tur-
bines which generate electrical power. Finally heat is
rejected to the Cooling Water (CW) in the condenser
this is the third heat transfer process. The PWR
general arrangement is shown in Fig 1.47.
The NSSS consists of the reactor, the reactor coolant
system (RCS) and a number of auxiliary and safety
systems. The RCS consists of the reactor within its
pressure vessel and three or four cooling loops con-
necting the reactor to the primary/secondary heat
33
The steam turbine Chapter 1

CONDENSATE
EXTRACTION
PUMP

SECONDARY CIRCUIT

FIG. 1.47 PWR power cycle

exchangers (steam generators). The reactor vessel and

cooling loops are filled with deminer alised water, which L Tmax (SATURATION)

2
is pumped around the primary circuit. In this system, ^ f IPRIMARY CIRCUIT
boiling within the reactor is suppressed by maintain- -WATER

ing coolant water pressure in excess of the saturation j^

pressure corresponding to the coolant temperature at
^ PINCH POINT

outlet from the reactor. The pressure is controlled

by a control system and a surge tank, known as the
pressuriser, connected to one of the cooling loops.
rIT 'SECONDARY CIRCl
| WATER/STEAM

!/
The secondary circuit is of major interest to this
discussion. The feedwater enters the steam generator,
where its temperature increases up to its saturation
temperature. At the saturation temperature, the water "^
Q=mH

changes state to steam which leaves the steam genera-
tor slightly wet. The heat exchange process for both
cycles is shown on a Temperature-Enthalpy (T-H) 1
diagram (Fig 1.48). MASS FLOW X SPECIFIC ENTHALPY, m x H

The wet steam produced in the steam generator is

of a lower quality than the superheated steam con-
ditions from both fossil-fired and AGR-powered plant.
However, there are limitations to the steam conditions
attainable. On the primary side, the maximum tem-
perature is restricted by the desirability of avoiding
nucleate boiling in the reactor core, as heat transfer
coefficients for steam are considerably lower than
that for water. Consequently the primary circuit outlet
temperature, T 2 , is less than the saturation value for
that pressure. Having established the primary circuit
conditions, the steam generator and secondary circuit
34
FIG. 1.48 Temperature plotted against (mass flow x
specific enthalpy) for the primary and secondary circuits
in the steam generator of a PWR
Note that the x-axis, is the product of mass flow and
specific enthalpy of the two fluids. Aqh must be the
same for both processes as it equals the quantity of
heat transferred
steam conditions are designed accordingly. The feedwater
is heated and the resulting steam/water mixture passes
through moisture separators, which improve the steam
 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

quality by reducing wetness. The incorporation of a

superheating surface would necessitate an unwarranted
complication in the design of the steam generator. The
design practice is to reduce the 'pinch point' to a
minimum (see Fig 1.48) whilst optimising steam gen-
erator cost against improvements in overall cycle
efficiency.
Consider now the cycle for the turbine-generator
(Fig 1.47). The slightly wet steam leaves the steam
generator, passes through governor valves and enters
the HP turbine. The steam is expanded through the
HP turbine where its pressure reduces and its wetness
increases. The wet steam then passes through a mois-
ture separator which returns the steam to a near-dry
saturated state. The steam is then reheated in two
stages. The first reheat process uses steam bled from
a tapping on the HP cylinder, the second uses live
steam taken upstream of the governor valves. The
steam leaving the reheaters is in a superheated con-
dition before entering the LP turbine where it is
expanded to a low pressure. The low pressure steam
is condensed in the condenser, rejecting heat to the FIG. 1.49 Expansion of steam from initial conditions
without reheat or moisture separation
CW. The condensate is pumped through several stages
of LP heaters to the de-aerator.
The de-aerator is a large direct contact feedheater
which provides for oxygen removal, a buffer store
of feedwater and sufficient gravity head to overcome This expansion results in steam at the later stages
the net positive suction head of the boiler feed pump. with a moisture content of 25%. A high moisture
The feedwater is pumped through several stages of content is intolerable as it results in blade erosion and
HP heaters before return to the steam generator. stage efficiency losses. The undesirability of blade
erosion was discussed earlier in this chapter. As steam
is expanded through the turbine it starts to condense
in the wet region along the Wilson line' which
3.5.2 Cycle considerations corresponds to a wetness factor of 3-4% (see Fig
Consider now the effects of the various processes 1.50). Above the Wilson line, the steam behaves as
upon the thermodynamics and economics of the wet dry steam; below the line, wetness becomes apparent
steam cycle. Earlier it was concluded that the inclu- in the turbine expansion. Water droplets entrained in
sion of a superheating surface within the steam gen- the steam flow only accelerate to a small proportion
erator was economically impractical. However, it is of the dry steam velocity as they pass through the
desirable to reduce the steam wetness as far as possi- fixed blades. The resultant mist has a velocity which
ble with the moisture separating equipment within does not suit the inlet velocity triangle of the moving
the steam generator. The Westinghouse four-loop 3425 blade (Section 1.2.2 of this chapter), neither in mag-
MW (thermal) design, which has been adapted for the nitude nor direction. As the mist progresses through
UK's first PWR station at Size well, provides steam to the turbine, the droplets migrate toward the blade
the turbine whose full load conditions are nominally: tips by virtue of centripetal inertia. The resultant effect
of the wet steam is a mechanical drag corresponding
Pressure = 66.6 bar to a 1% cylinder loss for every 1% wetness.
The effects of a high moisture content are un-
Temperature = 282C attractive from the viewpoints of turbine efficiency
and operational economics. The cycle described earlier
Maximum wetness factor = 0.25% included a moisture separator reheater (MSR), which
takes partially expanded steam, removes the moisture
and reheats to a superheat temperature. The choice
The exhaust pressure in the condenser is of the order of reheat or crossover pressure is affected by various
of 50 mbar. The expansion of the steam from the parameters for a machine rotating at 3000 r/min;
initial conditions to this pressure would result in an these are:
intolerable wetness factor in the final stages. The
expansion is shown on a Mollier diagram (Fig 1.49) The maximum wetness in the LP turbine exhaust
for a turbine with 85% efficiency. (10-12%).
35
The steam turbine
BEHAVES AS DRY STEAM
FIG. 1.50 The 'Wilson line' dividing the wet and dry
expansion
The maximum wetness in the HP turbine exhaust
(14-15%).
The temperature to which reheat steam can be
raised, limited by the maximum steam temperature
available at the turbine stop valve (TSV).
Overall cycle efficiency.
Plant capital costs.
The wetness in the HP turbine can be a little higher
than that for the LP turbine as the blades are shorter
and the tip velocities are considerably less.
Considering these parameters on the Mollier chart
(Fig 1.51) presents a 'window' within which the cross-
over pressure can vary. The resultant LP condition
line is very similar to that of a conventional LP cyl-
inder on a fossil-fired or AGR plant. The option to
replicate the LP cylinder is attractive, as it presents
savings in terms of design and manufacture and of-
fers a utility, such as the CEGB, the option to ra-
tionalise its national spares holding. The replication
of the LP cylinder would, however, restrict the varia-
tion in crossover pressure still further.
The inclusion of steam reheating following mois-
ture separation has obvious advantages in terms of
improving the LP exhaust wetness. The more effective
the moisture separator, the less reheating is required;
modern separators can produce steam with wetness
factors of 0.25% or better.
36
Chapter 1
DESIGN WINDOW
FIG. 1.51 Constraints on crossover pressure for MSR
Note that pressure P 3 is outside the 'window'
as it corresponds to an excessively-high value
of HP exhaust wetness
The need for steam reheating has been addressed,
but the means of reheating has not been discussed in
detail. The objective of the reheating process is to
produce the best steam conditions for the minimum
cycle and plant capital cost. The factors to be con-
sidered are:
The choice of live steam (single-stage reheating) or
live and bled-steam (double stage reheating).
The final terminal temperature difference achieved
between reheated steam and live steam.
The pressure loss across the reheater.
Although all these factors are considered simul-
taneously in the design, consider the choice between
single and double-stage reheating. The plant arrange-
ments for single and double-stage reheating are shown
in Fig 1.52. The variation in net cycle output against
total reheater surface area (Fig 1.53), shows a con-
sistent advantage over the single stage reheating.
The thermodynamic benefit derives from using a
higher proportion of the high quality, dry steam pass-
ing through the turbine to do work. Hence the HP
turbine efficiency is improved, since wetness reduces
 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

MOISTURE
SEPARATOR

TO FEEDTRAIN TO FEEDTRAIN

(a) Single stage reheater

TOLP
CYLINDERS

V
TO FEEDTRAIN
(b) Double stage reheater

FIG. 1.52 Single and double-stage reheating plant

37
The steam turbine
140 160
TOTAL REHEATER AREA, <
FIG. 1.53 Comparison of output with reheater surface area
for single and double-stage reheating
stage and cylinder efficiency. The other benefit of
two stages over one concerns the efficiency improve-
ment associated with dividing the temperature rise
across an increased number of heaters (in a similar
way, the increase in the number of feedheaters in-
creases overall cycle efficiency). The benefits to op-
erating efficiency must be judged against the increased
capital cost of the additional plant. The increased
capital cost includes extra heating surface, a HP cylinder
bled-steam tapping, extra pipework and increased pres-
sure loss in the reheater.
The effect of HP exhaust pressure upon the choice
between single and double-stage reheating, is shown
in Fig 1.54.
The optimum pressure is shown, but there is little
penalty associated with deviating from the optimum.
However, this curve shows the general benefit of double-
stage reheating over a range of exhaust pressures.
3.5.3 Full-speed or half-speed machines
The final issue dealt with in this section involves a
comparison of half-speed (1500 r/min) and full-speed
(3000 r/min) machines. The study is limited to the
steam turbine rather than the generator, as the tur-
bine is more affected by the wet steam cycle. It is,
however, pertinent to observe that generators at 3000
r/min and 1500 r/min are technically feasible up to
the largest required outputs. There are substantial
differences in the weights and manufacturing costs
of 2-pole and 4-pole generators favouring the full-
38
Chapter 1
UyL
10 12 14 16
HP EXHAUST PRESSURE, % OF HP INLET PRESSURE
FIG. 1.54 Advantage of double-stage over single-
stage reheat
speed machine. Whilst small differences in efficiency
exist, they are much smaller than those arising in
the steam turbine area.
The principal factors involved in a comparison of
half and full-speed turbines are:
Relative sizes and weights of the turbines and
differences in their constructional features.
Relative expectations of reliability, operational flexi-
bility, and ease of maintenance.
Relative thermal efficiencies.
Economic comparisons.
Size, weight and construction
For equal stress levels in geometrically-similar turbine
rotating components, all linear dimensions should be
inversely proportional to the speed. Theoretically,
the last-stage blades of a half-speed turbine could be
made twice as long as those of a full-speed turbine
and could be carried on a rotor of twice the diameter,
leading to an exhaust area of four times the size.
However, practical half-speed turbines are limited
by weight and physical size to be about 40% larger
than full speed turbines: Table 1.2 gives a comparison
between realistic half and full-speed machines in terms
of relative sizes and weights.
Note that the total relative volume and weight of
the rotors and casings per unit exhaust area for the
half-speed turbine is 2.85 times the full-speed turbine.
The manufacturing costs associated with the larger
half-speed machine are higher as more materials are
 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle

TABLE 1.2
Sizes and weights of a 1500 r/min turbine relative to a
3000 r/min turbine

Scaling ratio for linear dimensions 1.4

1500 r/min to 3000 r/min turbine
Relative turbine blade exhaust 1.42 = 1.96
annulus area
Relative number of turbine stages 2.0V 1.5 = 2.05
Relative volume and weight of rotor 1.43 = 2.74
material per turbine stage
Total relative volume and weight of 2.05 x 2.74 = 5.60
all turbine rotors
Total relative volume and weight of 5.60/1.96 = 2.85
turbine rotors, per unit exhaust area
Relative diameter of turbine casings 1.4
Relative thickness of turbine shells 1.4
Relative volume and weight of turbine 1.43 = 2.74
casings, per turbine stage
Total relative volume and weight of
turbine casings, per unit exhaust area 2.85

used and a greater number of turbine stages have to
be built. The constructional differences between the
two types are largely associated with the increased
size and weight of the half-speed turbine. The dimen-
sional limitations to the forgings of HP rotors of
the half-speed turbine have resulted in a crossover
pressure higher than optimum. These higher crossover
pressures require an additional inner casing in the
LP cylinder to avoid excessive thermal gradients. In
summary, the large size of the individual components
of the half-speed turbine, forces the designer to 'over
design' some constructional features (see Fig 1.55).
Reliability, operational flexibility and maintenance
The reliability of full and half-speed turbines are just
as important in the choice of machine as efficiency
comparisons, and need to be considered.
It is important to observe that there is no valid
statistical evaluation of experience to support any
argument for one design being more reliable than the
other. Reliance must be placed upon objective assess-
ments of technical (including engineering) differences
and potential sources of difficulty in various areas
of turbine design and operation.
There are no systematic differences between the
two turbines with regard to the HP blade and rotor
erosion. The stationary components of the HP cylinder
are subjected to pressure differences with wet steam
at their joint faces; if leakage flows are generated,
there is a danger of wire-drawing erosion. The in-
creased radial dimensions of the half-speed turbine
result in pressure loadings at the joints as great as
twice that for the full-speed machine. Therefore the
FIG. 1.55 Comparison of half-speed and full-speed
HP cylinders
achievement of zero erosion is likely to be more
difficult with a half-speed machine.
The LP cylinder for the full-speed machine is si-
milar to that of a fossil-fired plant. Consequently,
though there are few differences in blading erosion
problems, the experience of UK utilities is in the
full-speed area. The design of half-speed LP rotors
involves a shaft with various discs, shrink fitted; this
type of rotor presents poorer dynamic behaviour
and is more susceptible to stress corrosion cracking
problems.
There are two disadvantages associated with the
half-speed machine which are related to plant op-
eration. The larger diameter of the HP rotor leads
to increased thermal stress. In addition, the rate of
increase of steam temperature at the inlet to the LP
cylinder may have to be restricted during start-up, to
avoid losing the shrink fit rotor.
There is no reason to suggest that the frequency of
maintenance of the half-speed machine is significantly
different from that of the full-speed machine. However,
there will be increased problems in lifting, handling,
transporting and machining components of the half-
speed turbines, due to their weight and size.
Relative thermal efficiencies
Marginal differences exist between the two designs
with regard to the internal cylinder efficiences. They
can be summarised as:
39
The steam turbine Chapter 1

The enforced high crossover pressure of the half-

speed machine results in higher leakage loss in the DETAILED ECONOMIC
ASSESSMENT REQUIRED
last few stages of the LP cylinder. 65-70m2
(EXHAUST AREA)

The half-speed LP cylinder experiences higher tip

losses due to the increased radial clearances asso-
ciated with a more flexible rotor.
REGION WHERE 3000 r/min REMAINS ECONOMIC

The full-speed machine has marginally higher tip * 3000 r/min MOST ECONOMICAL
losses in the last stage LP blade due to aero-
dynamic effects.
WET COOLING TOWERS

Economic comparisons WARM SEA. LAKES

It has already been shown that the half-speed turbine

is more expensive than the full-speed turbine of equal
output and exhaust area, with no advantage in effi-
ciency or reliability. Hence the full-speed turbine will 90 100 110 120 130
be advantageous whenever its exhaust area can match CONDENSER PRESSURE, mbar
the value which is desirable for an economically achiev-
able condenser pressure. FIG. 1.56 Regions of power output and cooling water
In order to establish the regions of potential eco- temperatures favouring economic application of 3000 r/min
and 1500 r/min turbines, assuming current, last-stage blade
nomic application of the two types of turbine, it is lengths are used to give an exhaust area of 65-70 m2
necessary to consider:

The relationship of desirable exhaust areas to

different combinations of outputs and condenser
pressures.
The economically achievable condenser pressures
available.
Available total turbine blade exhaust areas for full-
speed turbines and the regions of outputs and
condenser pressures where they are economically
advantageous.
The turbine comprises one HP cylinder and three
LP cylinders on a single shaft. The six-flow exhaust
provides an area of 47 m 2 , which is sufficient for the
rated output, whilst using seawater cooling. However,
modern blading developments will enable the design
of high speed machines with much larger exhaust
areas, suitable for outputs in excess of 1000 MW.

Half-speed turbines are economical only in circum-
stances where the largest outputs are combined with
very low condenser pressures, favouring the adoption
of larger exhaust areas than those which could be
provided by currently available full-speed turbines
(see Fig 1.56). Even this region of economic appli-
cation of the half-speed turbine is under threat from
the impending availability of full-speed machines with
greater exhaust areas.
Turbine-generator for the CEGB PWR
The proposed station at Sizewell B will incorporate
a single 3425 MW (thermal) PWR of a four-loop
design. The NSSS will provide steam to two full-
speed turbine-generators, each with a gross output of
622.5 MW.
The current turbine design incorporates a means
of isolation of the steam supply to enable main-
tenance work to be performed on one machine whilst
continuing to operate the other. This means of iso-
lation will improve generating availability.
4 Economics of t h e s t e a m cycle
4.1 Choice of exhaust pressure
The turbine efficiency depends, to a certain extent,
on the choice of turbine exhaust pressure. This choice
is based on both thermodynamic and economic grounds.
Following consideration of thermodynamic optimisa-
tion, the economic factors influencing the whole
spectrum of turbine-generator plant optimisation is
described. The form of economic study to permit
selection of the turbine exhaust pressure, condenser
and cooling water parameters is then given.
4.1.1 Thermodynamic optimisation
The power developed by a steam turbine supplied
with a constant mass flow rate varies on the exhaust
pressure changes for the following reasons:
(a) As the exhaust pressure is reduced, the isentropic
heat drop across the last stage increases and so
additional work is done in the turbine.

40
 Economies of the steam cycle

(b) The additional work is not as large as it could

be because the volumetric flow rate, and therefore 0-T

the velocity of the steam, increases as the exhaust

pressure is reduced. An increase in velocity means
an increase in kinetic energy of the steam at the
turbine exhaust and therefore a loss of power due
to the increased leaving loss.
3
o
-6 H
LU

(c) As the exhaust pressure is reduced, the cor-

responding saturation temperature is reduced.
Therefore, more steam is extracted from the tur-
bine to heat the condensate in the first feedwater
heater, so that less steam passes through the last
LU ^ W

-12J >V
stages of the turbine, giving a further loss in
output. -14-| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EXHAUST PRESSURE
OPTIMUM EXHAUST PRESSURE

These conflicting points mean that there is an 'op-

timum exhaust pressure' where the greatest net power
is produced. This occurs when the effect of point (a)
is equal to points (b) and (c). At exhaust pressures
lower than optimum, the increase in power due to (a)
is less than the decrease due to (b) and (c), so a net
reduction in power generation and increase in heat
rate will occur as exhaust pressure is lowered further.
At exhaust pressures higher than optimum, the op-
posite effects occur. This is shown graphically in
Fig 1.57, where the percentage increase in heat rate
has been plotted against (exhaust pressure/optimum
exhaust pressure).
Figure 1.58 shows the corresponding characteristic
for the change in power output.
The variation of turbine heat rate with exhaust
pressure, shown in Fig 1.57, is obtained from the
basic turbine design data relating to the turbine ex-
haust area, exhaust mass flows and the heat rejected.
The term 'optimum' is used here with respect to the
power generated and heat rate. Economic factors are
FIG. 1.58 Output characteristic
also involved in the choice of design exhaust pres-
sure, resulting in the exhaust pressure being some-
what greater than the thermodynamic optimum.
4.1.2 General economic optimisation of plant
A central theme so far in this chapter, has been the
improvement of cycle efficiency. The importance of
efficiency in reducing the unit cost of electricity can
best be seen by examining its relation to other factors
affecting cost. What matters most to the utility man-
ager is the reduction of the total lifetime cost of the
plant (refer to Volume A for the full discussion).
The major concern of this chapter is the lifetime gen-
eration costs of turbine-generator plant, which breaks
down into:

Capital cost.
14
Fuel cost.
12
Operating and maintenance costs.

ui
For a valid comparison of new designs, all these
Is cost elements must be considered simultaneously at a
5: certain reference date, e.g., the commissioning date. The
LU
X
Z 6 Capital cost is conditioned by the timing of stage
payments and the interest rates predicted over the
construction period. Similar considerations apply to
- f the Fuel cost and Operating/Maintenance costs, with
2-J ^r
interest rates being the determining factor. To enable a
0 + - ^ I
0 1 2 3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1 1
10 comparison between plant of different ratings, these
EXHAUST PRESSURE costs are expressed as a Capital cost factor, measured
OPTIMUM EXHAUST PRESSURE in /kW.
The Capital cost comprises not only the cost of
the turbine-generator itself, but also the costs of the
FIG. 1.57 Heat rate characteristic turbine hall to house it and the services required.
41
The steam turbine
The historical trend has been to larger, higher output
plant of compact design, which has had a consider-
able impact on reducing the Capital cost factor. The
practical problems of transport and assembly indicate
diminishing returns in this trend, which suggest that
plant with an output of about 1000 MW may be a
maximum limit.
The Fuel cost expended over the power station
lifetime is of course directly influenced by the design
cycle efficiency, and the means of achieving this is
the prime topic of this section. It has been shown that
the cycle efficiency can be improved by increasing the
provision and complexity of the plant, e.g., increasing
the number of reheating stages. The designer carries
out a cost-benefit analysis to reach a reasonable
compromise, to ensure that the benefits of improved
efficiency are not eclipsed by excessive capital costs,
or by complication leading to reduced reliability.
In different parts of the world and in a rapidly
changing economic environment, the cost of fuel can
show wide variations. For new plant, it is desirable
for the utility to present the designer with a cost
expressing the capitalised value of 1% improvement
in the heat rate. This will enable him to identify the
options best suited to the application.
Plant Operating and Maintenance Costs are reduced
by improving the reliability of plant and by mini-
mising the maintenance and overhaul outage times.
Increased plant automation permits a reduction in the
manpower required per MW produced.
Figure 1.59 depicts the typical breakdown of lifetime
generation costs. Fuel costs form the largest element,
such that a 1% improvement in efficiency of the
plant is equivalent to a saving of approximately 2%
of the Capital cost.
FIG. 1.59 Lifetime costs of a turbine-generator unit
42
Chapter 1
4.1.3 Economic optimisation of exhaust
pressure, condenser and CW system
Up to now we have only considered the design of
the turbine. The economic optimisation is highly
dependent upon the Cooling Water (CW) system as
well. The general economic considerations given in
the previous section will now be developed to examine
the combination of the turbine, condenser and CW
system.
Figure 1.60 shows a typical 'direct cooled system',
using sea water as a coolant. The system is called direct
cooled because the water is used once and then dis-
charged. A circulating pump forces water through
screens, which removes any debris large enough to
block the condenser. There are valves at inlet and
outlet to the condenser to ensure flexibility of op-
eration during changes in climatic conditions. Flexi-
bility is developed further by increasing the number
of circulating pumps available. The CW system there-
fore makes a significant contribution to the capital cost
of the plant. On inland stations, using indirect cooling
with large cooling towers, the costs can be higher still.
CONDENSER
COOLING WATER
OUTLET VALVE
_ibtJJE__.
IVEL
COOLING
WATER CIRCULATING
PUMP
FIG. 1.60 A once-through (coastal) CW system
The task is to optimise the overall design so as
to minimise the lifetime generation costs. This means
minimising the capital and running costs over the
lifetime of the plant. The capital costs usually con-
sidered for a direct cooled system are:
The capital cost of the turbine and of the build-
ing to house it (this will vary if longer last-stage
blades or a different number of turbine cylinders
are chosen).
The capital cost of the CW culvert system (this will
vary with CW flow).
The capital cost of the CW pump (rated to suit the
CW flow).
The capital cost of the condenser surface (an indepen-
dent variable, subject to constraints).

The running costs are:
The cost of additional pumping power (this will
vary with CW flow).
The cost of a small change in turbine efficiency.
Plant operating and maintenance costs are ignored
unless there are exceptional circumstances.
It is clear that there are many variables to be
considered and it is therefore necessary to fix certain
turbine design parameters (the number and area of
the LP exhausts) so that the characteristic relation-
ship between the power output and exhaust pressure
can be maintained. With the turbine exhaust design
fixed, constraints are automatically imposed on the
size of the condenser.
The condenser surface can vary in two ways:
Increasing the number of tubes (and adjusting the
flow to give the same velocity).
Increasing the length of the tubes.
Having fixed the turbine design, for a typical trans-
verse under slung condenser, the maximum tube length
will also be fixed (Fig 1.61). The condenser tube sur-
face area can only be changed by varying the number
of tubes used up to limits imposed by the available
height. Since these are basically heat transfer calcula-
tions, the condenser tube materials, diameter and
thicknesses must all be fixed according to the prin-
ciples set out in Chapter 4.
TUBE LENGTH
FIXED
FIG. 1.61 Transverse underslung condenser
Economies of the steam cycle
A site study is undertaken to obtain the tempera-
ture of the water source over a period of a year, so
that an estimate of the average annual CW inlet
temperature can be made. The specific heat and den-
sity of the water are also measured.
Using these fixed parameters, the heat transfer cal-
culations can be made. As well as the effect of the
exhaust pressure on output and heat rate, there are
other variables needing optimisation. Increasing the
number of tubes in the condenser, for a given CW flow
rate, results in a reduction in CW velocity, and hence
a reduction in friction losses and pumping power
costs. However, low CW velocity needs a larger heat
transfer surface, which could be achieved by increas-
ing the length of the condenser tubes. This is not
possible because, as stated earlier, the length of the
tubes is usually constrained.
Increasing condenser outlet temperature reduces
the mass flow of CW but increases the turbine ex-
haust pressure, resulting in a rise in heat rate, a fall
in power and therefore a drop in efficiency.
Figure 1.62 shows the results from the heat trans-
fer calculations. Lines of constant CW velocity and
turbine exhaust pressure are displayed. If we consider
increasing the condenser tube surface area by increas-
ing the number of tubes, then as discussed above,
at constant CW flow, both CW velocity and turbine
exhaust pressure decrease. The effect on output of the
changing exhaust pressure, may be determined from
the output/exhaust pressure characteristic (Fig 1.58).
37500-^
COOLING WATER FLOW RATE kg/s
FlG. 1.62 Relationship between heat transfer parameters
It is customary to consider a reference or nominal
design having a given surface area and CW flow rate,
and to compute the change in cost from the reference.
The effect of the variables on the following economic
data can now be considered:
43
The steam turbine
Increments of CW flow will affect CW pump costs.
Increments of CW flow will affect CW system costs.
Increments of condenser surface will affect con-
denser costs.
Changes in output will affect the running costs.
Increments of CW flow and head will affect the
consumed CW pump power and will therefore af-
fect the running costs.
If the individual costs are calculated for the grid of
points on Fig 1.62 and then summated to give the
total cost at each point, we can plot contours of
constant cost, as shown in Fig 1.63.
Computer programs have been devised which will
evaluate the best design combination of parameters
for minimum total cost and Fig 1.63 is a typical
graphical output. From Fig 1.63 it can be seen that
the smaller the contour, the lower the total cost. The
most economic design parameters therefore exist at
the centre of the smallest contour. It is, however,
o 50000
w 47500
COOLING WATER FLOW RATE, kg/s
FIG. 1.63 Effect of cost
44
Chapter 1
quite possible that these will not be used, because
there are further constraints on the design yet to be
considered.
The most significant constraints, after the turbine
exhaust area and condenser length previously men-
tioned, are the limits on CW velocity. There is a
maximum velocity permissible to prevent tube erosion
and a minimum velocity to avoid silting. Environ-
mental considerations enforce a limit on the maximum
temperature of the CW discharge into the river or sea
so that fishing is not affected.
The exercise can be repeated with one of the fixed
parameters changed to a new value. In this way, the
change in costs using different exhaust annulus areas
can be found. A similar analysis can be undertaken for
a tower-cooled system, where CW is cycled between
the condenser (where it receives heat from the steam),
and the cooling tower where it transfers the heat to
the rising air. (For a full explanation of the 'indirect
cooling' system see Chapter 4.)
The economic optimisation calculations are based
on a constant CW inlet temperature and the assump-
tion that all the condenser tubes will be available. In
reality, the seasonal changes in temperature in the

UK produce a range of CW inlet temperature of
between 5-17C, corresponding to a variation from
the ideal turbine exhaust pressure of 15 mbar. This
could be responsible for a change in turbine efficiency
of around 0.7%.
It cannot be assumed, either, that all the condenser
tubes will be operational throughout the lifetime of
the condenser. Material too small to be trapped by
the screens may build up in the tubes, restrict the
flow and eventually block it entirely (known as fouling).
The problem can be alleviated either by regular main-
tenance or through the provision of automatic cleaning
by circulating foam rubber balls that clean away the
dirt and scale formation. The effects of erosion at
the higher velocities can be practically eliminated by
the use of hard materials such as Titanium for the
condenser tubes. Changes in tube material and in
fouling factor, are evaluated during the design to
confirm the most economic choice for the full range
of operating conditions.
4.2 Regenerative feedheating
The principle of 'preheating' boiler feedwater before
its admission to a boiler was well established before
the turn of the century. The expression 'regenerative'
implies that latent heat in steam, or sensible heat in
boiler flue gases, is captured, reclaimed and set to
work again in the fluid cycle.
Early examples of feedheating involved the dis-
charge of exhaust steam into the tanks from which
the feed pumps draw their water and the use of
'economised, which captured heat from flue gas and
led to economy in the use of fuel.
The practice of preheating the boiler feedwater has
contributed as much to efficiency improvements as
any other single development in steam power plant.
In this section 'regenerative' feedwater heating plant
using steam extracted from the turbine is covered;
feedheating plant involving the 'conomiser' is dis-
cussed and described in Volume B.
From the early days of utilising latent heat from
the exhaust steam from steam engines and small tur-
bines to preheat feedwater, the principle of feedwater
heating has been progressively widened; modern plant
is very sophisticated, involving multiple steam ex-
tractions from steam turbine cylinders, LP heaters,
combined heating/de-aerating plant, HP heaters, LP
drains pumps, HP drains pumps, pressure cascading
of drains and the incorporation of other plant, such
as moisture separator/reheaters, which are used in
wet steam cycles.
The academic treatment of regeneratve feedwater
heating and its place within the cycle was covered
in Section 3.1 of this chapter and illustrated by
Rankine cycle diagrams. The impact of feedwater
heating plant upon the turbine cycle efficiency can
Economies of the steam cycle
be shown by comparing the heat rate (kJ/kWh) of
modern large capacity turbine-generator plant, in-
volving seven stages of heating, with a hypothetical
plant of equivalent electrical generating capacity, but
without feedheating plant. The comparison is made
with the assumptions that the cylinders of a multi-
cylinder tandem turbine have the capacity to pass
the total quantity of steam supplied by the boiler,
that the exhaust pressure is identical, that the 'leav-
ing loss' is identical and that the condensate from
the turbine condensers is pumped, as feedwater to
the boiler, at a typical condensate temperature of
35C (for a temperate climate plant).
The difference in 'heat rate' of the two turbine
plants is found to be significant, the heat rate of the
plant equipped with the seven-stage regenerative plant
being only 0.86 of the hypothetical plant of equivalent
capacity but without feedheating plant.
A full treatment of the economic benefit of the
turbine plant with feedheating would involve consi-
deration of a boiler plant designed for a high feed-
water temperature and a hypothetical boiler design
suitable for feedwater delivered to it at condenser
temperature, but the figure 0.86 provides a good
measure of the improvement wrought by bled-steam-
heated feedwater plant and of its benefit in terms
of reduced fuel consumption.
4.2.1 Feedheating plant stages superheat
cycles
The optimum number of feedheating stages, in strict
terms of cycle efficiency, could be as high as the
number of steam expansion stages in the associated
turbine cylinders. But it is not practical, in engineer-
ing terms, to provide steam extraction points at each
stage in the cylinders, because of the casting/casing
complexity that would arise and the additional and
excessive length of the complete turbine, with cor-
respondingly long rotors.
As with most engineering designs, a compromise
between the academic optimum design and a design
which is practical; producible and commercially viable
is necessary.
The type of power plant with which the turbine
plant is associated also influences the number of feed-
heating stages because the steam-raising plant eco-
nomics interact with the turbine plant.
For electricity generation in the UK, the following
steam-raising plant sources have featured in recent
years:
Coal-fired.
Oil-fired.
Advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGRs).
Pressurised water reactors (PWRs).
45
The steam turbine
Coal-fired and oil-fired plants yield similar numbers
of feedheating stages as optimum, about three LP
stages, a heating/de-aerating stage and two HP stages,
leading to a final feedwater temperature of about
250C.
An optimisation technique is used to determine
the number of feedwater heaters, with practicalities
still dominating.
In a world of changing economics in the field of
fuel supply, an upset in prices, upward or downward,
such as experienced with oil supply prices can lead
to a significant difference in turbine and turbine plant
configuration. It is necessary at the inception of a
power station project to revalue cycle efficiency in
the light of prevailing fuel prices and best predictions.
AGR plants are found to be most economic with a
moderate final feedwater temperature of about 150C.
This is because the lower temperature produces a
wider 'approach temperature' to the reactor coolant
gas, and a greater log mean temperature difference'
(LMTD) for the steam generators associated with the
reactor. This wider LMTD, produced by the feed-
water temperature of 150C, is beneficial in that the
steam generators, encompassed within the concrete
pressure vessel with the reactor, can be smaller, so
the pressure vessel is smaller and lower in capital
cost.
The final feedwater temperature is 'optimised'
i.e., the value of cycle efficiency, costed at a rate
appropriate to the use of nuclear fuel over the life
of the plant, is related to the capital cost variations
of steam generators, etc. The lowest sum of lifetime
operating cost and capital cost determines the op-
timum design, which includes the corresponding final
feedwater temperature as a design parameter.
The outcome of this AGR plant optimisation is
that three LP feedwater heaters are used, in con-
junction with a fourth combined heating and de-
aerating stage, to provide a final feedwater temperature
of about 150C to the complete exclusion of HP
feedwater heaters. The boiler feed pumps draw their
supply of water from an elevated tank, forming the
combined heating and de-aerating stage, and deliver
the water directly to the 'conomiser' section of the
reactor steam generators.
Economic systems evolved during the past two
decades for both fossil-fired and AGR plants involved
'back-pressure turbines' (driving the boiler feed pump),
with one or two steam extraction points for HP feed-
water heaters.
The driving steam for the boiler feed pump turbine
is taken from the exhaust of the HP cylinder of the
main turbine, and is therefore steam which has been
expanded and has lost part of its superheat (Fig 1.64).
Steam extracted from the boiler feed pump turbine
is therefore relatively low in superheat and the heat
to be surrendered to the feedwater is mainly the latent
heat which is beneficial to cycle efficiency.
Various main plant manufacturers have evolved
46
Chapter 1
slightly different systems, such as either one or two
extraction points on a boiler feed pump turbine, with
a corresponding number of HP feedwater heaters,
depending on their manufacturing costs and their
relationship to the then prevailing worth of cycle
efficiency. The final HP feedwater heater has, in every
case, used steam exhausted from the HP cylinder of
the main turbine (i.e., the same point in the cycle as
the supply to the feed pump turbine).
For large capacity plant, HP feedwater heaters of
the 'tubeplate' type (as illustrated later in Fig 1.69),
cannot be made sufficiently large to perform the
entire feedheating plant stage duty because of manu-
facturing limitations. These limitations involve tube
plate diameter and thickness and tube hole drilling
length.
The provision of heaters in pairs has proved ne-
cessary at each heating stage to permit the stage duty
to be performed. Each 'line' (or bank, or 'string')
of heaters can be by-passed in the event of a fault
to permit continuity of feedwater flow to the boiler.
The heat transfer surface area for heaters (of all
types), and therefore the overall size of the heater,
is carefully optimised. The optimisation involves manu-
facturing cost versus the lifetime value of efficiency
based on fuel cost and the predicted utilisation for
the type of plant.
For relatively high fuel cost applications, an ad-
ditional heat transfer section is incorporated in heaters
as a 'drains cooling9 section. The condensate of the
heating steam is cooled to a temperature lower than
saturation temperature by the ingoing feedwater, there-
by increasing the effectiveness of the heater in the
cycle.
Further features of feedheating plant and suitable
for any type of main plant are those of 'pressure
cascading9 and 'drains pumping9. Heating steam, after
being condensed in a heater, is led, as drains, to a
lower pressure heater where it 'flashes-off and sur-
renders part of its remaining heat to the lower pressure
heater. This principle can be applied to all heaters
in a bank as a 'cascade'.
Drains pumping involves collecting drains after
cascading and pumping them back into the condensate
feed system at a point that closely corresponds to
their temperature. Figure 1.65 illustrates both cascad-
ing and pumping for the two LP heaters.
4.2.2 Feedheating plant stages wet steam
cycle
A PWR station is now under construction in the UK,
based upon a standard design for large capacity plant
(1200, 1300 MW). This design, designated 'Standard
Nuclear Unit Power Plant System' has a feedheating
plant involving LP heaters, a de-aerator /heater and
HP heaters but with certain variations arising from
the wet steam cycle of the PWR.
 TWO ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN [3_
BOILER FEED PUMPS
MAIN STEAM SUPPLY
REHEAT/BLED STEAM
FEEDWATER/CONDENSATE
HP HEATERS DRAINS
LP HEATERS

FIG. 1.64 Cycle diagram incorporating a boiler feed pump turbine

47
Economics of the steam cycle
The steam turbine
Steam admitted to the HP cylinder of the turbine
is at a dry saturated condition, i.e., without superheat.
On expansion through the cylinder, the steam be-
comes wet. The water fraction is removed in a passive
Moisture separator' and the water and its heat is
reclaimed and pumped into the feedheating system at
the de-aerator (where separator water temperature
and de-aerator temperature coincide) for maximum
efficiency (Fig. 1.65). The dried steam is then passed
through two-stage reheaters for superheating, steam
being the heating medium. Steam bled from the HP
cylinder is used in the primary reheater and live steam
(i.e., at boiler conditions) is used in the secondary
reheater. Condensate formed from the reheating steam
BLED STEAM LIVE STEAM
REHEATER REHEATER
(BSR) (LSR)
tNj3tNj3N^-
HP HEATERS
MAIN STEAM SUPPLY
REHEAT/BLED STEAM
. FEEDWATER/CONDENSATE
DRAINS
FIG. 1.65 Simplified feedwater heater arrangement for a PWR
48
Chapter 1
is recovered and introduced into the HP feedwater
heaters at appropriate temperature points in the cycle.
The PWR steam generators have a continuous
Slowdown* system to limit the concentration of slight
impurities in the steam generators. The Slowdown'
water, at a temperature approximating to boiler satura-
tion temperature, is passed through a heat exchanger
incorporated in the LP feedheating plant upstream of
the de-aerator/heater, where the heat is recovered.
Condensate, formed from bled-steam extracted from
the LP turbines and supplied to LP feedwater heaters,
is collected in a drains receiver and pumped into the
de-aerator/heater tank for recovery of both condensate
and heat.
GENERATOR
TCONDENSATE
EXTRACTION
PUMP
GLAND
STEAM
CONDENSER
HEATER
DRAINS PUMP

The cycle involves four stages of LP feedheating,
the de-aerator/heater and three stages of HP feed-
heating, with an ultimate heater utilising condensate
from the secondary reheater to preheat the feed to
a temperature of 226C before admission to the steam
generators.
4.2.3 Feedwater de-aeration
Feedwater chemistry requirements are stringent with
regard to the permissible level of dissolved oxygen.
The main concern is that of minimising waterside
corrosion of boiler tubes. Waterside corrosion and
fireside corrosion lead to thinning of tube walls and
the subsequent risk of rupture by the internal fluid
pressure.
A significant feature of British designed feedheating
plant has been the combined 'feedheating/de-aerating/
water storage plant'. This is illustrated in Fig 1.64
which shows the position of the de-aerating/feedheating
plant within typical turbine plant and Fig 1.66 is a
simple illustration of a typical high level de-aerating/
feedheating plant.
Feedwater from LP feedheaters is admitted to the
twin towers on the tank. Steam, typically bled either
from the main turbine or boiler feed pump turbine,
or taken from the feed pump turbine exhaust, is sup-
plied for heating and de-aerating the ingoing feed-
water. Feedwater, de-aerated to a boiler quality standard
U S
CONDENSATE
INLET
FIG. 1.66 Typical high level de-aerator/feedheater
Economies of the steam cycle
of typically 5 % (of oxygen) per kg (of water), i.e.,
five parts per billion.
Design practice has been to install high level plant
in an auxiliary plant annexe between the boiler house
and turbine hall, at a level set by boiler house steel-
work. Provision of generous margins over the steady
state NPSH requirements of suction stage feed pumps
has proved possible.
Typically, tanks have had a total volume equal to
about ten minutes feedwater flow rate, with an eight
minute store to provide a buffer for transients and time
to unload the plant should the condenser extraction
pumps fail. The mass of water stored is about half a
tonne per megawatt of plant capacity (i.e., about
330 t for current 660 MW plant).
In summary, this type of combined plant, which
is described in detail in Chapter 3, fulfils important
primary functions:
It serves as a feedwater heater.
Feedwater is de-aerated down to the necessary low
gas content.
It acts as a 'buffer' to the fluctuations of condensate
feedwater flow that occur in service.
The tank height provides a hydrostatic head to satisfy
the suction pressure requirements of the boiler feed
pumps.
VENT
CONDENSER
STORAGE VESSEL
FTT^L
TO FEED PUMPS
49
The steam turbine
Reliable and effective service over several decades has
been obtained from plant of the designs described,
but changing economics and competitiveness have now
led to a change in design.
The design illustrated in Fig 1.67 involves the
direct injection of steam into the body of stored
water through a series of vertical perforated tubes
immersed in the water, and the admission of con-
densate through self-regulating sprays. The condensate
is heated almost to saturation temperature; steam
rises through the water and gases are liberated and
conducted away through small vents adjacent to the
sprays.
The water passes at low velocity through the tank
at a rate corresponding to the plant load and is
almost at saturation temperature. The remaining dis-
solved gases are liberated: they rise to the surface
and steam space and are then conducted away through
small vents, the water being brought up to saturation
temperature by the injected steam. This design and
its function are covered fully in Chapter 3.
For thermodynamic economy, the bled-steam used
in the de-aerator should ideally be without superheat
the use of superheat is a wasteful way of heating water
when it could be more effectively used by being con-
verted to mechanical work in a turbine.
DETAIL OF PERFORATIONS
FIG. 1.67 Waterspray/steam injection-type de-aerator
50
Chapter 1
British practice for the steam supply to the boiler
feed pump turbine has been, as explained earlier, to
use steam partly expanded through and exhausted from
the HP cylinder of the main turbine (sometimes known
as 'cold reheat steam'). This steam, after further ex-
pansion through the boiler feed pump turbine, contains
only a modest amount of superheat and this exhaust
steam is used to supply the combined feedheating/
de-aerating plant.
Because the steam requirement of the boiler feed
pump turbine cannot be exactly matched to the
steam requirement of the feedheating/de-aerating plant
throughout the load range, arrangements are necessary
to pass any excess steam, or to supply any steam
deficiency from another part of the cycle.
An effective means of accomplishing these require-
ments is to design the boiler feed pump to exhaust at
a pressure approximately equal to the pressure of the
main turbine IP cylinder exhaust. This exhaust steam
is supplied to the LP cylinders and the boiler feed
pump turbine exhaust, the heater/de-aerator and the
main turbine IP/LP crossover pipes are connected
together.
The steam pipework is arranged so that, during
plant operation, the feed pump turbine exhaust steam
is preferentially used by the heater/de-aerator, with
CONDENSATE
STEAM DISTRIBUTION P I P E S -
PERFORATED TO ALLOW DISCHARGE OF STEAM
BELOW WATER LEVEL

any excess being 'spilt' into the crossover pipe. If a
steam deficiency exists, that deficiency is supplied
from the IP/LP crossover, at the same pressure but
with greater superheat.
This configuration, where the heater/de-aerator 'floats'
on the boiler feed pump turbine exhaust and the
IP/LP crossover interconnected piping, has proved
very successful. If the feed pump turbine is unavail-
able and standby electric pumps are used, the heater/
de-aerator can be supplied entirely from the IP/LP
crossover and operation can continue unimpaired. Such
'flexibility' of operation is advantageous and removes
the 'interdependence' of one plant item upon another.
For plants involving a steam turbine drive for the
feed pump, the economic benefits and the flexibility
of the described system are clear. If boiler feed pump
drives are not used, the system described above would
involve steam supply from the main turbine only.
4.2.4 Low pressure feedwater heaters
Low pressure (LP) feedwater heaters are basically
simple straightforward 'tube and shell' heat exchangers,
with the condensate passing through the tubes and
the bled-steam being admitted to the shell. This type
of heater, arranged vertically, has been used for many
decades, but two advances worthy of note have been
made in recent years and are now treated as modern
practice.
With the turbine exhaust being connected to its
underslung condenser by a large, deep, transition piece,
a significant volume of unused space exists between
the exhausts of a double-flow cylinder and above
the condenser tubenests (see Fig 1.68). This space can
be effectively utilised by inserting one or two LP
feedwater heaters in a horizontal attitude.
A number of advantages accrue from such an
installation. The bled steam piping is short in length,
giving a cost saving and a lower pressure drop, the
lower drop resulting in a slightly higher temperature
DRAINSTODRAIN COOLER
DRAINS FROM LP2 DRAINS FROM LP2 TO LP1
O - OVERFLOW DRAIN USED WHEN DRAINS FLOW IS ABOVE LEVEL OF NORMAL DRAIN OUTLET
N - NORMAL DRAIN
FIG. 1.68 Arrangement of condenser with an LP heater in the neck
Economies of the steam cycle
for heating the condensate, with consequential im-
provement in cycle efficiency. Bled-steam valves are
omitted both the traditional isolating valve and
the non-return valve. It has been established by ex-
periment and experience that steam reflux on turbine
trip, when the stage pressure collapses to condenser
pressure, is negligible and hence there is no significant
contribution to rotor overspeed.
With the heaters being almost completely within the
condenser 'neck', there is economy in turbine hall area
and in the elimination of supporting steelwork, access
ladders and platforms.
The omission of an isolating steam valve prompted
the development of improved methods of prevent-
ing heater flooding. Neck heaters are equipped with
valveless primary drains and a valveless secondary
drain, the latter being arranged physically a little higher
than the primary drain outlet.
External LP heaters, although still of the traditional
form, are now arranged in a horizontal attitude, elevated
so that the bled-steam piping from the turbine falls
to the heaters, thus assuring drainage. This minimises
the risk of water entering the cylinder and the possi-
bility of damage by impact on rotating components.
The heaters are 'stacked', so that the ultimate
LP heater can drain its bled-steam condensate into
the next heater, and that heater can drain its con-
densate into the condenser above the working level
of condensate in its base.
4.2.5 High pressure feedwater heaters
High pressure (HP) feedwater heaters are also gen-
erally of traditional form, but are arranged in a
horizontal attitude to ensure free gravity drainage of
their bled-steam lines and heater-to-heater drainage.
The arrangement of internal components is revised
to provide a drains cooling section, involving a part-
length of some of the bottom tubes (of the inlet
section of the tube bundle) instead of a part-length of
all tubes in a vertical heater (Fig 1.69).
51
52
The steam turbine

(b) Desuperheating section

DIP TUBES
(d) Part section of heater

(c) Drain cooling section PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE OUTLET FLANGE TUBENEST
AIR VENT
BLED STEAM CONDENSING SECTION
SIGHT GLASS ISOLATOR
AIR VENT
STANDPIPE ISOLATOR

WATER LEVEL STANDPIPES & 'B'

STEAM INLET DIFFUSER

BLED STEAM INLET
DESUPERHEATING SECTION
TUBEPLATE LIFTING TRUNNION

FEEDWATER OUTLET \ STAY ROD

LIFTING EYE
\ SLIDING FOOT
LEVEL SETTING SCREW
BAFFLE PLATE
DIVIDING PLATES HORIZONTAL & SIDE BAFFLES
INSPECTION COVER
CONDENSING SECTION MAIN SUPPORT
HIGH WATER LEVEL SWITCH
WATERBOX MANHOLE
DOOR SIGHT GLASS ASSEMBLY
SIGHT GLASS DRAIN
- AIR SUCTION DRAIN COOLING SECTION (a) Cutaway perspective
-j STEAM LEVEL CONTROL TAPPING of complete heater
DIVIDING BAFFLE DRAIN COOLING INLET POT
FEEDWATER MAIN SHELL DRAIN
CONDENSATE FIXED FOOT
DRAIN COOLING SECTION TOP PLATE
FEEDWATER INLET \ DRAIN COOLING INLET POT
SHELL START-UP DRAIN
DRAIN COOLING SECTION OUTLET VENT
CONDENSING SECTION OUTLET VENT

FIG. 1.69 Arrangement of a tubeplate-type horizontal HP heater

Chapter 1

A variation on the traditional design of HP heater
with its thick hemispherical pressure head, tubeplate
and steam shell, is a design based on boiler tech-
nology in which inlet/outlet headers and serpentine
tubes are all contained within a steam shell, as il-
lustrated in Fig 1.70.
The pressure parts associated with such a design,
known as a 'header' type heater are smaller (relative to
the thick walls of a hemi-head and tubeplate heater)
and are more amenable to temperature changes as a
consequence of load change than the traditional type
of heater. Furthermore, it can be made in larger
capacities than the traditional design. For large unit
sizes, a single line of 'header' type HP heaters could
be used instead of a double line of hemi-head/ tubeplate
heaters, which may yield space and cost savings,
depending on suppliers' specific designs and manu-
facturing costs.
4.2.6 Summary
In summary, in the field of feedwater heating, there
have been a number of changes in recent years but
these have been of an evolutionary, not a revolutionary,
nature. The first two stages of LP feedheating are
incorporated in the 'neck' of the condenser, with the
external LP stages being arranged in a horizontal
attitude below the LP turbines.
Combined de-aerating/feedheating plant is now of
the 'steam-injection' type and more compact than
hitherto. HP feedwater heaters are arranged in a
horizontal attitude below the turbine cylinders. The
feedwater is now raised to a higher temperature by
the extraction of steam from the HP cylinder. For
large capacity plants the use of 'header' type heaters
may permit space and cost savings to be made which,
in conjunction with improvements in other plant
FEEDWATER ^
INLET ^
FEEDWATER ^
OUTLET W
DRAIN COOLING
SECTION
FIG 1.70 Arrangement of a header-type horizontal HP heater
Economies of the steam cycle
areas and increased unit rating, serve to reduce capital
and operating costs and are therefore beneficial to
the consumers.
4.3 Choice of feed pump and drive system
A full description of feed pump design and develop-
ment is given in Chapter 3. In this section, feed
pump size, number, duty, margins and the need for
variable-speed are discussed; comparisons on economic
grounds are also made between steam turbine and
electric-motor drives, and between variable-speed motor
(VSM) and induction motor/fluid coupling drives.
The section is concluded with a typical example of
an overall comparison of through-life costs of four
feed-pump system options, that was performed for a
future 900 MW turbine-generator unit.
Boiler feed pumps now being designed for future
large units are tandem arrangements, i.e., the slow-
speed booster pump (suction stage pump) is driven
in tandem with the main pressure stage pump, using
either a step-up gearbox (to the high speed pressure
stage) or a reduction gearbox (to the suction stage),
depending on the speed of the driving motor or steam
turbine.
The position of the feed pumps in the steam cycle
of a modern turbine-generator unit was shown in
Fig 1.65 (in this case for a PWR unit) physically they
are situated beneath the de-aerator, upstream of the
HP heaters.
4.3.1 Feed pump size and number
The choice of feed pump size and number is based
upon the principle of ensuring that full turbine-
CONDENSING
SECTION
53
The steam turbine
generator unit output can be maintained with the
loss of one main duty feed pump. This ensures
maximum plant availability.
For the majority of 500 and 660 MW units, the
most economic solution has been a 100% duty steam
turbine-driven feed pump with two x 50% electric
motor-driven start/standby sets (higher capital costs
but lower running costs than all-electric pumps).
The situation is now changing for units over 660
MW in that the saving in capital costs of having
150% (three x 50%) feed pump capacity compared
with 200%, begins to outweigh the increased com-
plication of having two pumps running in parallel
for full-load operation. Other advantages of having
three identical 50% duty pumps include reduced
spares holdings, quicker maintenance, modular con-
struction with a more compact layout occupying less
station floorspace, and less complex and expensive
pipework.
Feed pump size has more recently been influenced
by two other factors:
International market appeal 50% duty pumps
for large (over 660 MW) units have the greatest
worldwide market potential, whereas 100% duty
pumps would require new pumps to be designed
that have very little export potential.
The choice of feed pump driver influences, to a
certain extent, the pump size for example, the
current international trend to electric motors and
50% duty pumps means that no variable-speed
motors or couplings large enough for 100% duty
have yet been developed.
4.3.2 Feed pump duty, margins, and the need
for variable speed
The duty of the boiler feed pump as determined by
the boiler and turbine pressure flow conditions, is
given by Fig 1.71. Shown on the diagram are the
boiler feed-pump characteristics, i.e., the relation-
ships between the head produced by the boiler feed
pump corresponding to the particular value of feed
flow pumped, and the boiler feed pump speed. Various
head/flow characteristics corresponding to the operat-
ing range of pump speeds are indicated. The curve
denoted as 'system resistance' is the relationship
between feedwater flow and the head that has to
be produced by the boiler feed pump to pump the
feedwater into the boiler. Also shown in the dia-
gram are the design values of feedwater flow for the
turbine plant, boiler plant and the feed pump itself.
It is normal practice to design the boiler to pro-
duce a higher rate of steam generation than that
appropriate to the value used in the turbine-generator
design. This margin is normally about 5% and is
intended to cover application variations (e.g., site
conditions such as available cooling water) at the time
54
Chapter 1
140
'DESIGN
QUANTITIES
60 J
APPROXIMATE PRESSURE IN BOILER AFTER SIX HOURS SHUTDOWN
I
I
I
I
40 I
I
1
0 20 40 60
FLOW, % OF TURBINE CMR FLOW
80 100 120
FIG. 1.71 Boiler feed pump and system characteristics
that the boiler is designed, and also to allow for a
deterioration of plant capability in service. In addi-
tion to the effect of the boiler margin, the boiler
feed pump is designed to produce a rather higher
feedwater flow than that needed by the normal boiler
design condition. This is intended to cope with pump
wear and transient conditions, and to act as an op-
erational margin.
At the value of feed flow corresponding to the
turbine design quantity, the head produced by the
pump is in excess of that required to pump the water
to the boiler. This excess pressure can be minimised
if the pump can be driven at reduced speed: if this
is not possible the excess pressure has to be broken
down across the feedwater regulating valve. As can
be seen from Fig 1.71, at low values of feed flow,
the excess of head produced by the pump over the
system resistance head is considerable. On typical
British sets of 500 MW and over, variable-speed drive
is always adopted because the cost of providing it is
much less than the operational and financial losses
that would be incurred by this breakdown of pres-
sure. In addition to this, all conventional plant is
required to be capable of two-shift operation, i.e.,
to be shutdown overnight and started in the morning.
During an overnight shutdown the boiler pressure
falls significantly, such that during the start-up period
next morning, the boiler feed pump is only required
to deliver some 100-200 bar instead of the approxi-
mate 230 bar closed-valve full-speed pressure of the
pump. For this reason, the pump that is used during
the start-up period should have a speed range down
to approximately 70% full speed to avoid excessive
wear on the feedwater regulating valve.

As the power requirement of a boiler feed pump
for a typical 500 MW unit is approximately 10 MW,
it can be seen that the choice of an economic and
technically acceptable variable-speed boiler feed pump
drive is a decision of major importance. The possible
types of boiler feed pump variable-speed drives which
have been considered by the CEGB for use on large
generating units are:
Fixed-speed electric motor with variable-speed
coupling.
Converter-fed variable-speed (electric) motor (VSM).
Back pressure steam turbine.
Condensing steam turbine.
In addition to these choices, the option of slipring
induction motor, regulated by resistance in the rotor
circuit, has been considered and used in the past.
This relatively cheap and simple solution, using large
liquid rheostats with mechanically-movable tapping
points, has proved unreliable in practice, with a high
maintenance burden.
Variable-speed electric motors and condensing steam
turbines have only recently become viable options
(for future units over 900 MW) due to the trend to
slower (6000 r/min or less) 'International Class' boiler
feed pumps, to limit erosion and cavitation in the
pump, to the NPSH required and de-aerator height,
etc. These two types of drive are not feasible for
use with the higher speed 'Advanced Class' pumps
used on 500 and 660 MW units so far, due to con-
verter size limitations and blade vibration and stressing
difficulties.
A technical description of electric motor drives
(variable-speed, induction, synchronous, etc.) for feed
pumps is given in Volume D. A description of the
use of steam turbines for driving feed pumps can
be found in Section 9 of this chapter.
4.3.3 Economic comparison of steam turbine
drives with electric motor drives
Capital costs
On the majority of 500 and 660 MW units, a variable-
speed drive to the 100% duty feed pump is provided
by a back pressure steam turbine, using bled-steam
from the main turbine HP cylinder exhaust and ex-
hausting to the main IP/LP crossover. Bled-steam
tappings on the feed pump turbine itself have been
used in the past to supply steam to one or more
stages of HP feedheaters.
For large modern units (over 660 MW), the capital
costs of the extra bled-steam pipework and the boiler
feed pump turbine are significantly greater than the
Economies of the steam cycle
provision necessary for 50% electric feed pumps, which
includes equivalent bled-steam pipework for the HP
heater alone, plus electric motors (including reinforce-
ment of the station electrical system to cope with the
high motor-starting currents). Also, the first option
usually includes a live steam connection direct from
the boiler to the feed pump turbine for operational
flexibility, even though the electric pumps are often
used for starting. The live steam pipework is expensive,
due to its high pressure duty.
There is usually no extra capital cost attributable
to the required increase in rating of the main IP/LP
turbines and the generator needed to supply the extra
power for electric motor-driven feed pumps, since it
requires only a marginal increase in steam flow (3%)
of the main unit.
With all-electric feed pumps, the system is more
compact (less floorspace) and simpler, needing fewer
spares holdings. Because the pumps are freed from
the constraints of steam pipework they can be placed
in the ideal position for NPSH considerations, on
the basement floor (instead of a few metres above
it to accommodate the steam inlet pipework below
the pumps) directly beneath the de-aerator (NPSH is
defined in Chapter 4 and de-aerator height, etc., is
discussed in Chapter 3). These factors can lead to
savings in capital costs for the de-aerator and its
civil engineering costs and the feed pump suction
pipework between the de-aerator and the pump.
Running costs
A steady state model of the thermal performance of
the turbine and feedheating/pumping plant can be
incorporated in a computer simulation program. Such
a program can then be used to compare overall cy-
cle efficiencies (it calculates the cycle heat rate) for
different input data and can be used to compare the
thermodynamic effects on the overall cycle of steam
turbine-driven and electric motor-driven feed pumps.
Figure 1.72 illustrates these thermodynamic effects
graphically for a fixed 900 MW sent-out (SO) unit
with a fixed main turbine exhaust area and pressure,
for 50% feed pumps. Also shown, is an example
calculation to determine the additional work done
in the main turbine due to changing from a back-
pressure feed-pump-turbine drive to an electric-motor
drive. This calculation is continued in Fig 1.73, where
the additional work done in the main turbine due to
not having steam turbine driven pumps is compared
with the electrical power used (and associated gen-
erator, transformer, cabling, motor, gears and converter
or fluid-coupling losses) to drive the motor-driven
pumps. It can be seen that in this case, which is for
a back-pressure feed pump turbine with no bled-
steam tappings to HP heaters (for a future 900 MW
unit), there is a unit heat rate improvement with
electric motor-driven feed pumps.
55
The steam turbine Chapter 1

BACK PRESSURE BFP TURBINE MOTOR DRIVEN FEED PUMPS

2x50% FEED PUMPS 2x50% FEED PUMPS

3588.2

3500J 3500

3000 3000

I
<
I

o
LU
CL

2500' 1-2500

2000 2000
7.4 7.6 6.4 6.6
SPECIFIC ENTROPY, kJ/kgK

A ADDITIONAL HEAT SUPPLIED IN REHEATER

=62.9(3588.2-3123.2) = 29.24MW = 1.49% TOTAL HEAT SUPPLIED
B ADDITIONAL WORK DONE IN IP TURBINE
=62.9(3588.2 - 2973.5) = 38.65MW = 4.29% TOTAL POWER OUTPUT
C ADDITIONAL WORK DONE IN LP TURBINE
(DUE TO DIVERGENT CONSTANT PRESSURE LINES)
=62.9(765.4 - 689.8) x 0.852 = 4.44MW = 0.48% TOTAL POWER OUTPUT
(DUE TO REDUCED WETNESS LOSS) = 0.22% TOTAL POWER OUTPUT

MW TOTAL
HEAT SUPPLIED
MW GENERATED MW SENT OUT (BOILER & REHEATER) kg/s TSV
BASIS:
1 BACK PRESSURE BFPT 900 900 1962.4 772.0
2 INDUCTION MOTOR 925 900 1954.2 757.5
3 VARIABLE SPEED MOTOR 923.5 900 1951.0 756.3

FIG. 1.72 Thermodynamic effects of the change to motor-driven feed pumps

The back pressure turbine option considered above
has no bled-steam tappings for HP heaters because
it has been found that, in practice, the improvement
they give to the overall cycle efficiency can be offset
by the effect of the main boiler feed pump availability
on HP heater availability. Also, feed system stability
56
problems have occurred with this type of system.
Overseas electricity utilities have tended to use con-
densing turbines with their slower 'International Class'
pumps because they can give a better overall steam
cycle efficiency (heat rate). Steam is usually extracted
from the main turbine IP cylinder exhaust instead of

CHANGES DUE TO USE OF MOTOR DRIVE
(expressed as % of unit (Sent Out) output or total heat supplied)
FIGURES FOR VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS IN BRACKETS WHERE DIFFERENT
ADDITIONAL HEAT SUPPLIED !N REHEATER
ADDITIONAL POWER REQUIRED
BY FEED PUMP
LOSSES ASSOCIATED WITH MOTOR DRIVE:
ADDITIONAL GENERATOR LOSS
TRANSFORMER
CABLING
MOTOR (& INVERTER)
GEARBOX/FLUID COUPLING
DETERIORATION IN HEAT RATE
NET HEAT RATE IMPROVEMENT = 4.99 - 4.48 = 0.51% (INDUCTION MOTORS)
FIG. 1.73 Comparison of turbine-driven and motor-driven feed pumps
the HP exhaust, and is therefore a lower grade of
heat than that used for the back pressure turbine,
and the steam is exhausted to the feed pump turbine's
own condenser or to the main condenser. This has
the advantage of reducing the steam flow (and hence
leaving loss) through the main LP turbine, or of
reducing its required exhaust area.
CEGB operating data demonstrates that feed pumps
can achieve the same availability figure regardless of
type of driver. Hence the savings in overall CEGB
system running costs from the higher feed pump system
availability of a 100% steam and two x 50% electric
feed pumps, compared with three x 50% electric
feed pumps, are not significant. (Typical feed pump
system availabilities would be 99.96% compared with
99.92%.)
4.3.4 Economic comparison of variable-speed
motor (VSM) drive with induction motor plus
fluid-coupling drive
Capital costs
At the presently preferred auxiliary electrical system
voltage of 11 kV, the direct on-line starting of squirrel-
cage induction motors for 50% duty feed pumps on
large modern units (900 MW and over) would involve
the development of quick-switching techniques not
currently available. The squirrel-cage motor and geared
hydraulic coupling gives the minimum first cost, but
the direct drive high speed synchronous motor (about
6000 r/min), fed from a converter to give variable
Economies of the steam cycle
(50% DUTY PUMPS)
= 1.49% ADDITIONAL WORK DONE IN IP TURBINE = 4.29%
= 2.60% ADDITIONAL WORK DONE IN LP TURBINE.
DUE TO DIVERGENT CONSTANT PRESSURE LINES = 0.48%
DUE TO LOWER WETNESS LOSS = 0.22%
= 0.04% (0.04%)
= 0.01% (0.01%)
= 0.05% (0.05%)
= 0.09% (0.13%)
= 0.20% (0.00%)
= 0.39% (0.23%)
= 4.48% (4.32%) IMPROVEMENT IN HEAT RATE : 4.99%
4.99 - 4.32 = 0.67% (VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS)
speed, has a soft-start capability (only 1.5 times against
4.5 times full-load current) which solves the station
electrical system problems.
Running costs
In addition to the flow and head margins applied
to the feed pump (and hence to the drive) that have
already been described, electric motor drives are cur-
rently required to be able to give their full rated
output at a minimum electrical system frequency of
49.5 Hz so, at the normal operating condition of
50 Hz, there is again a margin to be compensated
for, in this case by VSM converter or by fluid cou-
pling slip. Hence, the normal duty point for the feed
pump drive has significantly less power output than
its 100% rated output. Figure 1.74 compares the
overall efficiencies of VSM and motors with fluid
couplings, for decreasing pump outputs. Even at the
normal duty point, the advantage of VSM drive can
clearly be seen, and the difference in efficiency affects
station lifetime costs signficantly. This difference at
the duty point is mainly due to two factors:
Fluid coupling slip it is an inherent feature
of fluid-drive designs that there is still some slip
between the input impeller and output turbine,
even at their rated output, which creates losses in
the form of heat in the working fluid (removed
by oil coolers).
Gearbox losses VSMs have the same advantage
as steam turbine drives in that they can drive
the high speed (high power) pressure stage pump
57
The steam turbine
VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONVERTER FED SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
REDUCTION IN EFFICIENCY MAINLY
DUE TO: FLUID COUPLING SLIP AND
GEARBOX LOSSES
INDUCTION MOTOR PLUS GEARED
.FLUID COUPLING
RAPID FALL-OFF
IN EFFICIENCY DUE TO INCREASED
FLUID COUPLING SLIP
DUTY POINT
h"
RATED OUTPUT, ,
FIG. 1.74 Variation of electric motor drive efficiency
with output, for boiler feed pumps
directly, so that the gearbox (reduction) only has
to transmit the suction stage power, which is about
20% or less of the total feed pump power. For the
same gearbox efficiency the actual power lost in the
gearbox will therefore be up to four times as much
for an induction motor/fluid coupling pump, where
the slow-speed motor has to transmit over 80% of
its power to the pressure stage pump through a
step-up gearbox (usually incorporated in the fluid
coupling).
Rapidly increasing slip losses in the fluid coupling
lead to a much sharper decrease in drive efficiency
than the VSM, for decreasing pump speed (output).
Lifetime running costs will increase even further,
relative to the VSM, if the fixed-speed motor and
fluid-coupling feed pump has to be run at part-loads
for any significant periods of time.
4.3.5 Example of the results of an overall com-
parison of the through-life costs of four feed
pump system options
Figure 1.75 shows the capital and running costs of
58
Chapter 1
the four feed pump options that were the subject
of detailed investigation for a typical future large
coal-fired turbine-generator unit. This histogram sum-
marises the effects of the factors already discussed
in this section, the main points of which are repeated
below.
From this study, the three x 50% feed pump
option became the only viable one for many reasons,
but mainly because it is the best compromise between
feed pump system availability (no interruption to
full-load output with one feed pump unavailable)
and capital cost. Operations data from CEGB sources
suggests the same level of pumpset availability regard-
less of the type of drive, so for these four options
(all three x 50%) the loss of availability' costs shown
on the histogram are all the same.
Repair and maintenance costs are significantly higher
for the two options with two steam turbines and one
variable-speed motor (VSM) options (3) and (4)
due to not having three identical pumps (increased
maintenance times and spares holdings), and the fact
that operating data shows that repair and maintenance
costs are directly related to capital costs, which are
higher for the steam options.
Capital costs reflect the higher cost of steam turbines
and their associated bled-steam pipework, valves, etc.,
compared to electric motors, with the condensing steam
turbine (option 3) being the most expensive, due to
the larger steam volume and the design problems
involved with the last-stage blade. The VSM and con-
verter equipment (option 1) is more expensive than
the simple induction motor with fluid coupling (option
2), but there is more uncertainty in the latter cost due
to the development costs of equipment to cater for the
high starting current with existing 11 kV station electrical
systems.
Running costs are presented in Fig 1.75 relative to
the condensing steam turbine-driven pumps (3) which
was found to be the most efficient option. For turbine-
driven pumps, the differential heat rates, calculated
by computer program using data from CEGB refer-
ence designs, have been used to obtain the equivalent
lifetime running costs between the turbine and elec-
trically-driven options. The back pressure turbine option
is based on the most efficient designs but without
bled-steam tappings for HP heaters, to avoid possible
feed system stability problems and loss of heater
availability.
For the motor-driven pumps, the lifetime running
costs take account of the power input required at the
pump couplings (calculated for all pumps, whatever
the type of driver, using pump efficiencies consistent
with what might be expected for international stand-
ard machines), augmented by efficiency losses in the
drive package, associated cabling, and transformer. The
traditional pump head and flow margins (3%/5%)
and the requirement to be able to produce full out-
put with a minimum electrical system frequency of
49.5 Hz ensure that the pump duty point is at a

(1) 3 x 50% VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS (VSM)
(2) 3 x 50% INDUCTION MOTOR WITH FLUID COUPLING
(3) 2 x 50% CONDENSING STEAM TURBINE + 50% VSM
(4) 2 x 50% BACK-PRESSURE TURBINE + 50% VSM
M COST OF LOSS OF AVAI LABI LITY
I I REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE COSTS
E551 CAPITAL COST
1 RUNNING COSTS RELATIVE TO OPTION (3)
FIG. 1.75 Ranking of feed pump options
significantly lower load than its rated output. Since
the efficiency of the induction motor with fluid
coupling falls off with decreasing load much quicker
than the VSM efficiency (due to coupling slip losses
see Fig 1.74), the through-life running costs of this
option (2) are greater than for the VSM option (1).
An example of how an electric motor-driven feed
pump system can give a better overall steam cycle
efficiency, i.e., a better heat rate, than a back pressure
turbine-driven system is shown in Figs 1.72 and 1.73,
which are largely self explanatory. This efficiency
gain can lead to the improvement in through-life
running costs that can be seen on the histogram if
options (1) and (2) are compared with option (4).
The above conclusions relate to a specific set of
economic circumstances. Different applications, studied
against a scenario of changing fuel prices, capital costs
and operating costs may result in different conclusions.
Nevertheless, these considerations exemplify the need
to analyse not only the capital cost, but also the other
components of lifetime cost in arriving at a solution.
Economies of the steam cycle
4.4 Turbine by-pass systems
This comprises a pipework system with valves and
pressure dropping devices to enable live steam from
the steam raising plant to by-pass the turbine complete-
ly and be dumped into the condenser. The associated
control system will open the by-pass according to
the specific needs of the plant. The need for a by-pass
system and the purposes to which it may be put are
discussed in this section. The details of its physical
implementation are discussed in Chapter 2.
The requirement for, and configuration of, by-pass
systems are mainly governed by the boiler arrange-
ment. The general considerations applicable to fossil-
fired and AGR superheat cycles are discussed first.
The special considerations for PWR wet steam plant,
using steam reheat, follow.
4.4.1 Superheat plant
The superheater and reheaters are an integral part of
the boiler. The basic system for a single reheat turbine
is shown in Fig 1.76.
59
The steam turbine Chapter 1

SUPERHEATER GOVERNOR NON-RETURN INTERCEPTOR

-H-wv
VALVE VALVE " VALVE

*-M 1

IP&LP
TURBINES

CONDENSER

-M-
HP BYPASS
VALVE

FIG. 1.76 Basic turbine by-pass system

When on full by-pass, the governor valve and interceptor valve are closed, the steam passes from the superheater
to the HP by-pass valve, then through the reheater and LP by-pass valve. The steam is fully attemperated by
spray water before passing to the condenser. The non-return valve in the HP turbine exhaust prevents a reverse
flow into the turbine. In practice, where a single valve is shown, there are usually two or more parallel
valves performing each duty

The system depicted permits completely independ-
ent boiler operation. Although the system operation
seems quite straightforward, the function of reducing
the steam pressure from turbine inlet conditions down
to exhaust conditions involves a major change in the
energy available which imposes a heavy duty on the
components involved. The need to supply a by-pass
system must therefore be carefully evaluated against
the benefits.
The prime reason why UK manufacturers have
supplied by-pass systems for certain applications is
to permit continued operation of the boiler and turbine
following a large load reduction or a circuit-breaker
trip to the house load. In a weakly-connected supply
network, this may be an overriding consideration,
since the ability to run-through such a transient would
allow rapid reconnection of the unit following fault
clearance. Without a by-pass, the power mismatch
following opening of the circuit-breaker causes the
turbine governing and interceptor valves to close
rapidly. To accommodate the reduction in steam
flow, the boiler firing rate must be rapidly reduced
to a minimum. On most boilers, with the possible
exception of some oil-fired units, this involves a firing
trip which necessitates a purging operation for several
hours prior to reloading. If a by-pass is supplied, a
large proportion of the excess steam can be diverted
through the by-pass system. If necessary, the boiler
60
can be slowly reduced in load to a low level, ready
for reloading when required. If the boiler load is
maintained and the system fault cleared, the unit
may be reloaded to a generator load corresponding
to the capacity of the by-pass within a few minutes.
Subsequent loading to full load is then accomplished
at the normal rate.
If provided for this basic reason, the turbine by-
pass system may also provide other benefits, although
these are not always significant. A full list of the
other possible benefits are summarised as follows:
For hot starts, following less than a 1 h shutdown,
the boiler flow through the by-pass can be adjusted
to raise the main and reheat steam temperatures
to the values required by the turbine. When the
turbine valves are opened, the thermal stresses in
turbine components is minimal. The subsequent
run-up and loading may then be selected to mini-
mise either the time to load or the thermal stress,
or some compromise between the two.
On warm starts, the by-pass may be used to bring
the main and reheat steam temperatures to a posi-
tive mismatch in order to minimise the time to
load within available stress margins.
In general, the by-pass provides for a smooth
warm-up of boiler components, including the re-
 Economies of the steam cycle

heater and the main steam pipework. A more rapid

boiler run-up may be possible, thus saving fuel.

Water loss during start-up is minimised since, if

no by-pass is fitted, superheater vents are used
to discharge steam to provide a flow of steam
through the superheater.

Independent operation of the boiler is more readi-

ly achieved with the full capability of de-aeration
and condensate polishing.

4.4.2 By-pass capacity

Sizing of the by-pass system is based on the most
arduous duty, in this case the ability to run-through
a trip to house load. The HP by-pass size is usually
expressed as a percentage of the HP stop valve flow
at rated full-load conditions. To cater for a load
rejection to house load, the size of the by-pass will
be given by:

HP by-pass capacity
,w /house load\ <
100% - x 100
V full load /
[inherent boiler load rejection capacity]
70% (typically)
The LP by-pass size is generally expressed as a
percentage of the interceptor valve flow at rated full-
load conditions. For a trip to house load, rapid closure
of the interceptor valves causes a pressure rise and
the LP by-pass opens to contain this. The LP by-
pass is usually sized at well below the 100% capa-
bility since, under the worst case of rejection from
full-load, any excessive pressure rise is accommodated
by lifting of reheater safety valves for a few minutes.
A by-pass system sized on the basis of load rejec-
tion capability can readily accommodate the duties
imposed for start-up and independent boiler operation.
To reduce the enthalpy of the steam, it is neces-
sary to inject spraywater, derived from the condensate
system, after both HP and LP by-pass valves. The
spraywater flow adds to the HP by-pass flow to give
the mass flow rate through the LP by-pass system;
this is therefore used in sizing calculations.
The supply of a by-pass system reflects on the
design of other plant in a major way. To cater for
the supply of spraywater on top of the maximum
HP by-pass flow, it is necessary to increase the rat-
ing of the condensate extraction pumps.
The increased flow and high enthalpy of the by-
pass steam increases the size and cost of the con-
denser significantly. Figure 1.77 shows how the
additional heat load relates to the HP by-pass size.
HP BYPASS SIZE,1
FIG. 1.77 Typical heat load on condenser
The additional throughput of condensate flow must
also be taken into account in the design of the LP
heaters.
4.4.3 System effects
In operation, other problems arise from the intro-
duction of the by-pass systems. Following a load
rejection, the HP governor valves close fully and once
the by-pass is operating, the non-return valves in the
HP turbine exhaust prevent reverse flow into the HP
turbine. However, the steam already in the turbine
cylinder is effectively bottled up' and the continuing
rotation of the turbine causes rapid overheating of
the blading due to turbulence and frictional heating
of the contained steam.
A similar problem arises during start-up. Without a
by-pass, the HP turbine exhaust pressure prior to
synchronisation is at a very low value, controlled by
the flow through the IP and LP turbines. With a by-
pass, there will be a much higher flow through the
by-pass and the turbine exhaust pressure is consider-
ably higher. Normally this value of exhaust pressure
would only be attained with a much higher flow
through the turbine. The HP turbine is therefore
operating with its efficiency considerably reduced and
in addition is producing some rotation loss heating.
A typical condition line for the HP turbine is shown
on the Mollier diagram in Fig 1.78.
61
The steam turbine
ENTROPY, kJ/kg
FIG. 1.78 HP turbine condition line
These problems are effectively dealt with by pro-
viding a connection from the HP turbine exhaust to
the condenser, sized to take approximately the HP
flow that obtains prior to synchronisation and ar-
ranged to open only when the by-pass is in operation.
During by-pass operation, there is a transient loss
in the water stored in the de-aerator due to the re-
circulation of spraywater. An assessment of the worst
case transient is normally made to ensure that feed
system stability is maintained.
The remaining problems concern the malfunction
of the by-pass system and associated plant. To pro-
tect the LP turbine, it is necessary to trip the by-
pass valves closed in the event that loss of conden-
ser cooling water causes a high LP turbine exhaust
pressure. Failure of spraywater valves and other as-
pects are covered in more detail in Chapter 2.
4.4.4 Improvement of start-up capability
The provision of a by-pass system improves start-
62
Chapter 1
up of the boiler and turbine. Its economic impact is
most readily appreciated by considering the effect on
hot starts following an overnight shutdown. This is
the duty normally seen by a unit allocated to two-
shifting. Figures 1.79 (a) and (b) depict the differ-
ences in unit start-up with and without the by-pass
in operation. The start-up time is roughly 15 minutes
less if the by-pass is used. The saving may be con-
siderably more if the boiler/turbine is not a flexible
unit designed for two-shifting.
Depending on the intended duty of the plant, this
may represent a significant saving to lifetime costs.
There is also a small saving because, without a by-
pass, water would be lost through the superheated
vents as part of the standard start-up procedure. A
further advantage of the by-pass system for start-up
is that inexperienced operators are more easily able
to bring the steam conditions to appropriate values
before rolling-off the turbine. Against these advantages
must be set the cost and maintenance burden asso-
ciated with the supply of a by-pass system. In general,
a small capacity (35%) by-pass system is unlikely to be
justified on the grounds of improvement of start-up
capability.
One notable exception is the once-through boiler,
where a substantial bypass flow is required for a
lengthy period during start-up. The CEGB AGR ma-
chines, which use a superheat steam cycle, are examples
of this. The AGR also needs to use the by-pass for a
lengthy period during shutdowns, particularly if the
reactor is to be maintained at temperature in readiness
for the next start-up.
4.4.5 PWR wet steam plant
The reheater is not part of the boiler. This function
is carried out by live steam from the reactor and
bled-steam from the HP turbine in vessels mounted
adjacent to the turbine. There is therefore no require-
ment for separate HP and LP by-passes to permit
independent operation of the reactor and steam gen-
erators. A single by-pass circuit to dump HP stop
valve inlet steam to the condenser is employed. Warm-
through of the reheater is accomplished as part of
the turbine start-up. Rapid starting and utilisation for
two-shifting is not the role of PWR plant.
The reasons for the supply of by-pass systems on
PWR plant are therefore:
(a) To enable the nuclear plant to accept transients
without tripping or actuating safety valves.
(b) To remove stored energy and residual heat follow-
ing a turbine and reactor trip to bring the plant
to equilibrium.
(c) To permit a manually controlled cooldown of the
plant to the point where the residual heat removal
system can be put into operation.
 Economies of the steam cycle

HP & IP/LP BYPASSES IN SERVICE

30 40 50
TIME FROM LIGHTING BURNERS, min

(a) Hot start (6 - 8 hours shutdown) with bypass system LOAD

SPEED
TEMPERATURE
FLOW
PRESSURE

30. 40 50
TIME FROM LIGHTING BURNERS, min

(b) Hot start (6 - 8 hours shutdown ) without bypass system

FIG. 1.79 Comparison of unit start-up with and without a by-pass system

63
The steam turbine
(d) Following a turbine trip or shutdown, to maintain
the reactor and steam generators in a hot-standby
condition, ready for turbine restarting.
A diagram of a typical by-pass system configuration
is shown in Fig 1.80. The main by-pass is through
six parallel sets of control valves into the three con-
denser sections. Valves 1, 3 and 5 are modulating
valves used for all three functions but sized to be
capable of performing the cooldown duty (c) on their
own. Valves 2, 4 and 6 are capable of being switched
open or closed and are only used for duties (a), (b)
and (d). An additional dump to atmosphere is also
provided for duty (d), since infrequent discharges
to atmosphere are permissible for short durations.
This reduces the duty on the condenser, permitting
considerable economies to be made. Thus, in the
event of a turbine-generator trip, valves 1, 3 and 5
are opened first, followed by valves 2, 4 and 6 and
finally, if necessary, the atmospheric dump valve.
For one reactor, the total capacity is arranged to be
approximately 70% of the full MCR steam flow with
about 10% being accommodated by the atmospheric
dump valve. In association with further relief valve
capacity in the reactor system, this permits a trip of
the total turbine-generator capacity. A reactor trip
) DUMP VALVE TO ATMOSPHERE
HP BYPASS
CONTROL VALVES
ZXtzXt
MAIN STEAM
MANIFOLD
i=xt=xt
FIG. 1.80 Turbine by-pass system for a wet steam machine
64
Chapter 1
only requires a by-pass capacity of 40% and is ac-
complished without discharge to atmosphere.
Both condenser and atmospheric sets of valves are
required to open fast, particularly for duties (b) and
(d). The opening time of approximately three seconds
permits containment of the steam pressure rise with-
in the settings of the atmospheric valves for the
reactor trip case. The valve closing rates are designed
to protect the turbine and condenser in the event
of a system failure. A closure time of 5 seconds is
provided to protect against high condenser/turbine
exhaust pressures in the event of a condenser cooling
water failure. The effects on other plant are similar
to those discussed for superheat plant and are taken
into account in the design.
The provision of sufficient by-pass capacity to
avoid tripping the reactor in the event of a turbine-
generator trip justifies the by-pass on economic grounds.
If the reactor were allowed to trip for a turbine
problem lasting for perhaps only 30 minutes, there
would be a severe availability penalty.
The problems of implementing a by-pass system
are addressed in Chapter 2. These matters are proper-
ly dealt with at the design stage and result in systems
which provide economic benefits by achieving better
co-ordination between the turbine and boiler systems.
- 1
LP
CYLINDER 1
 Turbine blading

5 Turbine blading and blades need to be very robust. The diaphragm

has the advantage of a relatively small diameter at
the steam seal between diaphragm and rotor, but
this labyrinth seal must be as good as possible to
5.1 Impulse stages deal with the high pressure drop. The radial labyrinth
seal ensures adequate insensitivity to axial displace-
5.1.1 Moving blades details and construction ment between the rotor and the casing. A typical
In the impulse stage, invented by Professor Rteau, impulse stage arrangement is shown in Fig 1.81.
the majority of the heat drop occurs in the station-
ary blading and the driving force on the stage arises
from the change in momentum of the steam across
the moving blades. The impulse design possesses the
advantages of compactness and comparative insen-
sitivity to blading clearance since little pressure drop
takes place over the moving blading. However, the
moving blades are subject to disturbances from the
nozzle wakes, so resonance must be avoided and
steam bending stresses must be kept low; also, since
the momentum change is relatively high, the moving
blades have to be robust and tend to be heavy. It
is therefore regular practice to attach the individ-
ually manufactured blades to a wheel disc, often by
straddle roots which engage with corresponding axial
shoulders machined on the wheel rim.
One or more protrusions are left at the outer end
of the moving blade. These pass through holes in a
coverband which may in turn fit into a slot machined
in the outside of the blade: when these protrusions
or tenons are formed into rivets, they keep the cover-
band in place. The coverband acts as a seal and braces
the blading to reduce vibration. Each length of cover-
band ties a short length of blades together and may
butt up to the next length or overlap, so that an
extremely robust construction is created. Since a cer-
tain degree of reaction builds up towards the outer
diameter of all impulse blades, axial sealing fins are
formed integral with the moving blade shroud or
coverband.

5.1.2 Fixed blades details and construction

There are two methods of constructing the stationary
nozzle blading. Built-up blades, machined from the
solid, are used for nozzle plates and steel diaphragms,
whilst cast-in blades, formed from steel plates em-
bedded into cast iron diaphragms, are used where
temperatures are below 230C. On some of the latest
machines, HP blades have been electrochemically ma-
chined. An impulse stage is frequently used for the
first stage of the HP turbine. The fixed blades may
then be incorporated in an integral nozzle box, there-
by obviating the problem of pressure sealing at the
inside of the blade ring. By absorbing a high heat
drop, the nozzle box arrangement also reduces the
pressure and temperature of the steam impinging on
the HP rotor and inner casing.
Since impulse stage diaphragms have to withstand
the bulk of the stage pressure drop, both diaphragm
FIG. 1.81 Modern impulse stage with labyrinth sealing
5.1.3 Velocity-compounded stage
The first HP stage of a turbine, where it is desired
to give a large pressure drop to the first row of noz-
zles, sometimes incorporates two impulse stages on
the same wheel. This is done to protect the casing
and rotor from higher pressure and temperature con-
ditions. As a velocity-compounded stage uses ap-
proximately the same heat drop as four impulse
stages, it is used to provide a shorter and cheaper
turbine, although with some sacrifice in efficiency.
It is no longer used in large base-load turbines.

65
The steam turbine Chapter 1

Figure 1.82 shows the arrangement of such a This type of blading was designed and developed by
stage. The nozzles, of the convergent-divergent type, Sir Charles Parsons and lends itself to economical
produce very high steam kinetic energy, some of production of blades from standard rolled sections.
which is absorbed by the first row of blades, the Only a small heat drop can be accommodated per
remainder being deflected back by the stationary blade row, due to the comparatively high velocity
guide blades and used in the second row. Both moving ratio required for good efficiency; this means that a
blades and nozzles are machined from the solid and large number of expansions are required. Steam ap-
are necessarily very robust. proaches the moving blades with a velocity that is
low and substantially axial in direction. Consequently,
the driving force applied to the moving blades arises
almost entirely from the reaction force of the steam
as it accelerates through the moving blades. The force
applied to the moving blades is thus fairly steady, with
very little disturbance arising from the nozzle wakes
of the fixed blades, so fairly high bending stresses
can be employed in the moving blades without risk
of fatigue failure due to vibration.
Since the pressure drop across the fixed blades is
small, diaphragms are not required, but small tip
clearances are needed throughout the turbine to pre-
vent excessive leakage losses. This was achieved in
earlier turbines by axial sealing and end-tightening.
With solidly-coupled shafts which expand either
side of a single thrust bearing and with multi-casing
arrangements, end-tightening is not feasible and a
compromise has to be reached between fine clearances
to reduce leakage and large clearances to accom-
modate differential expansion when starting.
Modern reaction turbines generally employ a com-
bination of axial and radial sealing at the stators and
rotors, and for this purpose, the rotor blades are
STEAM CHEST . provided at their outer edge with shrouds formed
PRESSURE
of sections integral with the blade (see Fig 1.83).
These mate with replaceable finned sealing segments
in the casing. Fins formed on the inner diameter of
the fixed blades provide sealing at the rotor.
VELOCITY
REMAINING
CONDENSER
Small reaction-type blades can be manufactured
INITIALSTEAM
VELOCITY PRESSURE by cutting from rolled bar of the requisite profile
or machining from bar, while larger blades may be
separately cold-rolled after which the root portion is
i} heated and forged. Blades may also be machined from
MOVING BLADES envelope forgings or produced by precision forging, so
FIXED BLADES
that the profile requires no further machining; this
STEAM VELOCITY
STEAM PRESSURE
is valuable where tough materials make machining
difficult. Final machining can also be awkward where
integral shrouds and root fixings interfere with the
machine tool. To facilitate manufacture, modern prac-
FIG. 1.82 Velocity-compounded (Curtis) stage tice is to braze together short groups of blades before
machining the circumferential serrations on the sides
of the roots, see Fig 1.84. The brazing also permits
easier assembly. Groups of blades are fitted in the
5.2 Reaction stages rotor or casing in circumferential grooves which have
corresponding circumferential serrations machined in
their walls. The blades arc secured in the grooves
5.2.1 Fixed and moving blades details and by similarly serrated side-locking pieces cut from rolled
construction strip. A suitable stop plate at the half joint locates
Although called 'reaction', these stages in fact employ the fixed blades in the circumferential groove and
equal degrees of impulse and reaction, resulting in prevents the blade segments from rotating due to
the fixed and moving blades being of identical section. torque reaction.

66

FIXED BLADE
FIG. 1.83 Section through a reaction stage
5.3 Low pressure stages
5.3.1 Aerodynamic and mechanical constraints
In early machines, the last few low pressure moving
blades were of constant cross-section. The stress in
this type of blade increased quadratically from the
tip to the base and attained its maximum value in
the transition from blade to root: this placed a re-
striction on the length of blade that could be used at
synchronous speed. Modern last-stage blades have a
cross section which reduces exponentially with the
square of the radius. The tensile stress due to centri-
fugal stress is then virtually constant over the greater
part of the blade length and this has enabled blades
up to 940 mm long to be used on 3000 r/min
machines.
On modern blading, the tip diameter is typically
about double the base diameter, so that at the mean,
the blade pitch, i.e., the circumferential distance be-
tween adjacent blades, is about 1.5 times the pitch
at the base diameter. The peripheral speed is also
1.5 times as great as at the base and the effect of
this increased blade speed is to change the direction
of the incident velocity of the steam relative to the
moving blade. The moving blade inlet angle is there-
fore set to line up with the direction of the incoming
steam flow and the moving blade section is also
changed. This reduces the outlet angle so that a pres-
Turbine blading
FlG. 1.84 Brazed reaction blade group
sure drop develops across the moving blades and
the steam leaves the moving blades at a higher speed
to offset the higher peripheral speed, enabling the
steam to leave the blades with the minimum of swirl.
The stage is designed to have a fairly low degree of
reaction at the base and, since the pressure drop
across the fixed blades decreases in response to the
increasing pressure drop across the moving blades,
reaction increases with blade height. The radial ten-
sion due to centrifugal force and the aerodynamic
effect of change of steam flow results in a highly-
twisted moving blade, having a robust low reaction
section at the root and a slim high reaction section
at the tip, see Fig 1.85.
5.3.2 Blade tip restraint
The use of long blades and large blade chords in-
volves an increase in pitch and this creates compli-
cations in the various devices used to stiffen the
blade assembly and dampen vibration. A coverband or
lacing wire must behave as a beam spanning the blade
pitch in resisting centrifugal loading, and must also
accommodate the substantial circumferential strains
due to radial elastic extension of the blades and the
tendency of the blade to untwist at speed.
When lacing wires are used, they are usually of
the 'loose' type with circumferential restraint on only
one blade in each group, and are free to move
circumferentially in adjacent blades, centrifugal forces
providing the necessary damping through friction. The
gaps between adjacent lacing wires can introduce
complications in vibration patterns on long blades
67
The steam turbine
FIG. 1.85 Final blade envelopes
and overlapping lacing wires are sometimes used to
give some measure of continuity around the annulus.
A coverband of conventional design is not feasible
for slim sections and where the peripheral speed may
be approaching Mach 2, but a continuous ring of
stiffening devices of sufficient elasticity may be used
to accommodate circumferential strains. The elastic
arch banding, shown in Fig 1.86, braces the blade
tip and provides some resistance to blade untwist as
well as largely permitting circumferential strain.
Zigzag spool rods shown in Fig 1.87 are frequently
incorporated in the tips of the last-stage LP blades
of modern turbines. The spool rods provide no re-
straint against circumferential expansion or centri-
fugal untwist, but the reduced sections at the ends
of the rods are forced against the holes in the blades
by centrifugal action and the sliding friction provides
effective damping, minimising blade vibration and
high frequency flutter at the blade tip.
A recent variant to the spool rod is the ball-
jointed tip tie. The dumb-bell-shaped tie rod fits into
a fixed ball-shaped socket in one blade and into a
sliding ball socket in the next blade. In common with
the spool rods, centrifugal strains are not restrained
but the ball-joints provide more controlled damping
and the evaluation of tie rod stressing is more re-
68
Chapter 1
FIG. 1.86 Arch coverbands
liable. Some thickening of the blade is required, how-
ever, in the region of the tip tie to accommodate the
ball-joint sockets.
A few manufacturers have dispensed with all forms
of stiffening, relying on the stiffening effect of cen-
trifugal forces, which can be very substantial on
freely-cantilevered blades. This type of blading tends
to be wider and heavier than blading with stiffening
and introduces difficulties in manufacture and rotor
design. Freely-cantilevered blades are most suitable
for the last stages of very small high speed turbines,
where it is not possible to introduce complicated stif-
fening devices and where the increased blade width
is not an embarrassment.
5.3.3 Baumann exhaust
A special type of exhaust blading, invented by Dr
Baumann, has been used by one manufacturer in
order to achieve greater exhaust area without undue
lengthening of the blades of the last moving row.
Known as the 'multi-exhausV, it used two-tier blades
for the penultimate stage, steam from the outer tier
exhausting directly to vacuum. The net result was
that, without lengthening the blades of the last row,
but by lengthening those of the previous row, the
leaving loss was appreciably reduced.
5.4 Moving blade root attachments
The last-stage blades of large turbines develop centri-
fugal forces of hundreds of tonnes when running,
very efficient methods of attachment are therefore
needed.
Systems in use at present include rhombus fixings
in a peripheral slot, finger-shaped pinned fixing and
straight or curved fir-tree roots. Fir-tree roots provide
an excellent method of attachment, since they permit
 Turbine blading

5.4.1 Fir-tree roots

Fir-tree serrations may be in line with the axis of
the machine, inclined to the axis, or curved, see
Fig 1.88. Curved fir-tree roots follow the blade chord
at the root section. The straight root, in line with
the axis, is used for slightly-twisted end blades. Both
the inclined and the curved fir-tree roots are used
for highly-twisted blades to achieve a closer blade
pitch at the inner steam path. Optimum selection
of the dimensions and number of serrations of the
fir-tree root has been made possible by finite ele-
ment calculations of stresses in the shaft and root.
Because of unavoidable inaccuracies in manufacture,
the pit between the supporting planks of the individual
fir-tree tips varies. This is also taken into account
in the calculations. Pull-out tests on fir-tree roots
have confirmed their reliability. In view of their high
strength and close packing capability, side entry fir-
tree roots are generally used for fixing last stage
LP blading.
In earlier turbine stages, fir-tree serrations are ma-
chined circumferentially in grooves in the rotor, and
groups of blades are secured in the grooves by simi-
larly-serrated side locking pieces cut from rolled strip.
The blades of the first row of the HP turbine are
axially attached to a short wheel disc on the rotor
by straddle roots, which engage with corresponding
shoulders machined circumferentially on the wheel
rim. The straddle fixing therefore acts as an inverted
fir-tree, the tree shape, usually with only one or two
branches, being formed on the rotor disc.

5.4.2 Pinned roots

Multifork pinned roots are generally easier to manu-
facture than fir-tree roots, since the machined faces
are plain with no undercutting, and the pin or rivet
holes are simply drilled and reamed. The enormous
force on moving blade roots, particularly in the LP

(a) Straight

FIG. 1.87 Zigzag spool rod tip-ties

(c) Curved

very close staggering of the blade cascade and the

centrifugal force is produced in an optimum manner
in the shaft teeth. FIG. 1.88 Types of fir-tree root

69
The steam turbine
stages ensures rigidity in any type of root fixing at
synchronous speed but, contrary to the fir-tree root,
the multifork pinned root provides a rigid fixing
when the machine is stationary. This enables the
zero speed vibration characteristic of the blades to
be confirmed with confidence and ensures a smooth
unstepped spectrum of characteristics, as the machine
is run up. Replacement of multiforked blades, how-
ever, involves further reaming of the securing pin
holes. This is awkward in-situ and can only be carried
out a limited number of times.
5.5 Diaphragm construction and support
5.5.1 Kinematic support
All diaphragms are divided at the horizontal joint
into two semicircular halves to permit assembly.
Diaphragms are located in the turbine cylinder as
close as practical to the horizontal and vertical axes
of the machine, in order to reduce to a minimum
the effects of differential expansion. Particularly when
the machine is small, the loss in output arising from
the internal clearances can be significant. It is for
this reason that the practice developed of supporting
and guiding the diaphragms in the inner cylinder by
keys in each half. This method of location, which
is known as kinematic support, is generally used on
current HP and IP turbines of the disc and diaphragm
type, and on the early stages of LP turbines.
The details of a kinematic support system are in-
fluenced by the method of manufacture. As the
adjacent surfaces of the cylinder and diaphragm are
circular, the diaphragm has to be supported on keys
fitted into milled recesses in both cylinder and dia-
phragm, as close to the horizontal joint as practical.
Transverse location of the diaphragm is achieved by
keys on the vertical centreline fitted into milled key-
ways. Adequate clearances are provided on fitting the
keys to ensure freedom of movement for differential
expansion. To avoid steam leakage between the two
halves of the diaphragm, the top half sits on the
bottom half, and keys at the half-joint are arranged
in line with, and transverse to, the machine centreline.
This locates the top half-diaphragm axially and ra-
dially with the bottom half-diaphragm, and provides
an effective steam seal. The keys on the bottom half
horizontal joint have to be sized to take the weight
of the complete diaphragm.
To enable the top half-diaphragm to be retained
in the top half cylinder when it is raised, stop-plates
are provided at the horizontal joint on each side.
The diaphragm is located axially against a machined
recess in the cylinder which offers frictional resistance
to the expansion of the diaphragm relative to the
cylinder. When sizing the support keys, it is usual
70
Chapter 1
to take into account the torque reaction on the
diaphragm.
All keys have provision for adjustment, so that
correct alignment of the diaphragms can be achieved.
A typical arrangement of diaphragm support and
location keys is shown in Fig 1.89.
5.5.2 Radial support pads
The provision of this system of kinematic support
becomes progressively more difficult as the diameter of
the diaphragm increases. As the size of turbine has
increased, the basic concept of kinematic support has
been modified to suit the circumstances.
One alternative has been to fit keys in both half-
diaphragms so that each is supported independently
at the horizontal joint. This arrangement requires that
there is a gap between the half-diaphragms for ex-
pansion, resulting in a steam leakage across the half
joint: it also requires more machining and fitting.
The difficulty in providing kinematic support for
large diaphragms occurs mainly in LP turbines, where
the outer ring diameter is large. In the LP turbine,
the differential temperature between diaphragm and
cylinder that has to be accommodated is much reduced.
This, together with the need to provide some form
of stop-plate for the top half-diaphragms, led to an
alternative arrangement where, in the running condition,
the top half-diaphragm is supported on the bottom
half-diaphragm, which itself just rests in the recess
in the cylinder. The clearance for differential expan-
sion is achieved by exact machining of the outer
diameter of the diaphragm.
A more practical arrangement is to machine a
generous radial clearance between cylinder and dia-
phragm and to fit the half-diaphragm with a number
of radial support pads which are then dressed to
obtain the required location of the half-diaphragm.
Differential steam pressure forces the diaphragm
outer rings against the downstream axial face of the
circumferential recess in the inner cylinder. To prevent
the diaphragms seizing in this recess, and to permit
adjustment, small crushing pegs are fitted in the up-
stream face of the locating spigot.
Temporary support pads may be fitted and adjusted
to achieve the correct positioning of the diaphragm
in the cylinder. The packing bush radial clearances
are bored to a charted size and checked with the
rotor in position. If necessary, the temporary pads
are adjusted to optimise radial clearances. When the
desired alignment has been obtained, the thickness
of the temporary support pads is gauged and the final
support pads ground to size.
5.5.3 Diaphragm construction
HP and IP diaphragm nozzles may be individually
machined or cast and the inner and outer blade up-

CASING
DETAIL OF
BOTTOM HALF
TRANSVERSE LOCATION
KEY
FlG. 1.89 Diaphragm support and location keys
stands fitted into grooves machined in half rings,
which may be machined from plate or may also be
cast. The diaphragm half rings are then built up by
welding the nozzles to the inner and outer half rings
on the axial faces of the half rings. Castings in stain-
less steel suffer from the formation of regions of
delta ferrite, particularly near the trailing edges of
fixed blades, and cracking near changes in section
unless cooling rates are very carefully controlled. Also,
since the welds penetrate only part way into the inner
and outer half rings, a circumferential crack exists
in the middle of the rings. Radial cracks also exist
between each nozzle section where they butt against
one another. These cracks weaken the assembly and
can provide initiation points for fatigue crack propaga-
tion. Investigations are being carried out to develop
welded diaphragms, using full-penetration electron
beam welding. This will largely avoid the problems
of internal cracks or voids.
A more modern method of construction is to
electrochemically machine each complete half ring
out of a solid stainless steel blank, thus obviating
the problems of welding and casting.
Turbine blading
HORIZONTAL JOINT BOLT
TOP HALF DIAPHRAGM
STOP PLATE FITTED
TO BOTTOM HALF
DIAPHRAGM
SUPPORT KEY
The first four LP diaphragms are usually a welded
construction, similar to the HP and IP, with stainless
steel blades, rims and centres. Later stages may have
pre-machined blades cast into cast-iron inner and
outer rings. Cast iron enables optimum shapes of
steam passages to be formed. These diaphragms may
also be cast as complete halves in stainless steel.
Very large modern last-stage LP diaphragms have
massive sections for the rims and centres and can be
extremely heavy if made from solid castings. The rims
and centres are therefore sometimes fabricated from
plate into semicircular hollow box sections. Welded
constructions are always heat treated to remove locked-
in stresses and allowance must be made for distortion.
5.6 Blading materials
5.6.1 12% Cr steels
Turbine blading alloys are chosen for their ability to
provide properties particular to the mechanical and
71
The steam turbine
environmental service which they must endure. One
of the first considerations of LP blading, for example,
is the ability to resist corrosion and scaling in fast-
flowing wet steam. This generally rules out low alloy
steel and blades are made from either stainless steel
or titanium alloys. A second requirement is adequate
tensile strength to resist steady centrifugal and bend-
ing stresses. Strength without ductility is not desirable;
ductility is needed to accommodate stress peaks and
concentrations. Ductility also is needed to resist rub-
bing, and, in the case of shrouded blades, to permit
the peening of tenons to secure the shroud. Impact
strength is also necessary, since contact with foreign
objects is sudden. Water slugs can produce impact
loading.
Since most blade failures are due to fatigue, ade-
quate fatigue strength is a crucial property. The blades
are under steady centrifugal stress while operating,
and this must be incorporated into the fatigue strength
considerations. Since LP turbines can see wet 'aggres-
sive environments', the fatigue strengths upon which
designs are based must account for environmental
degradation.
Material damping is also considered of high im-
portance. The vibratory stress developed in a turbine
blade is inversely proportional to the damping. One
of the reasons 12% Cr stainless steels are so widely
used in blades is due to their superior material
damping.
Notch sensitivity also affects fatigue response and,
since stress concentrations are unavoidable, parti-
cularly near the root, a low notch sensitivity is very
desirable for good blade life. Unfortunately, whereas
high tensile strength desirably increases fatigue strength,
it also increases notch sensitivity.
The short blades in the HP turbine work at tem-
peratures near to the maximum steam temperature,
so creep strength is vitally important in this region,
with the amount of permissible creep usually restricted
to 0.2% deformation in 100 000 h.
The conventional 12% Cr steels have an ideal set
of properties for turbine blading as long as the
temperature does not exceed about 480C. Austenitic
steels have been tried but, in general, have not been
satisfactory, except for the short blades in the HP
turbine where damping capacity is not as crucial as
it is for the longer blades in the later stages of the
LP turbine. Austenitic steels, however, have relatively
high coefficients of expansion and tend to be avoided
because of this. Ferritic steels of the FV 520 type
have been used for last-stage LP blading but have
now been generally superseded by steels such as FV
566, which were designed for applications where good
impact properties are required at medium-to-high
strength levels. Mechanical properties have been im-
proved by the addition of molybdenum and vana-
dium, and suitable heat treatments to give adequate
creep resistance in the short high temperature blades,
and adequate proof strength in the long low tem-
72
Chapter 1
perature blades. All steels of this type require the
addition of an austenite-forming element to prevent
the formation of zones of delta ferrite in the material.
Nickel is employed for this purpose but its content
is limited in high temperature blades because higher
percentage additions reduce creep strength. The addi-
tion of niobium to the 12% Cr Mo V steels increases
stress rupture strength and creep strength in the short
term, but the strengthening effect falls off with time
so that the long term properties are no better than
those of the 12% Cr Mo V steels without niobium.
Typical British steels for high temperature blad-
ing include FV 507, a ferritic casting alloy with good
tensile and creep properties combined with low thermal
expansion, and Esshete CRM 12 from British Steel,
a heat treatable martensitic 12% Cr steel alloyed with
molybdenum and vanadium. Both these alloys have
good long term creep strength at temperatures up
to 650C.
The intermediate blades, which are neither highly
stressed nor very hot, can be made from 12% Cr steels
with leaner alloying content and heat-treated to the
appropriate hardness. A typical steel is FV 448, an
11% Cr, 0.6% Mo, 0.25% V, 0.3% Nb steel with good
creep resistance up to 550C.
The corrosion and scaling resistances of the latest
so-called 'Super 12% Cr' steels are at least equal to
those of the simple 12% Cr steels and in many cases
significantly better. General corrosion resistance in
steam is better than the grades containing less than
12% chromium: the ferritic grades are much less
prone to stress corrosion cracking than the austenitic
steels.
Welding is considered the most complicated fabri-
cation process for the Super 12% Cr steels because
of their high hardenability. The martensite formed
in the weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ) is
hard and brittle and must be tempered. However,
when temperature recommendations outlined by the
various producers of Super 12% Cr steels are fol-
lowed, welding does not present any unusual problems.
Information concerning production, constituents,
properties and application of the Super 12% Cr steels
is given in [8].
5.6.2 Titanium
Because of its high strength/weight ratio and excellent
corrosion resistance, titanium has been considered as
an alternative to 12% Cr steel for low pressure tur-
bine blading. Since the density of titanium is about
60% of that of steel, a titanium blade nearly 40%
longer than a steel blade can be substituted, assuming
comparable stress levels in the blade root.
The corrosion resistance of titanium makes the
material highly attractive for blading subject to pit-
ting, stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue. Laboratory
tests have also shown that certain titanium alloys are
superior to 12% chrome stainless steel in erosion

resistance but not as good as Stellite 6, which is
commonly used as an erosion shield on steel LP
blading.
The yield strength of a typical titanium alloy in
the annealed condition is approximately 50% better
than standard 12% chromium stainless steel material,
and even slightly superior to the Super 12% Cr steels:
the ductility is somewhat less. The fatigue strength
of titanium alloy is, however, generally higher than
the 12% Cr steels.
Titanium alloy is not as readily forgeable as 12%
Cr materials. The titanium alloy has to be forged at
a lower temperature which means that more energy
is required to forge a certain amount. Also, since all
titanium alloys are very active chemically at high
temperatures, surface contamination is another pro-
blem encountered when forging.
Machining is possible, if slow speeds are used,
but a propensity for embrittlement by contamination
and lack of heat penetration make welding difficult.
Inert gas welding is the normal solution but this is
time consuming and costly.
The main problems of titanium are high cost and
poor vibration characteristics. The cost of titanium
alloy is several times that of standard 12% Cr blade
material and a row of titanium blades normally costs
two to three times that of a steel row, all factors
considered.
The material damping of titanium is very poor,
varying from 10% to 40% of that of 12% Cr blade
material. Thus there is a potential for higher vibratory
stresses when operating the titanium blade at or near
resonance. Also Young's Modulus of titanium is low
and, since the flexibility is relatively high, natural
frequencies are depressed and harmonics are more
crowded in the running range.
In view of the lower cost and improved properties
of the Super 12% Cr steels, it is unlikely that ti-
tanium alloys will supersede these steels for LP mov-
ing blading on UK steam turbines in the near future.
However, because of its high strength/weight ratio,
titanium is used extensively for lacing wire and for
coverbanding and shrouding.
5.7 Blade vibration control
5.7.1 Natural frequencies and excitation
frequencies
In view of the large number of blades in any turbine
machine, the existence of unavoidable sources of
vibration excitation and the serious consequences of
the failure of just one blade, an intimate knowledge
and understanding of the vibration characteristics of
the blades in their operating environment is essential.
Turbine blading
The vibration characteristics of turbine machine
blades, as measured under operating conditions, are
usually found to be extremely complex and often
quite different from theoretical predictions. There
are several reasons for this.
First, in spite of the advances in finite element
computation in recent years, the intricate geometry
of a blade, which is demanded for aerodynamic per-
formance, makes it a very difficult component to
analyse theoretically. Consequently, predictions for
the modes and frequencies of a single cantilevered
blade may not always be very accurate. Then, a second
factor which compounds the problem, is the existence
of multiple interactions between each blade and all
the other blades in the same stage due to coupling
through the disc and shrouds or lacing wires linking
adjacent blades. These interactions lead to the predic-
tion of a multiplicity of modes in the working fre-
quency range, where for a single blade there are only
two or three. The vibration of a fully-bladed disc is
therefore much more complicated than is suggested
by the characteristics of a single cantilever blade.
An individual blade, cantilevered at its root, has a
set of natural frequencies in the operating range which
are classified in three groups: 'flap' modes, 'edgewise'
modes and torsion modes. The disc carrying a set of
such blades itself possesses several natural frequencies
within the same range, each one of these being associated
with a mode mode shape having n nodal diameters
(and possibly one or two nodal circles as well). The
complete bladed disc has a very large number of
modes of vibration in the same frequency range, and
each of these will constitute a unique mix of the
individual blade and disc modes. Some of these as-
sembly modes will be identified as being 'predo-
minantly disc' modes, while others will be immediately
associated with one of the blade cantilever modes,
in both cases by virtue of the respective natural
frequencies.
Other modes exist which are associated with the
fully-bladed wheel assembly and are quite distinct from
disc or blade modes. When there is additional inter-
blade coupling provided by some form of shrouding
either at the tip or part-span, then most of the modes
of the complete structure will tend to be wheel modes,
and small modifications to the shrouding or lacing
can result in significant changes in the pattern of
wheel natural frequencies.
5.7.2 Sources of vibration excitation
Vibration excitation can arise from a variety of sources
but principally involves the following categories:
(a) Non-uniform pressures, velocity or changes in the
angle of steam flow resulting in a periodic fluc-
tuating force on the rotating blades. This may be
caused by:
73
The steam turbine
Steam entering the rotating row over only a
portion of its circular path (partial admission).
This may exist in the control stage of some
HP turbines but not in LP stages.
A change in the direction of flow, particu-
larly from axial to radial at exit from moving
blades. Good aerodynamic design should mini-
mise the magnitude of this non-uniformity
and ensure that multiple harmonics of the
synchronous speed are not produced.
Flow distortions produced by the presence
of steam extraction passages for feedheater
tappings.
(b) Periodic effects due to manufacturing constraints
or structural features. These can include:
Inexact matching of stationary blade geometry
at horizontal joints. Blade-pitching at diaphragm
horizontal joints may not be uniform and this
can give rise to excitation at even multiples
of rotational frequency.
Leakage through gaps in stationary blade
shrouds and diaphragm discs at horizontal
joints. The current arrangement of diaphragm
support precludes this effect.
Eccentricity of diaphragms and other station-
ary elements with respect to the rotating blade
assembly. Again, current design practice should
minimise this.
Ellipticity of stationary parts, such as end
walls, seals, etc.
Non-uniformity in the gauge or thickness of
stationary blades. Modern quality control and
manufacturing normally obviates this effect
Moisture removal slots.
All the above sources give rise to excitation fre-
quencies at the rotational frequency or low multi-
ples (harmonics) of that frequency.
(c) Nozzle wake excitation caused by the aerodynamic
force-fluctuations seen by the rotating blade as
it passes each stationary blade or traverses each
stationary blade pitch. This is seen by the rotating
blades as excitation at the nozzle passing fre-
quency (rotational frequency x number of stationary
blades) and its multiples.
A number of sources can also give rise to excitation
having no direct relationship to rotational speed. In
Chapter 1
the stationary flow passages, these can include:
Acoustic resonances in inlet passages, extraction
lines or other cavities, excited by the flow past
them.
Vortex-shedding from stay bars, etc.
Unsteady flow separation from stationary blades, etc.
Unsteady shocks in choked stationary blade pass-
ages.
Surface pressure fluctuations, due to impingement
of turbulent flow onto rotating blade shrouds, discs,
etc.
In the rotating blades themselves, flow instability,
and hence excitation, can arise from:
Boundary layer pressure fluctuations.
Vortex-shedding from blade trailing edges, causing
unsteady aerodynamic force.
Recirculating flow, particularly in last-stage LP
blades.
Unsteady condensation shocks, caused by super satura-
tion in supersonic diverging passages.
A necessary condition for high resonant vibratory
stresses is the coincidence between the frequency of a
harmonic component (of significantly high magnitude)
and the natural frequency of a mode of vibration of
a blade, or a blade group, or bladed disc assembly.
With a continuously-connected blade row, a resonance
condition is associated with a multinodal standing
wave pattern around the circumference. This, how-
ever, is not always a sufficient condition. It is also
necessary that the distribution of vibratory deforma-
tions and the distribution of exciting forces have a
relationship that permits a net input of energy into the
vibration.
For example, consider a long blade vibrating in a
mode with one displacement node (point of zero dis-
placement). The upper portion of the blade deflects
in one direction when the lower portion deflects in
the opposite direction. If the distribution of exciting
force along the height of the blade is essentially
uniform, then the upper portion of the blade wants
to respond at a phase angle 180 different from that
of the lower portion. The net response of the blade
to this exciting force would therefore be very low.
5.7.3 Verification of estimated natural frequencies
and wheel chamber tests
After a prototype blade has been designed on paper,
a single blade is made in mild steel so that the cal-
 Turbine blading

culation of natural frequencies can be checked. Pro-

vided that cantilever vibration tests confirm that the
single-blade frequencies are in accordance with re-
quirements, a complete bladed disc is manufactured.
The bladed disc is then tested by fitting piezo-
electric crystals at selected positions on the wheel and
recording the modal shapes and natural frequencies.
Since the natural frequencies of all blade rows,
except the last few LP stages, are generally above
the eighth engine order (400 Hz for a 3000 r/min
machine), static testing is usually sufficient to confirm
that possible resonances will be well removed from
excitations which the blades will experience in service.
The natural frequencies of the longer LP blades,
however, are lower and may coincide with harmonics
of rotational frequency below the eighth order. Also,
since the flexibility of longer twisted blades changes
slightly with speed, the bladed discs must be tested
over the running range to ensure that natural fre-
quencies do not coincide with synchronous harmonics.
Driving large bladed wheels in air would absorb
large amounts of power and would require large prime
movers. Also windage, particularly near the blade FIG. 1.90 Typical 'Campbell Diagram' for a
tips, would cause overheating and make the results low pressure blade
difficult to interpret. For these reasons, the complete
bladed disc is run in a vacuum wheel chamber, where
an array of magnets is used to stimulate impulses If a wheel mode and a harmonic of rotational
acting on each blade as it passes. The disc is run up frequency coincide below the eighth engine order,
to 115% synchronous speed and the blade vibration selected modes may be 'tuned out' by adjusting the
is detected by strain gauges or crystals. Signals are blade mass, particularly near the tip. The geometry
brought out either through sliprings on the shaft or, of tip ties or coverbands can be altered, or material
more recently, by telemetry and the frequency and added to/removed from shrouding, or the material
amplitude recorded. of these components may be changed. Altering the
By examining particular resonances, it is possible position of the shrouding may change the natural
to trace families of modes over the speed range. frequency of certain modes and it may even be pos-
These are drawn on a 'Campbell Diagram' similar to sible in certain circumstances to adjust the blade
that shown in Fig 1.90. Radial order lines through profile. Experience has shown that a continuous lacing
the origin represent events that occur a fixed number or tip tie arrangement is less likely to form complex
of times in each revolution. Where the vibrational modes of vibration than blades connected in groups
frequency trace for a particular mode crosses an order or packets, and is more predictable. Complex modes
line, there is the prospect of resonance occurring dur- are likely to be excited by high frequencies and are
ing service. It is usual to confine attention to within almost impossible to 'tune out'.
+ 6% of synchronous speed (i.e., 2820 to 3180 r/min). The damping afforded by 'loose' pins, tip ties,
Within this speed range, the specified requirement is lacing wire, etc. and the choice of blade material,
to have no resonances up to the eighth engine order. minimises the effect of random or broadband exci-
Experience has shown that, if resonances are avoided tation which is difficult to quantify. Damping re-
in this speed range, the blade assembly will experience duces the response to resonances as erosion or impact
minimal alternating stress during service. damage changes the natural frequencies of particular
modes and bring these natural frequencies into closer
coincidence with harmonics of rotational speed.
5.7.4 Methods of vibration control
It is not practical to 'tune' blades to avoid reso-
nances above the eighth engine order. The harmonics 5.8 Erosion protection
lie too close together and natural frequencies cannot
be calculated or controlled to sufficient accuracy.
Fortunately, excitation forces at these high frequen- 5.8.1 Erosion mechanism
cies are small and are incapable of exciting complex The last stages of large condensing turbines operate
modes. in the wet steam region, where the steam contains
75
The steam turbine
5-12% water. Turbine blade erosion is initiated by
a relatively small proportion of the water droplets
in the steam separating out and collecting on the
concave pressure face of the diaphragm blades, where
a film is formed which is drawn towards the trailing
edge by the drag of the steam. Here the film grows
and passes around the trailing edge on to the convex
face where, usually in a region of strong secondary
flow, droplets move back and forth increasing in
size until they are torn away by the shearing action of
the main steam flow. Relatively large drops (50-200
in diameter) are produced and have to be acce-
lerated from rest by the steam. These large drops
arrive at the inlet plane of the moving blade row at
only a fraction of the absolute velocity of the steam
and are subsequently struck by the convex surfaces
of the moving blade row. This causes the abrasion
on the leading edge of the blade known as erosion
Fig 1.91.
STEAM VECTOR
TRIANGLE
V. EROSION
Vi
$>v. SHIELD
* MOVING ^ * * 5
* * ^ ^ ^ ^
BLADES ^ < ^ v .
FIG. 1.91 Relative impact velocity onto last-stage
moving blades
5.8.2 Erosion progression
When a drop impinges on to the blade surface, a
very high pressure shock is generated for a short
period. The pressure wave causes plastic deformation
of the material and repeated plastic deformation
leads to an increase in the internal stress. After a
certain time, the stress concentrations in some areas
exceed the tensile strength of the material, and cracks
form. During this incubation, or primary period of
erosion, there is little or no weight loss. When the
cracks spread and join, however, the result is material
breakdown. Tiny pieces of surface material are re-
leased and, during this secondary period, erosion rate
increases to a maximum.
After the surface has become uniformly pitted,
76
Chapter 1
there follows a tertiary period during which the ma-
terial lost by erosion falls logarithmically with time
and after about a year may almost cease. The pro-
bable explanation for this is that the pores in the
surface of the blade where erosion has taken place
are partly-filled with water. This cushions the impact
of the drops striking the blade and the impact forces
are only transferred to the material in a damped
form.
5.8.3 Protection and erosion shield materials
Methods have been investigated for collecting water
from the stationary blade passage, including removal
by suction through slots near the outer edge of hol-
low fixed blades or by bled-steam belts immediately
before the last stages. These methods have the dis-
advantage that they automatically reduce performance.
The adoption of higher heat drops in the last stage,
together with higher mass flow loading and higher
pressure at inlet to the moving blades, can lead to
smaller droplets whose velocities more rapidly ap-
proach that of the entraining steam. This can result
in reduced impact velocity and erosion effect.
It has been the practice for many years to protect
the leading edge and part of the convex surface of
the last-stage moving blades by surface hardening
or by the attachment (by silver soldering, or more
recently by electron beam welding) of a shield made
from a hard material such as tungsten, chromium tool
steel or Stellite 6B.
Attachment is always followed by the most stringent
non-destructive examination of the joints. Erosion of
^ > ^ the original blade material around the shield can
^ ^ * ^ > ^
lead to undercutting of the shield material and eventual
shield detachment. Coverbands, blade upstands and
tip ties can also suffer from droplet erosion. It is
therefore considered prudent to inspect the blades
during overhauls. Even if the erosion shield does
not become detached, the shields will erode in time
and will probably need to be replaced at least once
during the life of the machine.
6 Turbine casings
6.1 Forms of casing construction
A turbine cylinder is essentially a pressure vessel with
its weight supported at each end on the horizontal
centreline. It is designed to withstand hoop stresses
in the transverse plane, and to be very stiff in the
longitudinal direction in order to maintain accurate
clearances between the stationary and rotating parts
of the turbine.

The design is complicated by the need for internal
access, all casings being split along their horizontal
centreline, allowing the rotor to be inserted as a com-
plete assembly. Substantial flanges and bolting are
required to withstand the pressure forces at the hori-
zontal joints. The relatively massive flanges respond
more slowly to temperature changes than the rest
of the casing, resulting in different rates of expan-
sion and the setting-up of temperature stresses and
distortion, although these are minimised by the ap-
plication of flange warming steam. Further stress
complexities are set up by the gland housing and steam
entry and exit passages.
HP and IP casings are of cast construction and are
circular in cross-section to minimise non-membrane
stresses. Flanges, bolting, steam penetrations and other
features are as far as possible symmetrically arranged
to reduce thermal asymmetry and hence distortion.
LP casings may be fabricated or a combination of
castings and fabrications.
As with all pressure vessels, the integrity of the
design is checked after manufacture with a hydraulic
pressure test, to 150% of the highest working pressure.
6.1.1 High pressure casings
Most modern turbines, with steam pressures over 100
bar and ratings greater than 100 MW, have HP casings
of double-shell design (Figs 1.92 and 1.93). This has
been adopted because of the difficulty of designing a
single casing to withstand the thermal and pressure
stresses and yet be capable of flexible operation. With
a double-shell casing, the space between the shells is
filled with steam at exhaust conditions, allowing each
casing to be designed for smaller temperature and
pressure differentials. A baffle is formed between the
two casings near the exhaust end as part of the inner-
casing casting. The baffle extends almost to the outer
casing but does not seal against it. The turbulent ex-
haust steam is directed by the baffle to the exhaust
connections and prevented from cooling the inner casing;
this reduces the temperature differentials and hence
stresses on the inlet end of the inner casing. Steam leaking
through the gland between the inner casing and the rotor
at the inlet end is piped away to the exhaust connec-
tions, so the space between the casings contains
steam at exhaust conditions with a gentle flow being
maintained by leakage through the outer casing gland.
The smaller pressure differential permits a thinner
shell which, combined with the larger surface area of
a double casing, allows quicker warming of the turbine
on start-up. Thinner shells are also easier to cast and
are likely to have fewer defects.
On some machines, reversed flow blading has been
adopted, where the steam is diverted back between
the casings part way through its expansion, continuing
through the final stages in the opposite direction.
This arrangement gives a higher inter-shell pressure
and temperature, reducing the stress on the hot inner
Turbine casings
shell at the expense of the outer shell. It also permits
simple bled-steam tapping at the inter-shell conditions
and reduces the net thrust on the HP rotor.
Triple casings have been used on some modern
turbines to further reduce the stresses on the hot
inner casing, and hence reduce thermal distortion.
The inner casing is enclosed in a barrel-like sleeve
which has no horizontal joint. The inner casing is only
lightly stressed and can be relatively thin with light
flanges, whilst the barrel casing which encloses it is
more highly stressed. The barrel casing, however, having
no flanges and being of uniform thickness, can easily
be designed to accommodate the stresses whilst also
remaining relatively thin. The pressure between the
inner casing and the barrel is controlled by small
radial passages through the inner cylinder walls and
piston ring seals between the inner and barrel casings.
One disadvantage of this form of triple casing is
the difficulty in assembling and dismantling the HP
cylinder. On assembly, the rotor has to be fitted into
the inner and outer lower half, the inner casing bolted
up, and then the rotor and inner casing lifted and
mounted in a special jig to allow the barrel to be
threaded over them. The assembly can then be lowered
back into the bottom half of the outer casing, and the
top-half outer casing added.
The steam inlet pipes pass through the outer casing
and deliver the steam into the inlet belt of the inner
casing. The inlet belt is formed by an extension to
the main casing which ensures that the inlet steam
cannot come directly into contact with the rotor but
must first pass out through the nozzles and the first
row of moving blades. The inlet belt is often blanked
at the casing joint to reduce the pressure on the joint
face, although care must be taken that the admission
of steam to the first stage is not interrupted.
With steam temperatures at inlet in excess of
538C, separate nozzle boxes of heat-resistant steel
are sometimes used to protect the casing from the
full temperature. These take the place of the inlet belt,
delivering steam from the inlet penetrations to the
first stage nozzles.
Some overseas units have nozzle governing instead
of the throttle governing employed on all large CEGB
machines. With nozzle governing, the inlet belt is
divided into sections, each controlled by a separate
valve opening in sequence, resulting in a more com-
plicated casting and the need for stronger first-stage
moving blades.
The stationary blading is carried in diaphragms
which are supported and guided in the inner cylinder
by keys near the horizontal joint and vertical centre-
line, permitting concentric expansion. On modern
machines the tip seals and shrouding for the moving
blades are usually carried on an extension of the
adjacent diaphragm. Earlier designs had separate
sealing strips supported between the diaphragms.
HP cylinders on wet steam machines, such as those
on PWR stations, are different in design, being more
77
The steam turbine Chapter 1

INNER CASING

OUTER CASING

VERTICAL GUIDE KEY

THERMAL SKIRT
EXHAUST
STEAM

FIG. 1.92 Axial section of an HP cylinder

The features include: a double casing with blades supported in diaphragms in the inner casing, two inlet pipes symmetrically
arranged with two exhausts at the bottom, a baffle between the casings, keys between casings near the exhaust end, vertical
guide keys at both ends of the outer casing, thermal skirts on inlet pipes and glands between casing/rotor.

like standard IP cylinders. Further details are given for IP cylinders are similar to those for HP cylinders,
in Chapter 2. the steam being at a similar temperature but lower
pressure, which allows IP casings to be thinner. In
general, machines over 300 MW rating have at least
6.1.2 Intermediate pressure casings a partial double-casing covering the first few stages,
In modern reheat machines, the design considerations subsequent stages being supported by carrier rings
78

OUTER
CASING
INNER
CASING
THERMAL SKIRT
STEAM
INLET PIPE
FIG. 1.93 Cross-section of an HP turbine cylinder through
the steam inlet pipes
Features include: nozzle boxes, bolts on outer casing with
studs on inner casing, support paws between casings at the
horizontal joint, with locating dowels top and bottom.
(Figs 1.94 and 1.95). Both the inner casing and the
carrier rings reduce pressure and temperature loading
on the outer casing and also allow a smooth outer
casing which is simple to design and manufacture
and has better thermal response. Carrier rings allow
greater flexibility in design, as changes in blading
do not require changes to the main casings, and one
casing design can serve different stage arrangements.
IP cylinders are often of double-flow design and
always so on large modern machines. The decision
for single or double-flow is primarily made on blad-
ing design and efficiency, but a double-flow casing also
has the advantage of eliminating the rotor gland at
the high pressure end. As with the HP cylinder, the
rotor is protected from the high temperature steam
at the inlet; a deflector ring directs inlet steam to
the nozzles, whilst a supply of cooler HP exhaust
steam is piped into the centre of the deflector ring
adjacent to the rotor. The deflector ring is supported
either independently on keys in the inner casing, or
from the inside of the first-stage nozzles.
A cooling flow of steam around the partial inner
casing can be achieved by slight differences in the
blading in the two flows producing different pressures
either end; this keeps the outside of the casing and
the bolts cooler, allowing smaller diameter bolts to
be used.
6.1.3 Low pressure casings
LP cylinders (Fig 1.96) are often of double-casing
Turbine casings
construction with an inner casing containing dia-
phragm supports, bled-steam and water extraction
belts, and an outer casing directing the exhaust to
the condensers and providing structural support for
the inner casing (Fig 1.96). This is not always so,
however, particularly with pannier condensers where
a single casing may be employed. The large size of
LP outer casings combined with their low pressure
loading favours a fabricated rather than cast con-
struction. Inner casings which are more complex can
be fabricated or cast depending on economic consi-
derations. All casings have bolted horizontal joints.
LP cylinders are virtually all of double-flow design
but vary greatly in layout due to the different con-
denser configurations. The latest practice for con-
densers is similar to early 'underslung' designs with
separate condensers underneath each cylinder, tubed
transversely, allowing easy access to both condenser
and LP cylinder. Foundation columns, bearing and
cylinder supports are located between condensers.
However, during the development of 500 MW ma-
chines, variations of the turbine and condenser ar-
rangement were tried, both to simplify the LP casing
support arrangements, to increase the area and shorten
the exhaust connections. The four arrangements used
were:
The axial condenser, which permits the LP turbines
to be supported on two parallel walls. Space has
to be allowed beneath the generator for tube
withdrawal.
The bridge condenser, which bridges the gap be-
tween the IP turbine block and the generator. It
is constructed in the form of two deep girders,
which carry two parallel rigid soleplates for the
LP turbine support. The condenser tubes are
mounted transversely. This construction uses a lot
of steel.
The pannier condenser, here the tubes are mounted
axially with the condensers themselves mounted
on either side of the turbine, so that the steam
is exhausted horizontally into the condensers. The
advantage of this arrangement is that the exhaust
steam flow from the turbines is facilitated, which
cuts down the hood loss; in addition, construction
savings are made by having a reduced basement
depth.
The integral condenser, which is a development of
the pannier type; the condensers and LP turbine
outer casings are combined in a single structure
containing internal ribs to give it adequate stiffness.
Access to the bearings is obtained via wells, and
access to the turbine inner shells is obtained by
removing the top cover plates. Here again, the
basement depth is small and there is direct support
beneath the bearings.
79
The steam turbine Chapter 1

CENTRAL INNER CASING

EXHAUST
STEAM

CARRIER RING

OUTER
CASING

BLED STEAM BLED STEAM

TAPPING TAPPING

FlG. 1.94 Axial section of an IP turbine cylinder

Features include: the central inner casing with carrier rings either side, four exhausts on the top of the outer casing and two
bled-steam tappings on the bottom, thermal skirts on the steam inlet pipes, deflector ring to protect centre of rotor supported
by first-stage nozzles, vertical guide keys at both ends of outer casing, glands between outer casing and motor.

The LP exhaust casings are designed to give the
maximum possible area of flow for the exhaust steam,
so that the pressure drop is kept to a minimum. To
turn the huge volume of steam through 90 without
Punching', curved vanes are employed and, by careful
design, these can be made to have a diffusing action
(i.e., they can make use of the kinetic energy of the
steam to produce a pressure difference) so that the
pressure at the blading exhaust annulus is slightly
lower than that in the condenser.
To minimise the losses in the flow to the con-
denser, the entire volume of the outer casing may
be used, steam from the top sections of the exhausts
passing down the side of the casing and exiting to
the condenser in the centre of the lower casing in an
underslung condenser design.
In many designs of LP cylinder the outer casing also
provides support for the LP bearings; if not, then the
bearing may be supported on a pedestal located in a
recess at the end of the outer casing, in order to keep
the rotor length between bearings as short as pos-
sible. The outer casing contains structural members
to transfer the weight to the support points at the
ends, sides, or corners of the casing and to withstand
 Turbine casings

SHAFT COOLING
STEAM INLET

STEAM INLET BRANCH STEAM INLET BRANCH

LEAK-OFF BRANCH- ^ JOINT RING

- PISTON RING
THERMAL SKIRT -
TOP HALF
DEFLECTOR RING

CAP NUTS

OUTER CASING -

-STUD BOLTS

INNER CASING

INNER CASING - BOTTOM HALF

DEFLECTOR RING

OUTER CASING

LEAK-OFF BRANCH

STEAM INLET BRANCH STEAM INLET BRANCH

SHAFT COOLING
STEAM INLET

FIG. 1.95 Cross-section of an IP turbine cylinder through steam inlet pipes

Features include: the deflector ring supported directly from the inner casing, and the shaft cooling steam inlets which have
been passed through the centre of the inner cylinder location dowels.

the atmospheric pressure, as the inside of the outer
casing is entirely at condenser vacuum conditions.
Watersprays are provided in the exhaust area of
the casings to cool the exhausts during prolonged
periods of light load or poor vacuum running.
To prevent overpressurisation of the LP outer
casing, 'bursting disc' pressure relief valves are fitted
at the top of the casing.
6.2 Horizontal joints
Horizontal joints in turbine casings are essential for
the construction and maintenance of the turbines,
but cause several problems. The flanges have to be
substantially thicker than the rest of the casing to
allow room for the bolts and bearing surfaces for
the nuts (Fig 1.97). Because of the extra thickness,
the flanges warm up less quickly than the rest of
the casing, setting up thermal stresses and distortion.
These can be minimised by a flange warming system
which passes steam through passage ways or holes
drilled in the flanges, warming them up at a rate
similar to the rest of the casing. The bolt holes
themselves may be used for this, with small inter-
connecting passages drilled diagonally between them.

81
The steam turbine Chapter 1

OUTER
CYLINDER

TURNING VANES

FIG. 1.96 Axial section of an LP turbine cylinder

Features include: fabricated inner and outer cylinders, bled-steam belts in the inner cylinder, turning vanes at the exhaust,
and glands supported by bearings with a bellows connection to the outer casing.

6.2.1 Flange design
The forces taken into account in flange design are
illustrated in Fig 1.98. The flange is assumed to seal
at the inside edge, with the faces subject to a contact
pressure greater than the internal cylinder pressure.
To minimise bending stress on the flanges, the bolt
centreline is arranged tangential to the shell as can
be seen in Figs 1.93 and 1.95; this produces the typi-
cal thick narrow flange seen on HP and IP cylinders.
The seal is obtained by simple metal-to-metal contact
of fhe flange faces, after careful bedding on initial
assembly.
When flanges on HP and IP cylinders are unbolted
after a period in service, they are often found to
have distorted so that they no longer fit, typically
leaving a gap between the flanges on the inside face.
This is due to temperature differences through the
casing on-load causing thermal stresses which relax
by creep. When off-load, opposite stresses are then
induced which distort the casing. This is generally
confined to inner casings as there is very little tem-
perature differential through an outer casing on-load
due to the external lagging. In addition, distortion
can occur due to relaxation of residual casting stresses.
If distortion causes a small flange leak on an inner
casing, it may not be noticed unless large enough to

82
 Turbine casings

FIG. 1.97 Work assembly of HP and IP cylinders of a 660 MW turbine. The lower half casings and rotors
are in position . Note the thick flanges and bolts closely spaced near the inside of the joint; the bolt holes in
the inner cylinder having square facings to support collars on the bolts (GEC Turbine Generators Ltd).

83
The steam turbine Chapter 1

head of the nut or entirely circular nuts with small

holes drilled in them, allowing them to be turned by
tommy bars. Because of friction, the necessary bolt
tension could not be achieved in the large diameter
casing bolts simply by turning the nuts, even if large
flogging spanners could be used. Instead, the nuts
HOOP TENSION
INCASING are first tightened by hand; the bolts are then heated
to expand them, and the nuts again tightened by
BOLT
FORCE hand through an angle calculated to give the correct
bolt-tension after the bolt cools down. By measuring
the bolt length before and after tightening, the ex-
tension (and hence the bolt tension) can be checked.
The bolts are heated by inserting an electric heating
rod into a thin hole drilled down the centre of each
bolt, thus heating the bolt without significantly warm-
REACTION ing the flanges (Fig 1.99). The same method can be
AT FLANGES used for undoing or retightening the bolts.
An alternative method of tightening the bolts is
by hydraulic tightening. This is similar to the heat-
ing method except that the elongation is achieved
by stretching it with hydraulic jacks reacting against
the flange or adjacent bolts, instead of by thermal
expansion. The hydraulic equipment is more cumber-

FlG. 1.98 Diagram of forces on casing flanges

The reaction at the flanges is higher at the outside of the
casing than the inside. The pressure between the flanges at
the inside must exceed the internal cylinder pressure to
prevent steam leaking between the joint faces.

have an effect on the measured efficiency of the

turbine, unless it is a wet steam turbine, when rapid
erosion of the joint face at the leak may occur.
LP inner casings may also distort substantially due
to their complicated design of webs, bled-steam belts,
etc., and to the substantial temperature differences
between different parts of the casing. This can lead
to crushing of the webs and distortion of horizontal
joints, though leakage can be minimised by incor-
porating spring sealing-strips in the half-joint faces.

6.2.2 Bolting
The design of bolting on HP and IP cylinders is
complicated by the need to place the bolts close to-
gether to get the necessary distribution of stress in
the flange. Special nuts are used to allow close spac-
ing, either cap nuts with faces cut on the reduced
FlG. 1.99 Thermal-tightening of flange bolts
The heating element is inserted into the hollow bolt
to expand it. The nut is then hand-tightened by a pre-
determined amount and the bolt is allowed to cool, taking
up its full tension as it contracts.

84

some but has the advantage of allowing immediate
checking of the bolt tension without waiting for tem-
peratures to stabilise, again by measuring the extension.
Inner cylinders are assembled with the lower half
of the casing resting in its final position inside the
outer casing. It is thus awkward to use normal bolts
on the inner casing and studs are often used instead,
being screwed into the lower casing and then tight-
ened in the normal manner. Alternatively, a square
collar on the bolt at the horizontal joint allows the
lower nut to be assembled and tightened before the
casing is positioned.
HP and IP casings are only bolted together around
the external flange, but LP casings may also be bolted
along some of the internal webs if access through
manholes is possible. The bolts used on LP casings,
being of small diameter, are tightened by spanner
in the conventional manner to a controlled torque.
High temperature bolts operating above 370C
suffer from stress relaxation in use due to creep and
such bolts need periodic retightening to prevent leak-
age of steam at the joint, typically after 30 000 h
service. Some nickel-based alloy bolts operating below
538C may, however, increase their tension with time
and require slackening and retightening to prevent
early bolt failure. A record of the history of all high
temperature bolts is kept, so that they can be re-
tightened or replaced at appropriate times. Bolts must
be replaced before the accumulated creep strain ex-
ceeds the creep ductility of the material; this often
means changing steam chest cover bolts, but this is
rarely necessary for turbine casing bolts.
6.3 External connections
6.3.1 Steam inlets HP and IP
Steam inlets to HP and IP cylinders are usually ar-
ranged symmetrically in top and bottom casings, with
the centreline of the inlet pipe along a radial direc-
tion in order to minimise inlet losses. Usually either
two or four inlets are used; with two, the pipes are
vertical, making it easy to withdraw the inlet pipe
from the casing; with four, all the pipes enter at an
angle.
6.3.2 HP exhausts
HP exhausts are arranged in such a way as to keep
the cold exhaust steam away from the hot inner cas-
ing to reduce temperature differentials and stresses.
Hence, on double-casing machines, a baffle is used
and all the exhausts are at one end. They are usually
in the bottom half to facilitate dismantling. On triple-
casing machines, where the inner casing is protected
Turbine casings
by the barrel casing, it is possible to have exhausts
at all four bottom corners of the lower casing.
6.3.3 IP exhausts
IP cylinders generally have two or four inlets ar-
ranged in a similar manner to the HP. The IP exhaust
positions are determined by the positions of the
crossover pipes to the LP inlets. With underslung
condensers, the LP inlets and crossovers are usually
on the top half, hence IP exhausts are also at the
top. However, arranging IP exhaust and LP inlet
pipes in the lower half casing reduces the amount
of pipework to be disconnected when cylinders are
opened, and is thus easier if the condenser arrange-
ment allows it.
6.3.4 Use of thermal skirts and piston rings
To allow for differences in temperature where the
inlet pipes enter the cylinder, the HP and IP pipes are
attached to the outer casing through flanged thermal
skirts (Figs 1.92 and 1.94). The skirt, which is bolted
to the outer casing, reduces the conduction of heat
from the inlet pipe to the casing and accommodates
the differential expansion between the hot pipe and
the cooler casing by elastic deformation. It also carries
the pipe forces into the outer casing; minimising the
load on the inner. The outer casing is reinforced to
minimise stresses and thermal discontinuities at the
joint. Piston rings are used to seal the joint between
the pipe and the inner casing; these allow for differ-
ential expansion in the radial direction between the
casings and a small degree of transverse movement.
The piston rings may be of the conventional split
type, housed in a groove, or unsplit rings in the
'stacked' ring design. The split type may be 'outspring-
ing', housed in grooves in the pipe and springing out
against the casing; or 'inspringing', which are housed
between spacers in the casing and spring in to seal
against the pipe. The 'stacked' design uses unsplit
rings stacked in the gap between the pipe and the
casing. They are not sprung against either surface
but are a close tolerance against the pipe and the
casing alternately (Fig 1.100). Several rings are used
in series to reduce the pressure drop across each,
and hence reduce steam leakage; however, there should
not be too many rings, as a lightly loaded ring can
vibrate and wear excessively. The split rings are made
of a high temperature creep-resistant material, such
as Stellite or a Nimonic alloy, in order to retain their
springiness; the unsplit rings are made from a low
alloy steel. Stellite-coated bearing surfaces or Stellite
inserts in the casings reduce wear.
The exhaust steam connections are attached directly
to the outer casing. When attached to the lower cas-
ing, where they are unlikely to need disconnecting,
they are simply welded to stubs on the casing.
85
The steam turbine
INLET
PIPE
'OUTSPRINGING
PISTON RING
FIG. 1.100 Inlet pipe piston rings
The piston rings shown here, seal between the inlet pipe
and the HP barrel and the inner casings in a triple-casing
HP turbine Outspringing' rings are shown between the
pipe and the barrel casing, and 'stacked' rings between
the pipe and inner casing.
6.3.5 LP cylinders
Steam connections to LP casings are made with bel-
lows pieces to accommodate differential expansions.
The bellows are short sections of pipe with thin
corrugated walls, allowing relative movements of the
ends in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
With underslung condensers, a rigid bolted joint can
be used between the LP outer casing and the con-
denser, the condenser being mounted on springs to
support its weight but allowing the required flexi-
bility. Bellows can be used on the exhausts with a
floor-mounted condenser but are inconvenient because
of the large area of the exhausts and because the
bellows, being flexible, transfer the vacuum forces to
the cylinder and condenser foundations.
6.3.6 Bled-steam connections
Steam for feedheating is bled from the LP turbines
86
Chapter 1
and additionally from either the IP turbine or the
boiler feed pump turbine. In current practice, steam
is not bled from the HP turbine except at the ex-
haust, although future designs with higher final feed
temperatures may bleed steam from the later HP
cylinder stages.
In LP cylinders (Fig 1.96), the steam is bled-off
into annular belts within the fabricated inner casing
from which it is piped to the feedheaters, bellows
being used to take up differential expansions between
inner and outer cylinders. The connection to the bled-
steam belt is usually made at the bottom; if made
elsewhere, a drain connection must be provided at
the bottom. The bled-steam connections are identical
in each half of the double-flow LP cylinder so that
changes in steam flow to the heater do not affect
the thrust forces on the rotor. However, the connec-
tions may not be the same on all LP cylinders on
a unit. If, for instance, bled-steam is required at
stage 2, stage 3 and stage 4 conditions, it may be
taken from each stage on each cylinder, or it may
be taken from stage 2 on one cylinder, stage 3 on
another and stage 4 on the third (for a three LP
cylinder machine). The latter method involves sim-
pler pipework but has the penalty of less interchange-
ability of spares between the cylinders. Usual practice
is to favour the arrangement requiring minimum spares
holdings.
IP cylinders usually only have one stage of bled-
steam from within the cylinder, although it may also
be taken from the IP exhaust.
On double-casing cylinders, the steam may be bled
between the inner casing and a carrier ring, or be-
tween carrier rings, into a belt between the ring and
the outer casing. On single-casing IP turbines the
bled-steam belt is cast into the casing, with slots cut
to allow the steam to bleed from the main steam
path into the belt. The bled-steam pipework can then
simply be bolted to the outer casing. Many IP cyl-
inders have no bled-steam tappings, as steam is taken
from the boiler feed pump turbine instead; however,
latest practice with development of variable-speed
electric drives, is for electric boiler feed pumps and
hence bled-steam is taken from the IP cylinder.
Steam bled from HP turbines in the future is likely
to be via a belt cast into the inner cylinder wall, with
connections similar to the HP inlet connections.
6.4 Casing materials
HP and IP casings, where temperatures over 350C
are encountered, are made from creep-resistant ma-
terials. Two different low alloy steels are used; 2.25Cr
IMo for temperatures up to 538C and 0.5Cr 0.5Mo
0.25V for temperatures up to 565C. The 2.25Cr
material is slightly weaker and more ductile in creep,
but it is also tougher (i.e., less prone to fast fracture

at low temperatures) and easier to weld. Casings in
these materaals are cast rather than fabricated be-
cause of the difficulty of quality control and like-
lihood of thermal distortion in the thick sections
involved. LP cylinder casings are generally fabricated
from carbon steel, although the inner cylinder may be
cast from spheroidal graphite iron. Large defects in
castings are ground out and repaired by welding, but
nevertheless the materials are chosen to have a high
tolerance to the presence of defects which may grow
during service.
High temperature bolts are either made from low
alloy steels designed specially for creep-resistant bolt-
ing, for example, Durehete 1055, or from nickel alloys
such as Nimonic 80A. The nickel alloys are more
creep-resistant and stronger, allowing a more compact
flange with better thermal properties; however, they
are subject to stress corrosion cracking, particularly if
wet or contaminated with sulphur compounds. Nickel
alloy bolts are thus used mainly on inner cylinders
where the compact flange is most advantageous.
Low temperature bolts on LP casings are made
from normal high tensile bolting steels.
High temperature wet steam is considerably more
erosive than dry steam, consequently HP casings for
wet steam machines are either made from 2.25Cr
IMo steel with stainless steel cladding at the joint
faces or entirely from a higher alloy steel.
6.5 Support and alignment
To achieve maximum efficiency in a steam turbine,
only small clearances are permitted between fixed and
moving parts at casing and diaphragm glands, and at
blade tip seals. These clearances must be maintained
under all operating conditions, so the inner and outer
casings must be supported in such a way as to main-
tain concentricity with the rotor as they expand and
contract.
The total axial expansion of a 500 MW turbine
rotor between cold and hot conditions is about 50
mm, occurring mainly in the HP and IP cylinders,
where the temperature change is greatest. The casings
are supported to allow axial expansion and yet main-
tain the axial clearances between fixed and moving
blades which may be only a few millimetres. Main-
taining both concentricity and correct axial expansion
leads to a complicated system of sliding supports and
keys (Fig 1.101).
6.5.1 HP and IP cylinder supports
HP and IP cylinders are fitted with 'paw' supports
at each end which rest on the bearing pedestals (Fig
1.102). The paws are horizontal with the palms aligned
with the horizontal joint; they are well spaced towards
the outer edges of the casing, as they carry the torque
Turbine casings
reaction from the rotor into the foundations. In some
cases, the paws are part of the lower half casing as
illustrated, alternatively they may be part of the upper
half, simplifying the casting but necessitating tem-
porary supports for the lower half casing when the
halves are unbolted. Vertical guides on the vertical
centreline of the rotor act in conjunction with sliding
at the paw faces to ensure that the outer casing re-
mains concentric with the bearing pedestal and rotor
during expansion. Similar arrangements support the
inner casing inside the outer, with paw supports on
either side to take the weight and torque reaction,
radial keys in the plane of the steam inlets permitting
concentric expansion only, and axial keys at the ex-
haust end allowing for differential axial expansions.
The paw supports of the outer casings contain trans-
verse keys so that the HP and IP casings and bearing
blocks expand axially as one unit away from a fixed
point between IP and LP cylinders. The axial location
between the rotor and the casings is at the thrust
bearing between HP and IP cylinders: this arrangement
ensures that the close clearances between fixed and
moving blades in these cylinders are affected as little
as possible by differential axial expansion between
rotor and casing on start-up and shutdown.
6.5.2 LP cylinder supports
The LP cylinder casings are supported on feet in
a similar manner to the HP and IP casings, but
because of their relationship with the condenser they
are limited in axial movement. Consequently they are
either joined together and fixed axially to the foun-
dation at the centre or each fixed individually at one
end. This causes larger differential axial expansion
between rotor and casing than in the other cylinders,
so the axial clearances are greater.
Diaphragms and carrier rings are located axially
within cylinders by circumferential grooves in the
casings. They are maintained concentric with the cas-
ing by radial keys at the horizontal and vertical
centrelines.
The casings are all aligned by reference to the
horizontal and vertical centrelines of the rotor at each
bearing. The alignment of the rotor itself is discussed
in Section 7.5 of this chapter.
6.6 Casing and diaphragm glands
Glands are used to provide a steam seal between
fixed and rotating parts of the turbine; in particular,
between the rotor and the diaphragms and between
the rotor and the cylinder casing. The glands are of
the labyrinth type, consisting of a series of fins on
the inside of the diaphragm or casing in close proxi-
mity to the rotor surface. Steam trying to escape
between the fins and the rotor suffers a series of
87
The steam turbine Chapter 1

HP TURBINE IP TURBINE LP1 TURBINE LP2 TURBINE LP3 TURBINE

(f) (9)

A N T I - F R I C T I O N BEARING PLATE BRACKET LINER

CENTRE GUIDE KEY

LINER BEARING KEEP

KEY
No 1 BEARING PEDESTAL

(c) HP Cylinder centre guide key

(a) Pedestal guide key
(upper)

CENTRE GUIDE KEY

KEY
BRACKET

(b) HP Cylinder centre LINER

guide key (lower)

F /K
BEARING KEEP

BEARING KEEP

(d) HP Cylinder centre guide key (IP end)

(e) IP Cylinder centre guide key (HP end)

KEY,

RACKET
LOCKING
PLATE
^ S Q U A R E KEY
| \ * LOCATION BLOCK
BEARING PLATE SUPPORT PAD
HALF & HALF
DOWEL

BEARING KEEP (g) IP Cylinder palm (LP end)

(f) IP Cylinder centre guide key (LP end)

FIG. 1.101 Support and alignment keys for outer HP, IP and LP casings

88
 Turbine casings

HP TURBINE IP TURBINE LP1 TURBINE LP2 TURBINE LP3 TURBINE

\/ W s/

(I) (k) (j) (h)

EXHAUST
DOWEL
HALF & HALF E X H A U S T BOTTOM
PACKER
DOWEL

FOUNDATION
STEELWORK

(h) LP frame supports

(j) LP Cylinder anchor

GUIDE BRACKET

LINER
GUIDE BRACKET

(k) LP frame centre guide key (I) IP Cylinder centre guide key to LP frame

BEARING PLATE

L O C A T I O N BLOCK

ANTI-FRICTION
BEARING PLATE BEARING
BLOCK

ANTI-FRICTION
BEARING PLATE

\\ BEARING
PEDESTAL

(m) HP and IP Cylinder palms (n) HP Cylinder palm

FIG. 1.101 (cont'd) Support and alignment keys for outer HP, IP and LP casings

89
The steam turbine
CASING
EXPANSION
FIG. 1.102 Detail of support for HP and IP outer casing
expansions which reduces its pressure in stages and
restricts the flow through the gland. A detailed ex-
planation of the working of glands and the different
types is given in Chapter 2.
The HP cylinder has glands at both ends of the
outer casing and the inlet end of the inner casing
(Fig 1.92). They are housed in gland carriers, which
are supported either on keys to allow differential ex-
pansion or simply on spigots in machined recesses
in the casing.
The HP glands are longer than those in other
cylinders because of the higher pressure drop required
across the gland, and are often divided into several
sections. The IP glands are similarly supported (Fig
1.94), but the LP glands may differ; if the bearings
are separate from the LP outer casing, then the LP
gland carriers may be supported from the bearings
and connected to the rest of the casing by a bellows
piece (Fig 1.96).
The LP glands prevent air entering the cylinder,
unlike the HP and IP glands which prevent steam
escaping. Thus the LP glands need a continuous sup-
ply of higher pressure steam, whereas the HP and IP
glands need additional steam only at start-up. This
is explained in detail in Chapter 2.
The gland carriers are split, like casings, along the
horizontal centreline and bolted together.
6.7 Lagging
The hot external surfaces of the cylinders are lagged,
i.e., covered with a thick layer of thermal insulation.
There are several reasons for this:
The loss of heat from the steam is reduced.
The thermal stresses in the outer casing are sub-
stantially reduced.
Danger to personnel is reduced.
90
Chapter 1
The insulation consists of up to 150 mm thickness
of mineral fibre which is applied either as fibre
'mattresses' or sprayed on as loose fibres, with a
binder to set them in position. The thickness is large-
ly dependent on the temperature of the surface to
be covered, enough insulation being used to reduce
the outside temperature to about 50C. Asbestos was
used extensively for sprayed insulation in the past,
but all modern insulation is asbestos-free, because of
the health risk of inhaled asbestos fibres.
The mineral fibre is held in position by wire mesh
which covers it and is attached to studs welded to
the outer casing and passing out through the mineral
fibre (Fig 1.103). If the mineral fibre is thicker than
100 mm it is applied in two layers with an additional
wire mesh support between them. The outside wire
mesh is then covered with 6-8 mm of cement fol-
lowed by a thin coat of oilproof and waterproof
sealant. A glass reinforced plastic may be used as
the sealant to provide suitable mechanical strength
and life.
The insulation extends over the horizontal joint
covering the bolt heads and has to be chipped off
before the casings can be separated: the joint relagged
on reassembly.
It is essential that oil is not allowed to enter the
lagging through gaps or damage to the covering, as
hot oil-soaked lagging has been responsible for some
severe turbine fires.
7 Turbine rotors and couplings
7.1 Types of rotor construction
Four different types of rotor construction have been
used on large turbine-generator units on the CEGB
system:
The monobloc or integral rotor, in which the wheels
and shaft are formed from a single-piece forging
(Fig 1.104(a)).
FIG. 1.103 Thermal insulation on turbine casing
 Turbine rotors and couplings

Drum type rotor manufactured from solid or hollow

forgings (Fig 1.104 (c) and 1.104 (d)).

J nJlARAlUirLni The welded disc rotor (Fig 1.104 (e)). These rotors
are not too common in the UK, where they have
been applied to LP turbine rotors. Overseas ap-
plications have included HP and IP turbine rotors.

For various reasons, monobloc forgings are preferred

(a) Monobloc LP rotor but where the size has exceeded the forging capa-
bility, the built-up disc construction has been used.
The current 660 MW UK designs all have monobloc

rotor forgings.
Built-up rotors required very careful attention to
shrink fit and location geometries to avoid problems
in running and with fatigue cracking. While the discs
may have facilitated non-destructive testing (NDT),

V
(b) Built-up disc rotor
(c) Monobloc drum IP rotor (reaction blading)
L
[fuirii^
(d) Monobloc drum IP rotor (impulse blading)
(e) Welded disc LP rotor
FIG. 1.104 Types of turbine rotor construction
The built-up or shrink-on disc rotor, consisting
of a forged steel shaft onto which separate forged
steel discs are shrunk and keyed (Fig 1.104 (b)).
the NDT capability on monobloc rotors has been
developed to meet all the needs. With the monobloc
method of construction, the LP rotors are more rigid,
resulting in better dynamic behaviour. 660 MW plant
employs rotors of this construction almost exclusively,
and experience has been good.
It was the practice to provide test material from a
bore-hole down the forging axis but, as confidence
in forging practice and material properties has in-
creased, the central bore has been omitted on some
current designs. The benefit of reduced stress levels
gives enhanced confidence in the longer-term fatigue
integrity of the rotor.
Welded rotor construction has the advantage of
smaller forging components at the expense of high
integrity welding. The welded design, having been
adopted by countries lacking an intrinsic large forging
capability, has been successfully applied by them to
HP, IP and LP rotors. There are a limited number
nnry-y of welded LP rotors in service in the UK.
High temperature drum-type rotors, manufactured
from hollow cylinders bolted to stub shafts, have
been prone to differential creep and have been re-
placed by monobloc drum rotors in current designs.
Where constraints on last-stage blading design dic-
tate, double-flow cylinders replace the single-flow
design as used in the HP turbine. Double-flow IP
and LP turbines are standard for 660 MW designs.
With the single-flow HP turbine, the axial thrust has
to be balanced to some extent by a 'balance piston'
to reduce thrust bearing loads: for reaction turbines
particularly (with a high pressure drop across the
moving blades) the balance piston is of substantial
proportions, as shown on Fig 1.105.
In contrast, an HP turbine rotor with impulse blad-
ing is illustrated on Fig 1.106. This arrangement is
characterised by the reduced number of blading stages
and larger blading pitch diameter compared with the
reaction design. In addition, a very much reduced
balance piston is necessary, as the axial thrusts are
lower.

91
The steam turbine
No.1 GLAND
No.1 BEARING
GLAND STEAM ^
LEAK-OFF EXHAUST TO
PORTS REHEATER
FIG. 1.105 Section through a monobloc HP turbine with reaction blading
7.1.1 Design for high temperature operation
The increase in size of large turbines over recent
years, together with the higher steam inlet conditions
often used, has made the design of turbine components
in contact with high temperature steam more critical.
Fundamental considerations include creep and thermal
fatigue, both requiring control of the temperature
distribution in components during steady and transient
operation. At the design stage of high temperature
turbine components, temperatures and thermal stresses
are assessed to ensure that creep, which occurs as a
function of time, temperature and stress levels do
not exceed specified values and that thermal stresses
due to cyclic operation are not of sufficient magni-
tude to cause thermal fatigue during the life of the
turbine.
Creep can be limited by close attention to detailed
geometry in critical areas, such as blade fastenings,
in order that stress-concentrating features are con-
trolled. Rotor stresses generally are kept low in re-
lation to the high temperature mechanical properties
of the creep-resisting steels employed.
Thermal fatigue is associated with changes in op-
erating conditions, such as occur during two-shift
92
Chapter 1
CYLINDER CASING
SHAFT
I.R TURBINE SHAFT
operation, due to the cyclic reversals of thermal stresses
resulting from the transient temperature gradients es-
tablished during the heating and cooling periods. The
thermal fatigue problem is accentuated by the increased
scantlings on larger machines which result in higher
thermal stresses occurring within components during
transient conditions.
The inlet sections of HP and IP rotors are the
critical areas for thermal fatigue, demanding careful
attention to design detail and operational practices.
A typical cycle of events undergone by material in
the critical region of a turbine rotor is illustrated in
Fig 1.107. The material undergoes plastic strain com-
pression during the heating period to point 1 on the
diagram, at which point the thermal stress has reached
its maximum value. The stress then falls as the tem-
perature of the rotor interior increases towards that
of the surface, causing the stress and strain at the
stress concentration to move along the line 1-2. At
point 2, the nominal thermal stress is virtually zero
and stress at the concentration is the residual stress
arising from the plasticity which occurred at 1. During
the period of full-load running, the temperature of
the rotor is such that this residual stress relaxes to
 Turbine rotors and couplings

HIGH PRESSURE
STEAM INLET
(TOP)

STEAM INLET CONNECTION (TOP)

ROTATING BLADES
OUTER CASING HP-IP COUPLING

No.2 BEARING / No.3 BEARING

SHAFT GLANDS (FRONT)

No.1 BEARING

No.1 PEDESTAL

HP ROTOR
No.2 PEDESTAL

THRUST BEARING

SHAFT GLAND (REAR)

INNER CASING GLANDS

INNER CASING SLEEVE CASING
HIGH PRESSURE STEAM INLET CONNECTION (BOTTOM)
STEAM INLET
(BOTTOM)

FIG. 1.106 Section through an HP turbine with impulse blading

point 3, due to creep. The shutdown or load reduc-
tion which follows, causes cooling of the rotor surface
and consequently tensile thermal stress in the surface
layers. The stress-strain condition at the concentration
then follows the line 3-4 with possibly some further
plasticity, in tension, at 4. As the rotor temperature
becomes more uniform at the part-load or shutdown
condition, the material stress-strain moves along the
line 4-5 to point 5. At this point, the rotor tem-
perature will generally be too low for significant creep
to occur and there is no stress relaxation, such as
occurred between 2 and 3.
When the material at the point of strain concen-
tration is held at reasonably high stress (point 3),
there is a damaging effect of the hold-time due to
irreversible creep strain. The effect of this is shown
on Fig 1.108.
Thermal fatigue, which shows as surface cracks,
can occur when there is a net amount of plastic strain
in the thermal cycle. Material property curves are
derived for combinations of plastic strain range, num-
ber of thermal cycles and hold-time at the peak of
the tensile part of the cycle.
7.1.2 Cooling of IP rotors
The IP rotors of reheat turbines are subject to the
same steam temperature at the inlet as HP rotors
and, because of their larger diameters, are subject to
larger centrifugal stresses. The bore of an IP rotor
under the first few stages is therefore a critical region
for creep.
On large machines operating with reheat steam at
565C, forced cooling of the rotor by cooler steam
is employed. This method is particularly effective in
cooling the bore under the first wheel (Fig 1.109);
with further increases in turbine size, additional cool-
ing is needed to cool the bore of the second wheel.
This can be effectively provided by introducing a sec-
ond cooling steam flow between the first two stages,
so that gland leakage steam is replaced by cooler
steam.
7.2 Rotor materials
Developments in the field of steam turbine design
would not have been possible without corresponding
materials developments. The development of alloys
with properties which provide good creep-resistance
at high temperature and of other alloys with good
mechanical and high fracture toughness has been one
area of considerable metallurgical accomplishment.

93
The steam turbine Chapter 1

where E = creep strain

STRAIN DURING
UNLOADING = stress, N/mm2
t = time,
T = absolute temperature, K
n, m and B are material constants

Typically, high temperature turbine design is based

on a creep strain of 0.2% during 105 h of operation.
STRESS Typical curves of time to produce 0.2% strain and
rupture are shown on Fig 1.110 for Cr Mo V rotor
RELAXATION
DUE TO CREEP
(DWELL TIME)
steel, and show the powerful effect of stress and
3 temperature in controlling creep strain.
While the best possible creep properties are required
on both HP and IP rotor forgings, the HP problem
is simplified by modest dimensions of HP rotors. The
IP rotor poses a much more serious problem, es-
pecially in turbines employing a reheat cycle. Full
steam temperature is encountered on discs at the IP
/ / inlet stages, which have larger diameters and blades
/ / / than equivalent stages on the HP rotor exposed to
/ / / steam at the same temperature. Both at the rim and
/ / /
/ * I\ the bore, the stresses are such that steam cooling may
\ / i I \ be necessary, even with steels having the best creep
\/ i 1 properties.
\l * y \
The reduced temperatures encountered at the last
two stages of the IP turbine are offset by increased
STRAIN DURING
LOADING bore stress due to the longer blade length, which
demands an adequately high proof strength.
The requirement for good creep strength and the
TOTAL STRAIN RANGE necessary proof strength in conjunction with a rotor
forging of heavy section is achieved on current rotors
FIG. 1.107 Typical stress-strain cycle at rotor surface
by the use of lCr IMo 0.25V steel alloy.

Also, the ability to produce components for use both
at high and low temperatures, having large physical
size and uniform material properties which meet ri-
gorous inherent defect acceptance requirements, testi-
fies to the improvements in steel-making techniques.
7.2.1 HP and IP rotors
High temperature rotors are required to have a com-
bination of creep strength, rupture strength and duc-
tility. This is conferred by rotors manufactured from
forged Chromium Molybdenum Vanadium steel (Cr
Mo V), a ferritic material which provides the best
possible creep properties. Creep is a high temperature
phenomenon and traditional design methods involve
the selection of materials which provide the required
creep strength and creep rupture ductility during the
required design life.
The equation for creep is of the form E = c^^e" 8 7 7
94
7.2.2 LP rotors
For low temperature rotors, the main requirements
are relatively high tensile strength combined with high
toughness.
The 3.5Ni Cr Mo V monobloc rotor forging is
currently used as it avoids the complication of shrink
fits in the case of built-up rotors. The manufactur-
ing facilities and forging technology required for the
manufacture of monobloc rotor forgings of very large
size and weight are fully able to meet the designers
requirements. No limitations are identified for the
forgings of 2-pole 900 MW units currently under
consideration.
The use of vacuum degassed ingots, single and
double upsetting procedures and the use of larger
presses capable of such forging operations, have all
contributed to a marked improvement in quality of
large LP rotor forgings. Rotor forging for 660 MW
designs of 100 tonne forged weight, produced from
ingots twice this size, are provided for LP rotors.
Vacuum degassing has eradicated the former pro-
blems of hydrogen embrittlement cracking and gives
 Turbine rotors and couplings

10

16 HOUR DWELL

ZERO DWELL
G

<
1.0

<
CE

110 HOUR DWELL

0.1 I 1- i
10 102 103 104
CYCLES TO CRACK INITIATION

FIG. 1.108 Typical strain range plotted against a number of thermal cycles to crack initiation at 540C,
showing the effect of dwell time

spection of the axial bore with ultrasonic examina-

< 495 H
*25 450 475
COOLING STEAM INLET TEMPERATURE, C
FIG. 1.109 The effect of cooling steam temperature on the
maximum IP rotor bore temperature under the first disc
good fracture toughness. Ultrasonic inspection techni-
ques ensure freedom from any internal discontinuities
greater than 5 mm effective diameter.
The parallel application of visual and magnetic in-
tion was the accepted approach to non-destructive
examination of the rotor forging whose simple geo-
metry, in the rough machined state, permits accurate
location and diagnosis of any internal defects pro-
ducing ultrasonic indications. Ultrasonic techniques allow
the material in the vicinity of the bore hole,
which is subjected to the highest tangential stresses
during overspeed, to be examined critically. This pro-
vides reassurance of integrity in circumstances where
the complex geometry of the machined rotor prohibits
the use of external examination.
The purpose of the bore was to permit internal
inspection, but it also removed some of the central
part of the forging which is where defects or segre-
gation in the original ingot might be located and
provided the opportunity to obtain fracture appear-
ance transition temperature measurements.
Inspection techniques have now developed to the
500 extent where external ultrasonics can replace the former
bore inspection. This is very significant as the LP
rotor is subjected to high centrifugal stresses, the
last-stage disc being the most heavily stressed part of
the turbine. The centrifugal load of the large rotating
blades sets up a tensile stress in the rim of the disc,
and this stress increases with decreasing radius, its
maximum value being at the hub. The larger the bore
of the hub, the larger the maximum stress. If the
bore is small, the hoop stresses are lessened.
Ni Cv Mo V steel containing up to 3.5% Ni has
been used for both shafts and discs for built-up LP rotors
and is the first choice to achieve the tensile properties
95
The steam turbine
400 450 500
TEMPERATURE, C
FIG. 1.110 Typical 0.2% strain and rupture properties of
Cr Mo V steels for rotor forgings
necessary for large monobloc rotors. Welding tech-
niques are established for the design of fabricated
LP rotors employing a series of solid discs. Alloy
steels for this application are subject to the conflicting
demands for tensile strength and weldability.
Since LP turbine rotors may run at temperatures
not much in excess of ambient, the provision of
safeguards against the danger of brittle fracture is
important. The use of materials for discs, shafts and
monobloc rotors of the lowest possible fracture ap-
pearance transition temperature (FATT) and subject
to stringent non-destructive testing and fracture me-
chanics assessment (see Section 7.3 of this chapter)
96
Chapter 1
provides the necessary framework for the safe operation
of LP turbines.
3.5% Ni Cr Mo V steel has a low value of FATT.
In the water-quenched and tempered condition, and
with careful control of composition, high tensile pro-
perties can be matched with a FATT well below
ambient temperature and a consequential high fracture
toughness.
7.3 Rotor testing and balancing
7.3.1 Thermal stability
During the manufacture of turbine shafts, great efforts
are made to ensure that the physical properties of
the forging do not change in service. There are three
types of instability:
Permanent, due to asymmetrical coefficients of
expansion across the diameter. This is avoided by
close metallurgical control of the forging process.
Temporary, due to residual stresses in the rotor.
This is eliminated by stress relieving the rotor, both
before and after machining, in a special furnace
in which the shaft is rotated.
Transient, due to differences in conductivity and
emissivity. The use of ferritic materials throughout
has obviated the difficulties that occur.
An unstable shaft is likely to develop a 'bow' in
service, producing out-of-balance forces and conse-
quential vibration.
550 7.3.2 Overspeed testing
A 20% proof overspeed test is specified on all large
turbine-generator rotors at the time of manufacture.
This allows the rotor balance to be satisfactorily
established throughout its operational speed range,
thereby providing sufficient margin over normal op-
erational overspeeds caused by electrical grid system
disturbances, and the regular 10% overspeeds experi-
enced during overspeed bolt testing. Overspeeding the
rotor also proof tests the forging, as it applies centri-
fugal stress in excess of that experienced during normal
operation, thereby providing a quantifiable measure
of the margin against spontaneous fast fracture.
7.3.3 Rotor balancing
When assembled with blades, the rotor is balanced
both statically and dynamically. For built-up rotors,
each bladed disc is balanced individually prior to
assembly.
 Turbine rotors and couplings

Static balance means that the weight is evenly dis- rotors via access holes in each gland housing. Figure
posed around the axis of the shaft. It can be checked 1.111 shows the balance planes and site trim balance
by rolling the rotor on horizontal knife-edge supports. arrangements for a typical 660 MW LP rotor.
Dynamic balance means that the moments of the
out-of-balance weights along the axis about either
bearing add up to zero. This is checked by spinning MOVING BLADE STAGES
the rotor on resilient bearings, detecting the vibration, REAR
and adding or subtracting weights until the vibration FRONT 4 2 1 3

is negligible. 5

A modern balancing machine enables balancing to

be carried out with a high degree of accuracy and
eliminates to a large extent the trial and error pro-
cesses used in the past.
Rotors are normally balanced at low speed (400 r/min)
and weight adjustment made in two convenient planes,
one at each end of the rotor. This adjustment may
be by varying screwed plugs in tapped holes, or by BALANCE WEIGHT ARRGT.
adding balance weights at specific circumferential po- STAGE 1 & 5 FRONT & REAR
DISCS BALANCE WEIGHT ARRGT.
sitions. Tee-slots are machined circumferentially in FRONT & REAR COUPLING
FLANGE GROOVES
the periphery of the rotor front and rear half-coupling
flanges to permit the weights to be positioned and (a) Balance planes
retained.
The aim of balancing is to reduce the amplitude
of vibration to a tolerable level, which can be taken
to be about 25 at the bearing pedestals.
As rotors become larger and more flexible, it is
increasingly important to understand their modal be- ROTOR BALANCE
WEIGHT ACCESS PORT
haviour so that balancing can ensure smooth running COVER PLATE
over the speed range.
The larger LP rotors and generator rotors having GLAND/PEDESTAL
LOCATING KEYWAYS
critical speeds below running speed are overspeeded
and, if necessary, balanced in the fully-bladed con-
dition in a vacuum chamber, where they can be run
without being overheated due to windage.
In the vacuum chamber and the high speed pit, rotors
are run in bearing bushes and pedestals as nearly as
possible simulating site conditions. Facilities are avail- GLAND CASING
able for measuring journal or pedestal vibration and
balancing can be carried out at closely controlled
speeds anywhere in the range required. Standards of ROTOR
balance obtained during the factory testing must pro-
vide sufficient vibration margin to take account of
site conditions. Balance on-site is likely to be affected
by variations in the stiffness of the bearing, possible (b) Site trim balance arrangements
shaft misalignment and the coupling of the indi-
vidually balanced rotors to form the complete shaft
system. FIG. 1.111 LP rotor balancing facilities
Multi-plane balancing is carried out at speeds
associated with each critical within the running range.
Balance weights are attached to correct imbalance in
any of the modes related to these criticals, as well 7.3.4 Critical speeds
as for imbalance in the modes of up to two criticals A stationary shaft supported between bearings has
above running speed. Typical HP and IP turbines a natural frequency of vibration, depending on its
are provided with two balance planes. The LP rotors diameter in relation to the distance between bearings.
have three balance planes and generators have faci- If its speed of rotation corresponds to its natural
lities to attach balance weights in almost any axial vibration frequency, the residual out-of-balance forces
position. are amplified, and can build up to a dangerous extent.
Should site vibration levels exceed those specified, This critical speed is either above or below running
provision is made for site trim balancing on the LP speed, depending on rotor construction. If below, the

97
The steam turbine Chapter 1

shaft is regarded as flexible, and care must be exer-
cised during run-up to ensure that the critical is
passed as quickly as possible.
Critical speeds decrease with increased rotor length
and with reduction in rotor diameter. On current large
units, the trend is to provide a rigid rotor (criticals
above running speed). Because of the increased rotor
length (necessary to accommodate the required num-
ber of moving blade stages) on large units, rigidity
has been accomplished by an increase in diameter.
The rotors of large machines are joined by solid
couplings, so that the complete shaft, which may
comprise seven individual rotors, has to be treated
as a whole. Each rotor is supported on two bearings
which are not simple supports. The hydrodynamic
oil films have flexibilities that significantly affect the
critical speed of the shaft. In Fig 1.112, calculated
critical speeds of a complete line are shown as func-
tions of bearing flexibility, expressed as the deflection
of an equivalent spring under the static load upon
the bearing.
7.3.5 Rotor fast fracture risk assessment
There have been major advances in the quality of
monobloc rotor forgings (see Section 7.2 of this chapter)
and in understanding the problems of brittle fracture.
Rotor forgings can now be produced with greatly
enhanced fracture resistance and the presence of sig-
nificant defects can be readily detected ultrasonically.
However, large steam turbine rotor forgings cannot
be produced entirely free of small, residual defects
and, for the high temperature rotors under consi-
deration, the forging ductile/brittle transition tem-

4000

3000

Q
LU
LU 2000
Q.
C/D

1000

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

BEARING DEFLECTION, mm

FIG. 1.112 Critical speeds of a complete line of rotors, calculated as a function of bearing flexibility
Each curve is associated with a particular span in which the maximum amplitude occurs. The black curves (a and h) refer to
the modes in which the maximum amplitude occurs within the generator span and are called the first and second criticals of
the generator. Similarly, curve (g) refers to the exciter span, curve (b) to the HP span, curve (c) to the IP span and curves
(d, e, 0 to the associated LP span.

98
 Turbine rotors and couplings

peratures are not significantly below the temperature High temperature steam turbine rotors operate in
range experienced in operation. The possibility of a the creep range and cracks within them could there-
rotor brittle fracture cannot be dismissed without a fore grow under steady loading. Rates of growth
careful assessment. under creep can be correlated with the linear elastic
Having carried out a 100% volumetric NDT in- fracture mechanics parameter K, via an equation of
vestigation, the defects identified must be assessed the form (see Fig 1.114):
for acceptability. Acceptable defect size is defined
primarily by the requirement that it shall introduce
no risk of rotor brittle fracture in service. The initial
defect assumed on the basis of the inspection stand-
ard will be subjected to centrifugal and thermal stress
cycling. Stress cycling could cause the defect to grow
by fatigue. Extensive testing of materials has permitted
crack growth rate to be expressed in fracture me- X 550C
chanics form (see Fig 1.113). O 525C
475C

10 J

TURBINE STEEL DATA

' SCATTERBANDAT20C

E 10

10 40 60 80 100
DELTA K, MN/m 3

-r i r
20 30 60 70 80
40 50
FIG. 1.113 Typical fatigue crack growth data for various
K, MN/m 3 /2
turbine steels between 100 and 550C

FIG. 1.114 The effect of temperature on creep crack

da/dN = CAK" growth resistance of a turbine rotor forging

where a = crack length

= cyclic stress intensity range da
C, m = constants = AKn
dt

The operational duty of large generating plant is where A, n constants

such that upper bounds can be reliably established
for stress cycles. In actual service, the stresses during
start-up are limited by established operational pro-
cedures (see Chapter 2) to protect the plant against
high strain fatigue. The total fatigue growth can then
be calculated on the basis of the upper bound stress cycles
and combined centrifugal and thermal stress.
K stress intensity
t time
The design criteria normally adopted for high tem-
perature turbine rotors limits the maximum rotor
stress in relation to the 105 hour creep rupture stress

99
The steam turbine Chapter 1

and limits the accumulated creep strain to 0.2% in
105 hours, ensuring that the stress in critical high
temperature regions is acceptably small. Calculated
creep crack growth is therefore small and may be
simply added to calculated fatigue crack extensions.
The region of maximum combined centrifugal and
thermal stress, near the rotor centreline, coincides with
the region where, for reasons of ingot cooling and
heat treatment, the material fracture toughness is
lowest. Valid plane strain fracture toughness specimens
cannot be obtained without removing an unacceptably
large diameter core and samples taken elsewhere may
not provide a reliable basis from which to estimate
centreline properties. Consequently it is most common
to measure toughness indirectly by using Charpy FATT
specimen results. Established correlations between FATT
and fracture toughness (see Fig 1.115) are used to
determine a KIC for the rotor material.
In all cases, the crucial judgement to be made is
whether the rotor forging can, given the longest fea-
sible initial crack and maximum fatigue and creep
growth during the specified lifetime service, survive
without failure caused by instantaneous fast fracture.
This will depend on whether the extended defect is
longer or smaller than the critical defect size calcu-
lated for the most adverse combination of events.
To further complicate the assessment, variations of
rotor temperature during machine start-up produce
a corresponding variation in rotor forging fracture
toughness properties which influence the instantan-
eous critical crack size. Assessments must therefore
be undertaken at each critical operating condition
for complete confidence.
7.4 Couplings
The need for couplings arises from the limited length
of shaft which it is possible to forge in one piece and
from the frequent need to use different materials for
the various conditions of temperature and stress. The

160 X 150

150
3V2 NCMV ROTORS

X 1 CMV ROTORS
130

130
120

^ 100
it
90
E

1 90

80 x
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x X x w
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xX
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60

xX i -
X X
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55
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X % X x xtfxx*
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X X x x
40

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I 20
-200 -180 -160 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 20
TEST TEMPERATURE (FATT),C

FIG. 1.115 Relationship between KJC and FATT for rotor materials

100
 Turbine rotors and couplings

multicylinder construction of large turbine-generators

necessitates the use of a coupled shaft system.
Couplings are essentially devices for transmitting
torque but they may also have to allow relative angular
misalignment, transmit axial thrust and ensure axial
location or allow relative axial movement. They may
be classified as flexible, semiflexible or rigid. On
smaller turbine-generators (i.e., up to 120 MW) semi-
flexible and flexible couplings were commonly used,
but for large turbine-generators it is now common
practice to use rigid couplings.

7.4.1 Flexible couplings

These are capable of absorbing small amounts of an-
gular misalignment, as well as axial movement. Double
flexible couplings can also accommodate eccentricity. (a) Claw coupling

Figure 1.116 shows some designs in common use.

The claw coupling, which may be single or double, is
robust and slides easily when transmitting light load;
on heavy load, however, friction causes it to become
axially rigid. The Bibby coupling is satisfactory up to
medium sizes and provides (in addition to the other
features) torsional resilience, the torsional stiffness
increasing with load.
The multitooth coupling transmits torque by inter-
nal and external gear teeth of involute form, which
are curved to accommodate angular misalignment.
All these couplings require continuous lubrication,
normally obtained from a jet of oil feeding into an
annular recess, from which it is fed centrifugally to
the coupling teeth through drilled passage-ways.

7.4.2 Semiflexible couplings

This type of couplings will allow angular bending
(b) Multi-tooth coupling
only. They require no lubrication and consist of a
bellows piece having one or more convolutions. Figure
1.117 shows a semiflexible coupling.

7.4.3 Rigid couplings

On large turbines, the high torque to be transmitted
renders the use of flexible couplings impracticable.
Consequently, it is now normal practice for rigid
couplings to be employed between the turbine cyl-
inders, so that the turbine shaft behaves as one con-
tinuous rotor.
The long shaft that is formed naturally bends under
its own weight to form a natural catenary (see section
7.5 of this chapter). Because of this, the use of rigid
couplings means that the shaft alignment must be set
to ensure that the coupling bending moment forces
are minimised.
Rigid couplings are either integral with shaft forg-
ing (monobloc) or are shrunk on to the shaft. It is
(c) Bibby coupling

now common practice for the turbine rotors to have

monobloc half couplings. Shrunk-on couplings have FIG. 1.116 Flexible couplings

101
The steam turbine Chapter 1

Half couplings, which are forged separately from

the shaft, are assembled by heating and shrinking
them on to the shaft. Dowels are then inserted be-
tween the bore of the coupling and the diameter of
the shaft. For additional security against axial move-
ment of the coupling, a screwed ring, secured by a
locking screw, is fitted to the shaft end outboard of
the flange. An oil injection point may be provided
on the coupling through which oil can be supplied
under pressure to one or two annular grooves in the
coupling. This allows the coupling to be 'floated' to
ensure that it is seated correctly following the shrink-
on procedure and also assists removal. Figure 1.119
shows a typical arrangement of a shrunk-on type
half coupling with oil injection facility, bolted to a
monobloc half coupling.
Fill. 1.117 Semiflexible coupling Earlier designs of shrink-on couplings employed a
tapered seat, with a corresponding shaft taper. With
this type, an oil injection system was used to remove
the coupling from the shaft.
been used on turbines and still are used on the gen-
A forged steel spacer plate is normally fitted in
erator. They allow the couplings to be taken off for
each coupling to provide a means of axial adjustment
the removal of turbine rotor discs, or the generator
of the rotor relative to the cylinder. This ensures that
rotor endwinding retaining rings (end bells). To mini-
operational design clearances between the stage dia-
mise stress concentration in the coupling region, the
phragms and the rotor blades are always maintained
monobloc design of half coupling has a large transi-
and also facilitates rotor interchangeability. The spacer
tional fillet radius. Figure 1.118 shows a typical
plate is annular in shape and dowelled to one half
monobloc coupling.
coupling and secured by screws with countersunk
heads. The spacer plates must be sufficiently robust
to avoid distortion.
SPACER PLATE
The couplings are connected by fitted bolts which
are arranged so that torque is transmitted by a com-
RECESSED HEADS
bination of axial clamp load (resulting in friction at
the coupling faces) and radial grip (resulting in shear
TO REDUCE
WINDAGE _ load on the cross-sectional area of the bolt). The
bolts are tightened in a controlled manner to a pre-
LARGE determined extension. The use of fitted bolts means
FILLET RADIUS jj
that some final on-site reaming of the bolt holes is
necessary at the assembly stage, which can make this
a prolonged operation. In an attempt to reduce as-
sembly time, it is now normal practice only to 'fit'
sufficient bolts to enable system fault torques to
be transmitted without damage to the bolts. The re-
ROTOR AXIS
maining bolts are installed with larger clearances to
permit speedier assembly.
Couplings should be designed to withstand a close
up three-phase fault or out-of-phase synchronising
without damage. The highest torque under these con-
ditions (typically 4 - 5 times full load torque) occurs
at the generator/turbine coupling and would almost
certainly cause Stepping' of the fitted bolts.
To further reduce the assembly time of couplings,
hydraulic bolt fitting techniques have been developed.
These have the advantage that bolts can be fitted
quickly and also removed quickly without damage to
the bolt hole or the bolt.
The standard coupling bolts have cylindrical heads,
with an internal hexagon for tightening, and are re-
FIG. 1.118 Rigid monobloc coupling cessed into the coupling to cut down windage losses
102

LOCKING SOCKET SCREW
GRUBSCREW
MONOBLOC
HALF COUPLING FLANGE
FIG. 1.119 Typical arrangement of a shrunk-on half coupling
and noise. Each coupling is normally surrounded
by a stationary steel guard to reduce windage heat-
ing of the adjacent pedestal and the creation of oil
mist.
7.5 Rotor alignment
The main objective in setting and maintaining rotor
alignment is to achieve satisfactory dynamic behaviour
of the running shaft line.
Excessive misalignment can affect the vibration
behaviour of the multi-bearing shaft line. It imposes
an effective bending moment at the couplings which
acts like a rotating out-of-balance. Changes between
hot and cold running vibration behaviour may be
indicative of misalignment, with the effect showing
as a once-per-revolution vibration. Very drastic mis-
alignment may have the capacity to cause bearing un-
Turbine rotors and couplings
OIL INJECTION
POINT
BALANCE WEIGHT
GROOVE
DOWEL PINS
COUPLING NUT
SHRUNK ON
HALF COUPLING FLANGE
loading and hence alter the shaft vibration behaviour.
A long shaft bends naturally under its own weight
to form a catenary, but nevertheless revolves around
its curved centreline during rotation. The alignment
is arranged so that the shaft system has minimum
bending moments at the shaft couplings. The catenary
depends solely on the mass and stiffness of the shaft
system. Figure 1.120 shows a typical shaft catenary
for a large turbine-generator.
During initial erection, bearings are set at appro-
priate heights relative to one another to form the
catenary shape.
The final bearing height must ensure that adjacent
coupling faces are square and true to one another, so
that there is no transmission of bending moment
through the coupling. Final adjustment of bearings
must be made with all the cylinders fully assembled
and all pipes, which may exert a strain on any turbine
cylinder, fully assembled and attached to that cylinder.
103
The steam turbine Chapter 1

HP CYLINDER IP CYLINDER LP.1 CYLINDER

No.1 PED No.2 PED No.3 PED

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OVERALL LENGTH
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FIG. 1.120 Typical shaft catenary for a large turbine-generator

7.5.1 Alignment technique
The basic intention is to have zero shear and bending
moment at the couplings, so that drivng torque is
the only force transmitted. This means that the shaft
centrelines must be coincident at the point where the
coupling faces meet, and that the axes of the two
shafts must be parallel at the same point. Using one
rotor as a datum, it is possible to set the next rotor
relative to the datum rotor, using coupling gap and
periphery measurements, and so on down the line.
To carry out gap measurements, it is necessary
to separate the couplings slightly. The gap between
the coupling faces is then measured at a number of
points around the rotor, for a number of different
rotor positions. If the coupling is correctly aligned,
the gap should be uniform all the way round. If
this is not so, the bearing positions can be modified
by the appropriate amount and the gap remeasured.
The concentricity of the two rotors is checked by
measuring, using dial gauges, the radial difference
between the periphery of one coupling and the peri-
phery of the other coupling while rotating the separate
rotors. Any errors can be corrected by bearing ad-
justments, as for gap errors.
Other methods of alignment, based on strain gauges
and optical techniques, have been developed.
The strain gauge technique is not widely applied
but can be used on the coupled shaft at a suitable
point near the coupling to be checked. It measures
the bending stress of the shaft at that point by the
application of strain gauges. The presence of bending
stress is indicated by the strain gauge giving a sine
104
wave output as the shaft is rotated. To use this tech-
nique fully, it would be necessary to establish a datum
at each coupling for a properly aligned machine, and
to carry out a calibration exercise to see how bending
stress is affected by shaft alignment changes.
Low power laser-based optical alignment techniques
can also be used with the shaft fully coupled. These
are suitable for initially setting up the pedestals to
the required catenary. These techniques have the dis-
advantage that, when adjacent turbines are operating,
the resulting atmospheric disturbances and structure-
borne vibration may preclude their use.
Alignment of the shaft necessitates the outer bear-
ings being raised. On large turbine-generators, the
outer bearings could be up to 25 mm above the level
of the central bearings.
It is often necessary to deliberately misalign par-
ticular bearings when cold so that an acceptable hot
alignment is achieved. This makes allowance for support
structure expansions when the turbine is at operating
temperature. The required offsets are included either
by removing/adding shims from/to the bearings to
be adjusted, or by deliberately allowing a known error
in a coupling. The amount of offset can be decided
by measurements taken from a multilimb-manometer
system, or derived from operational experience.
7.5.2 On-line monitoring
Manometric systems are used for on-line monitoring
of the bearing pedestal positions. Connections to
each pedestal provide information on the relative level

changes during service. A description of such a sys-
tem is given in Chapter 2.
8 Bearings, pedestals and turning gear
8.1 Journal bearings
The purpose of a turbine bearing is to retain the rotor
system in its correct radial position, relative to the
cylinders, and to provide a low friction support which
will withstand the static and dynamic loads of shaft
rotation, together with the frictional and conducted
heat, and to remain free from maintenance except
at major outages.
8.1.1 Construction
Two bearings normally support each section of the
turbine shaft, although, with solid couplings, some
designs only use one bearing between cylinders in
order to save length and bearing losses. Plain white-
metalled journal bearings are invariably used because
of their high loading capacity, reliability and absence
of wear due to hydrodynamically generated films of
lubricating oil. These films are formed automatically,
when running, by a high pressure wedge of oil between
the whitemetal and the shaft the maintenance of
which ensures that no metal-to-metal contact is made.
The oil is continuously fed into the wedge by frictional
drag and leaks away axially towards the edges of
the bearing.
The white metal surface is either cast into a mild
steel liner to form a bearing shell, which is supported
in the bearing body, or cast directly into the bearing
body itself. Both types are in use in modern UK
turbines (Fig 1.121).
All bearing assemblies are split in halves on the
horizontal centreline and held together by bolts, the
halves being dowelled together to assure precise lo-
cation on assembly.
The bearings are normally spherically seated in their
pedestals on four pads under which shims are placed
to facilitate precise horizontal and vertical alignment
of the shaft line. The spherical seating feature assures
that, on assembly, the bearing will automatically align
to its correct axial tilt; this is necessary because, when
coupling faces are set and bolted flat together, the
outer bearing on each shaft needs to be higher than
the inner bearing due to the natural bending catenary
adopted by each shaft under its self weight (for further
detail of alignment refer to Section 7 of this chapter).
The spherical seat is restrained in normal operation.
Typical large turbine bearings are up to 530 mm
in diameter and have length/diameter (L/D) ratios in
the order of 0.5 to 0.7. Generator bearings tend to
Bearings, pedestals and turning gear
be rather longer, with L/D ratios of 0.6 to 1.0 to
take account of the heavier generator rotor in relation
to the weight of individual turbine rotors. In this
way, a typical load on projected bearing area is kept
below about 15 kPa.
Two main white metal profiles are in common use
in modern UK turbine plant; these are known as
elliptical and three-land respectively.
The elliptical bore is produced by first machining
a circular bore with shims in the bearing horizontal
half joint and then assembling the bearing without the
shims. This results in typical clearance ratios (diametral
clearance/diameter) of 0.001 vertically and 0.0015
horizontally. Oil is fed into the bearing via lead-in
ports at two diametrically opposite points on the
horizontal centreline.
The three-land design has three separate bearing
surfaces, or lands, of equal width but of different
arc lengths; one land in the bottom half and two in
the top half.
There is an oil supply groove with lead-in at the
beginning of each land, and a drain groove at the
end. Recirculation of oil is limited by an axial strip
of bearing surface between each drain groove and
the following supply groove. The three-land bearing
is generally of circular bore with a clearance ratio of
about 0.0013. This design is more resistant to low
frequency whirl (see later).
Oil is supplied, to cool and lubricate the bearings,
at about 1 bar and 30-40C, from the main turbine
lubricating-oil pump. Each bearing also has a separate
high pressure (300 bar maximum) jacking oil supply
which is injected at the bottom of the bearing. This
lifts the journal in the bearing when starting from
rest, thereby preventing wear and reducing the starting
torque required from the turning-gear drive motor.
8.1.2 Instrumentation
Instrumentation specific to the performance of the
bearing normally comprises white-metal temperature
and oil inlet pressure, indicated both locally and in
the Control Room. Bearing oil outlet temperature is
normally indicated locally, with remote alarm facili-
ties. Provision is also made at the bearing housing
to monitor vertical and horizontal vibration modes.
Jacking oil pressure is monitored local to each bear-
ing, with alarm indication in the Control Room.
8.1.3 Bearing performance
The first step towards understanding the performance
of a bearing under dynamic conditions is to know
the condition of the bearing oil film in vibration; as
described by Smith [9], this is different from the
steady state hydrodynamically-generated oil film noted
earlier.
When a sufficiently large journal vibration is super-
imposed on the steady state running condition, changes
105
The steam turbine Chapter 1

PAD RETAINING STOP PEG

SCREW

BEARING PAD

SHIMS

PACKER

SHIMS

HOLE FOR BEARING

SHELL THERMOCOUPLE

LUBRICATING OIL TOP HALF

CHANNEL BEARING BODY

LUBRICATING OIL
INLET PORT

TOP HALF
BEARING SHELL

STOP SCREW
OUTER
INNER
TOP HALF BAFFLE
RINGS

HOUSING STUD

REGISTER RING

BOTTOM HALF
BEARING SHELL

BOTTOM HALF
BEARING BODY

BOTTOM HALF BAFFLE

RING

JACKING OIL INLET JACKING OIL PORTS

FIG. 1.121 Main rotor bearing showing steel-back white metal liner
An alternative arrangement has the white metal cast directly into the bearing body

106

in the oil film thickness and circumferential move-
ment of the pressure bearing oil film take place,
accompanying the movement of the journal. The way
in which the oil film is redistributed depends on the
character of the vibration. This is one of the sources
of complication of the dynamics of turbine bearings.
Figure 1.122 illustrates the steady running state film
and other film regimes which may apply to the pres-
sure bearing oil film with the journal vibrating. Figure
1.122 (a) illustrates the steady state film, with the
film starting at the position of maximum clearance,
(b) an oscillating film, (c) rotating trailing film, (d)
rotating leading film and (e) rotating transition film.
STEADY LOAD
(b) Oscillating film
REACTION
(c) Rotating Trailing Film (d) Rotating Leading Film
(e) Rotating Transition Film
LOCUS OF JOURNALc - J i * " "
JOURNAL AXIS
DISPLACEMENT
H- BEARING AXIS
FIG. 1.122 Oil film regimes in journal bearing vibration
The oscillating-film condition, (b), is obtained when
a small amplitude of vibration is superimposed on
the steady-running condition; this vibration is sus-
tained by a fluctuating force superimposed on the
steady load. The motion of the journal axis results
in both squeeze and angular swing of the film. This
oscillating-film condition is of frequent occurrence
in bearings in service. It is closely related to the
steady-running condition.
In severe vibration, the journal motion may become
a whirl of such large amplitude that the position of
minimum film thickness travels round the bearing
Bearings, pedestals and turning gear
with the whirl. The pressure-bearing film then travels
round with the journal and the operating condition
is no longer closely related to the steady running
condition.
In a journal whirl of sustained magnitude at con-
stant eccentricity, the idealised bearing is in a condition
of steady running relative to axes rotating with the
whirl. There is an effective speed of rotation, relative
to these axes, of (N-2F), where N is the speed of
rotation of the journal and F is the frequency of
whirl measured in the same direction. The position
of formation of the pressure-bearing film depends
on the direction of the mean peripheral speed of
bearing and journal relative to the rotating axes, that
is on whether N is greater or smaller than 2F.
When the frequency of whirl is less than half the
journal speed, the pressure-bearing film is built up
on the trailing side of the minimum film thickness,
as in Fig 1.122 (c). When the frequency of whirl is
greater than half the journal speed, the pressure-
bearing film is built up on the leading side of the
minimum film thickness, as in Fig 1.122 (d). The
diagrams show, for each case, the direction of the
reaction applied by the journal to the bearing.
When a rotating load is superimposed, on a much
smaller steady load, there is a variation of eccentri-
city during each whirl rotation, but the film regimes
obtained resemble those given by whirl of constant
eccentricity.
With rotating trailing film the reaction of the bear-
ing on the journal (opposite to the reaction just
mentioned) has a component normal to the attitude
radius in the direction of the whirl. This component
tends to increase the whirl. An explanation is thus
offered of why a rotating trailing film is associated
with tendency to instability. As reaction force in-
creases and minimum film thickness decreases, the
direction of the reaction swings closer to the attitude
radius, so that if there is damping elsewhere in the
system, a steady condition of whirl may be attained.
With rotating leading film the corresponding com-
ponent tends to damp the whirl. A bearing in this
regime does not excite instability.
The transition between these last two conditions
is of importance, because it may exhibit a sharply
resonant tendency to maintain rotor whirl when there
is a natural frequency close to half running speed.
Figure 1.122 (d) gives a diagrammatic representation of
this film condition; the angular extent of the pressure-
bearing film is not known.
Prediction of rotor dynamic behaviour depends
on an adequate understanding of the bearing per-
formance, for which full-size bearing test rigs are
commonly used. Dynamic behaviour can also be in-
fluenced by the stiffness of the support structure and
the effectiveness of the connection between bearing
pedestals and the turbine foundations. In this latter
respect, bolting to steel foundations is more predict-
able than bolting to soleplates grouted into mass
concrete foundation blocks.
107
The steam turbine
8.1.4 Factors affecting bearing life
Wear of journal bearings mainly occurs with an oil
film of very small minimum thickness and mild local
wear, especially as new bearings 'bed-in', is to be
expected. However, severe wear is a symptom of
trouble and can be caused by:
Contacting asperities on substandard journal and
bearing surfaces.
Scoring by oil-borne solid particles.
Excessive local pressure or temperature.
Electrical pitting.
Fatigue cracking of the white metal surface can be
caused by heavy vibration or cavitation within the
oil film; the latter is usually caused by a restricted
supply of oil.
Corrosion rarely occurs, due to the control by
treatment plant of moisture in the turbine lubricating-
oil system (see Chapter 2).
Electrical erosion of bearings and journals has oc-
casionally given trouble. Small shaft voltages are set
up by electromagnetic induction in the generator
rotor. Higher voltages sometimes occur in the turbine,
produced electrostatically. Bearing erosion is prevented
by effective insulation of the generator bearings from
earth and the application of an earthing brush to
a suitable point on the turbine rotor system. Both
insulation and earthing brushgear require good main-
tenance as well as good design to assure their correct
functioning.
8.2 Thrust bearings
The purpose of the turbine thrust bearing is to pro-
vide a positive axial location for the turbine rotors
relative to the cylinders. To achieve this, it must be
able to withstand the unbalanced thrusts due to blade
reaction and steam pressure acting on unbalanced
areas. It must be free from maintenance, except at
major outages. Since it is universal practice to use
solid couplings between rotors, only one thrust bear-
ing is required in each complete shaft line. It is
normally located close to the areas where blade/
cylinder clearances are minimum and operating tem-
peratures are highest and is split on the horizontal
centreline for ease of asssembly and maintenance.
All large UK steam turbines use the Michell tilting-
pad thrust bearing (Fig 1.123).
Although the net thrust on the white-metalled pads
in the on-load condition is always in one direction,
i.e., typically towards the generator, a second set of
pads, termed surge pads, are incorporated on the
opposite side of the integral shaft collar to take ac-
count of transient reversals of thrust which occur
108
Chapter 1
during load reduction and following a turbine trip.
In operation, the pad faces are slightly inclined to
the face of the thrust collar and the wedge-shaped
cavity thus formed fills with oil. As thrust pressure
is applied, the wedge narrows and oil is forced to
the restricted end. This ensures that metal-to-metal
contact between the pads and the thrust collar is
prevented. The pads are shaped and mounted so that
each is able to pivot independently.
Since the function of the thrust bearing is critical
in controlling axial clearances between stationary and
rotating turbine components, particular precautions
are taken to protect its integrity.
Because of the close tolerances between the pads
and the shaft collar, the oil supply to the thrust bear-
ing is individually filtered. A portion of the oil is fed
straight to the thrust pad/shaft collar interface to
maintain the load bearing oil film. The balance of the
oil supply is diverted around and behind the thrust
pads to provide cooling; since as a result the thrust
bearing runs flooded, the consequent churning loss
has also to be removed and therefore this portion of
the oil supply is a significant proportion of the whole.
Thrust pad wear measurement is facilitated by the
provision of oil pressure nozzles between the white
metal pads and mounted on the thrust and surge sides
of the shaft collar (Fig 1.124).
These nozzles are set at a distance slightly greater
from the shaft collar than the normal pad running
clearance. A separately-filtered constant pressure oil
supply is delivered to these nozzles and the discharge
pressure is continuously monitored. As pad wear takes
place, the nozzle-to-collar gap is reduced and the in-
creasing nozzle discharge pressure is locally indicated
and alarmed in the Control Room to give indication
of worn white metal thrust pads.
Thrust pad temperatures are monitored by embedded
thermocouples, with local and remote indication and
alarm facilities.
8.3 Pedestals
The main purpose of the bearing pedestals is to sup-
port the turbine rotor, via the journal bearings, in a
fixed relationship to the cylinders so that gland clear-
ances are maintained in all phases of operation. To
this end, all pedestals and covers are rigidly fabricated
in steel, amply stiffened by ribs and gusset plates,
to support the bearings in a fixed relation to the
cylinder supports. Fabrication of pedestals has been
adopted on large turbines because of the advantages
offered in terms of increased support stiffness, whilst
maintaining a compact overall pedestal size with good
resistance to impact loading.
Improved cast materials, such as spheroidal graphite
iron, may find future application with improved cast-
ing techniques.
 Bearings, pedestals and turning gear

TOP HALF HP/IP BEARING HOUSING ANTI-ROTATION LUBRICATING OIL DRAIN

PIN ANNULUS

PAD STOP
PLATES

LOWER HALF
BEARING SHELL

BEARING LUBRICATING
OIL INLET HOLES

WHITE METAL
FACING RING

LUBRICATING OIL INLET

ANNULUS-LOWER HALF
BEARING HOUSING ONLY

FIG. 1.123 Tilting-pad thrust bearing

109
The steam turbine Chapter 1

ADAPTOR FLANGE AXIAL INDICATOR THRUST PAD THRUST PAD STOP

BODY

THRUST COLLAR

WHITE METAL END CAP

PACKING RING

ADJUSTING WASHER

OIL SUPPLY PIPE THRUST BLOCK _*J U - 01 in

" ^ ^~ FROM PAD FACE

^ ,

NOZZLE

DETAIL OF THRUST AND SURGE

PAD NOZZLE SETTINGS

OIL SUPPLY FROM

MAIN OIL PUMP

CONTROL ROOM

LOCAL INDICATION
AND ALARM
-

NO 1 NOZZLE NO 2 NOZZLE

THRUST PADS SURGE PADS

FRONT REAR

FIG. 1.124 Thrust pad wear measurement system, relying upon decreasing gap at the nozzle head causing a rise in
indicated discharge oil pressure

110

Pedestals in the LP area of the turbine are normally
firmly bolted and dowelled to the foundations. It
is, however, common practice at the high temperature
end of the turbine to make provision either for the
cylinders to expand at sliding mounting points on top
of their pedestals or for the pedestal to slide relative
to the foundations. For details of cylinder support
and expansion arrangements refer to Section 6 of
this chapter.
The pedestals incorporate facilities for the attach-
ment of lubricating and jacking oil supply pipework
and the associated bearing oil drain pipework. Mounted
within (or on) the enclosure are all necessary instru-
mentation connections, e.g., bearing temperature, dif-
ferential expansion pick-ups, together with eccentricity
and vibration detectors. A manometric level system
is attached to the pedestals adjacent to each bearing
to detect misalignment due to support structure settle-
ment, for details of this system refer to Chapter 2.
Particular care is taken to ventilate around the
pedestals, keeping them cool so that any vertical ther-
mal expansion effects, which might disturb the overall
vertical alignment of the turbine, are minimised. For
example, many pedestals contain couplings which are
surrounded by coupling guards; these guards are
themselves cooled by oil sprays tapped-off the lubri-
cating oil supply to remove windage heat generated
by coupling rotation.
In addition, those pedestals adjacent to the high
temperature components of the turbine are frequently
protected by thermal radiation shields, with provision
for air circulation in the space between the shield
and the pedestal structure, also to minimise thermal
expansion effects.
8.4 Oil sealing arrangements
The ends of the pedestals where the turbine rotors
emerge are fitted with oil catchers. The baffle fins
on the oil catchers, in conjunction with oil throwers
on the shaft, prevent egress of bearing lubricating
oil from the pedestal.
Having regard for the speed and size of the bearing
and coupling assemblies within the pedestals, the pro-
duction of oil mist is inevitable. The escape of this
mist is prevented by the main oil tank vapour ex-
tractors which, since the bearing drain lines do not
run full, maintain the inside of the pedestal at a
slightly lower air pressure than the turbine hall. There
is thus a small flow of air through the baffle ring and
across the surface of the shaft; this purges the oil
mist back into the pedestal and via the bearing drains
to the main oil tank, whence it is discharged at a safe
location. For details of the lubricating oil system see
Chapter 2.
Oil leakage from the horizontal joint of the ped-
estals is commonly prevented by machining a groove
Bearings, pedestals and turning gear
all round the joint flange inside the line of the half-
joint bolts; any seepage from the ends of these grooves
is collected and piped away to a dirty-oil drains tank.
8.5 Turning gear
The turbine rotors must be turned continuously
throughout the process of warming-through the unit
prior to start-up and, in addition, during the cooling
process following a shutdown. Rotor and cylinder dis-
tortion could occur as a result of uneven heating or
cooling if the facility for turning the rotors were not
available to provide circulation within the cylinders.
Cylinder metal temperatures, specified by the manu-
facturer, are the normal criteria for allowing a warm
turbine to cease barring.
Two independent turning gear facilities are usually
provided:
Hand barring arrangement.
Electrical turning gear (ETG).
8.5.1 Hand barring arrangement
Should the ETG be unavailable, provision is made
to turn the rotors manually by mounting a lever and
fulcrum apparatus at a prearranged point on the cover
of a bearing pedestal. This lever operates on a per-
manent toothed-wheel between two turbine rotors
(Fig 1.125). This is usually an operational feature
to protect the turbine in a heat-soaked condition.
Further hand barring, for maintenance purposes
only, can often be carried out by using a simple
crowbar against a toothed barring ring, replacing the
normal spacing ring between rotor couplings, and lever-
ing against a simple fulcrum plate secured to the ped-
estal horizontal joint face (Fig 1.126).
8.5.2 Electrical turning gear (ETG)
The rotors are turned slowly, typically less than
30 r/min, during start-up and shutdown by the ETG.
An electric drive motor turns the rotors through a
wormshaft and worm wheel, thereby providing a re-
duction gear. A jacking oil pump supplies high pres-
sure lubricating oil to the reduction gear.
Manual control of the motor is provided in the
Control Room, and automatic stop and start faci-
lities are also included in the motor switchgear. The
motor overload trip is set at a value which prevents
excessive torque being applied to a seized rotor. Elec-
trical interlocking prevents the motor being started
until jacking oil pressure is established.
A self-shifting synchronous (SSS) clutch is installed
between the drive motor and the turbine shaft and
provides a simple mechanical means of automatically
111
The steam turbine
BARRING GEAR SLOT CLOSED
PAWL
FULCRUM PIN BARRING GEAR
TOOTHED BARRING
RING
MANUAL BARRING GEAR ASSEMBLED
FlG. 1.125 Assembly of hand barring equipment; this is an
operational alternative in the event of the main electrical
turning gear being unavailable
connecting or disconnecting the turning gear drive.
The SSS clutch is a positive tooth-type overrunning
clutch which is self-engaging when passing through
synchronism, that is, immediately the speed of the
input shaft exceeds that of the output shaft. The
clutch disengages automatically when the torque re-
verses, that is, when the speed of the output shaft
exceeds that of the input shaft (Fig 1.127).
At standstill, when the driving shaft begins to pro-
vide torque, the clutch will engage; if after this the
torque ceases, the clutch will disengage. It will re-
engage if the speed of the driving shaft exceeds that
of the driven shaft, whether at full barring speed or
at any lesser speed.
Spring-loaded pawls, acting on a ratchet, sense the
relative speeds of the input and output shafts; when
the input shaft is about to overtake the other, the
112
Chapter 1
BARRING RING
FULCRUM
PLATE
FIG. 1.126 View on the end of a turbine coupling,
showing provision for hand barring during outages for
maintenance
pawls 'bite' and reactive torque is applied to the
helically-splined sleeve which moves axially and slides
the clutch teeth into engagement.
The positions of the pawls and ratchet teeth en-
sure that the clutch teeth pass between each other
exactly, without making contact until full engagement
is reached; at this point the pawls leave the ratchet
teeth, and the flanks of the clutch teeth meet to take
up the drive.
It is important to note that the pawls merely sense
zero relative speed and angular location, they do not
carry the main torque. To prevent ratcheting and
consequent wear when the relative speed is high, the
pawls are designed to disengage centrifugally.
The only load imposed on the pawls is the force
required to engage the clutch. In a very large clutch,
this could overload the pawls and so a relay clutch
is used. Here the primary mechanism is exactly as
described above, but the helically-splined sleeve, in
moving forward, engages teeth to move a much heav-
ier helically-splined sleeve on which the clutch teeth
are cut. A further refinement is an oil dashpot, which
cushions the engaging action, and prevents disengage-
ment as a result of rapid transient torque reversal.
9 Turbine applications
9.1 Power generation
The main concern of this volume is turbines for the
generation of electric power via a constant speed
generator. In this area of technology, as applied in
 Turbine applications

WORMWHEEL

WORMWHEEL
FLANGE

OIL FEED
CONNECTION

PIVOT PIN

PAWL

CLUTCH IN DISENGAGED POSITION CLUTCH IN ENGAGED POSITION

FIG. 1.127 Self-shifting synchronous clutch

113
The steam turbine
large central power stations, the steam turbine has
firmly established itself as pre-eminent during the
20th century.
The previous sections have mainly described the
thermodynamic and mechanical features of turbines
used for power generation. The condenser and feed-
heating plant have been identified as essential features
necessary to obtain a reasonable thermodynamic effi-
ciency. Boiler feed pumps are required to pressurise
the system. Cycles employing a variety of inlet steam
conditions and options for reheating have been dis-
cussed and, depending on the source of steam and
the prevailing economics, all these are possible. The
mechanical features described in earlier sections have
embraced those which are necessary to achieve plant
capable of high efficiency and flexible operation.
It is helpful to examine briefly the history of
turbine development, as it has led to the principal
features of current machines. The earliest turbines
had ratings of a few MW and were of the single cylinder
type driving a DC generator. The speed of rotation
was therefore not dependent on the electrical system
and was purely a choice for the designer. Subse-
quently, fixed speed AC generators were developed,
giving major advantages in the economy and ease of
distribution of electrical power.
Higher unit ratings have been employed to reduce
the capital cost per kW output and to improve the
efficiency. Basically, doubling the length of the tur-
bine blading gives four times the cross-sectional area
through which the steam flows and the possibility of
four times the output for double the cost. This simple
example cannot be directly related to the practical
case, as many other factors influence the precise
ratio of the costs, for example the costs of assembly
and manufacture, and the costs of buildings and
construction work to house the turbine. The efficiency
is also improved because the smaller turbine has a
higher frictional loss (per kW output) due to the
smaller blade height. Also, the blading clearances will
not necessarily double for the larger size turbine, so
the leakages (allowing steam to by-pass the blading)
will be greatly reduced (per kW output) for the larger
machine. Similar economies of scale also apply to
condensing and feedheating plant, and to the auxiliary
systems.
Apart from the difficulties of making and trans-
porting larger components, the main limitation to
this process is the extent to which the blade length
can be increased without exceeding centrifugal and
bending stress criteria. This is discussed in Section 5
of this chapter. Turbine ratings up to 1200 MW are
now commonplace. However, the user must bear in
mind the relative size of his power distribution system
and the consequences arising if a large unit is tripped.
Will the other plant on the system be able to pick up
the load without interruption of the electricity supply
to consumers or must a proportion of the consumer
load be disconnected?
114
Chapter 1
The development of higher turbine ratings and
the increased steam inlet temperatures and pressures
soon led turbine makers away from the single-cylinder
designs to multiple-cylinder designs comprising high
pressure (HP), intermediate pressure (IP) and low
pressure (LP) cylinders. Because of the limitations
in the length of the last-stage blading and the im-
portance of having sufficient exhaust area to allow
operation at an economically low exhaust pressure,
double-flow cylinders were introduced as shown in
Fig 1.128. This example shows a further development
where two double-flow LP cylinders, connected on
the same shaft, accept the exhaust flow from a double-
flow IP turbine supplied by a single-flow HP turbine.
This is often described as a 4-flow exhaust machine.
Many other combinations are possible, with 6-flow
and 8-flow turbines being constructed from three and
four LP cylinders respectively.
The principle of improving turbine efficiency by
reheating the steam in the boiler after it has com-
pleted an initial expanson was well known even at
the beginning of the century. However, the first proto-
types of commercial generating plant using reheat did
not appear until the 1920s and, although now almost
universal, it was only introduced gradually. Since the
reheated steam returns to the turbine at a much higher
temperature than that at which it was exhausted,
there is a further strong incentive to provide a se-
parate turbine cylinder to expand the reheated steam
so that high temperature gradients are avoided on
adjacent stages.
Manufacturers now have a wealth of experience
behind them and some of the more fanciful options
of the past have been eliminated. Development to
improve efficiency and reliability continues on a broad
front. The division of the overall turbine expansion
between separate cylinders has enabled them to offer a
modular design concept for a whole range of unit sizes
for power generation. The modular concept centres
around several standard cylinder designs which may
be combined in a number of different ways to cover
variations both in steam conditions and in unit output.
Figure 1.4 illustrates this concept, as applied by both
UK turbine manufacturers.
9.2 Mechanical drive
Figure 1.128 shows a typical cycle diagram of a unit for
power generation. The turbine exhaust flow is ducted
to the condenser where the condensation temperature
fixes the exhaust pressure of the turbine. The con-
densate is routed back to the boiler by LP feedheating
plant followed by one or more feed pumps which
pump the condensate back to the boiler, often through
HP feedheating plant. The boiler outlet pressure is
determined by the feed pump, and the pre-heating of
the feedwater by the feedheating plant improves the
thermal efficiency by using low-grade heat from bled-

Fie 1.128 A 4-flow exhaust turbine cycle with a motor-driven feed pump
steam tappings on the main turbine rather than high
grade heat obtained by burning more fuel.
One of the options for driving the feed pump is
to use a small auxiliary turbine, supplied by steam
from the main turbine and exhausting either to the
condenser or back into the main turbine, as shown
in Fig 1.129. The advantages of these forms of feed
pump drive, compared with the electric drive shown
in Fig 1.128, are fully discussed in Section 4.3 of
this chapter. In practice, there are numerous examples
of turbine-driven feed pumps, usually in the power
range of 10-20 MW. The characteristic curves of
the pumping system were shown on Fig 1.71. The
system resistance is made up of a static component
set by the required boiler outlet pressure, modified
by the relative suction level and water level within
the boiler. There is also a frictional component gen-
erated by the pressure drops through the boiler and
feed water system following the pump. This frictional
component of the pressure drop is proportional to
the square of the flow. The operating point for the
system is determined by superimposing the pump
characteristics of the system resistance curve. From
the pump efficiency curve and pump power versus
speed curve, the power required by the pump is deter-
mined. The maximum power available from the drive
turbine over the flow range (proportional to main
turbine load) follows a linear characteristic if its
throttle valves are kept wide open (see Section 3 of
this chapter). The proximity of the pump power re-
quired and the turbine power available curve shows
Turbine applications
LP TURBINES
K3
good matching of their characteristics over most of the
flow range, with very little throttling of the turbine
required. Furthermore, control of the feed flow is
accomplished by varying the speed of the drive system
so that the throttling losses of feed regulating valves
in a constant speed drive system are avoided. At low
feed flows, however, the variable-speed turbine drive
is incapable of providing sufficient output. Electrically-
driven feed pumps may be used to provide start-up
and operation at low loads. An alternative system,
often used in the UK, is to provide a live steam stage
to the feed pump turbine so that it can be used over
the full load range. Live steam is normally reduced
to a warming flow only at high load on the main
turbine. The maximum pumping power requirement
for a fossil-fired supercritical plant (with a once-
through boiler) will be approximately 3.5% of the
main unit output. For a fossil-fired superheat unit
or an AGR nuclear application, this will reduce to
2.5%, while the low pressure operation of PWR tur-
bines will only require 1.5%. Typical speed ranges
are 5000-7000 r/min for fossil-fired plant and 3500-
5000 r/min for nuclear, wet steam plant.
Back-pressure boiler feed pump turbines are usually
arranged to exhaust into the LP inlets of the main
turbine. This poses operational problems when the
main turbine has not been started or if the main
turbine is tripped. Under these conditions, the feed-
pump turbine exhaust flow must be routed to the
condenser. This disadvantage is partly offset by their
facility for supplying bled-steam to feedheaters which
115
The steam turbine
FIG. 1.129 A 4-flow exhaust turbine cycle with back pressure BFPT
would otherwise need to be fed from tappings on
the main turbine IP cylinder. It is generally simpler
to arrange this with shorter pipe runs from the feed
pump turbine (usually a single-cylinder, single-flow unit)
rather than from a double-flow IP turbine. However,
as discussed in Section 4 of this chapter, the option
of tapping points on feed pump turbines is not being
pursued for future plant.
Condensing-type boiler feed pump turbines are also
of single-cylinder single-flow design and, because they
exhaust into the condenser, their inlet steam conditions
are much lower than the back pressure type, often
being supplied from the IP exhaust. They are favoured
in applications where the exhaust area of the main
machine may be a limiting factor as they provide a
ready means of increasing the total effective exhaust
area.
9.3 Combined heat and power (CHP)
The inherently poor efficiency of the turbine-generator
in power generation applications has always been re-
garded with concern by turbine designers. The reasons
for this are discussed in Section 3 of this chapter,
where it will be seen that the major part of the heat
produced by the burning of fuel in the boiler is
rejected as low grade energy in the condenser cooling
water. It has long been appreciated that there is a
major thermal advantage to be obtained if such low
grade energy can be employed to provide heating for
116
Chapter 1
K3
FEED
PUMP
domestic and industrial use. It is the purpose of
CHP schemes to exploit this potential.
The condenser pressure in a typical turbine for
power generation is in the range of 50-120 mbar.
The function of the cooling water in the condenser
is to extract the latent heat of evaporation from the
steam exhausted by the turbine and this is done at
the saturation temperature corresponding to the steam
pressure, i.e., at 33-45C to 49.5C for pressures of
50-120 mbar. Unfortunately, temperatures as low as
these would be unacceptable for transmission to do-
mestic heating systems, so it is necessary to consider
higher temperatures in the range 80-120C which
give corresponding pressures in the range 0.5-2.4 bar.
Industrial processes may need even higher tempera-
tures; so a turbine used in a CHP scheme will either
incorporate steam extraction at a pressure higher than
condensing pressure, or will exhaust directly at the
higher pressure. The former is known as an extraction
or pass-out turbine whereas the latter is called a back
pressure turbine.
Many plant configurations exist to suit the parti-
cular requirements of each specific application. Two
examples are given here to illustrate the range of
plant and some of the possibilities. The first example
is of a condensing turbine designed at the outset for
a domestic heating installation with electrical power
generation as well. The second example illustrates
how an existing large power station might be con-
verted for a similar heat load.
In both cases, steam is extracted from the turbine
at two different pressures, as shown in Figs 1.130

MAIN TURBINE INLET
CONTROL VALVE
BULK TRANSMISSION PIPELINE
FiG. 1.130 District heating supply scheme with special turbine design
and 1.131. More than two pressures could be used
with the advantage of higher thermal efficiencies but
at the expense of greater complication. The extraction
steam is passed to two district water heaters, so that
an equal temperature rise is obtained across each
of them.
The condensing turbine shown in Fig 1.130 meets
the usual requirement of a domestic heating appli-
cation where, depending on the ambient temperature,
a variable quantity of hot water at the required
temperature must be supplied. It comprises a con-
ventional single-flow HP cylinder with an asymmetric
double-flow IP cylinder supplying steam to two series-
connected district water heaters. The steam from each
IP exhaust is also supplied to two separate different
design double-flow LP cylinders, being throttled before
expansion. This enables the steam pressure at the IP
exhausts, and hence the heated water temperature,
to be held constant over a wide load range.
Electrical power is also generated by means of a
conventional shaft-driven generator. The asymmetric
IP cylinder provides a neat solution to the problem
Turbine applications
of achieving controlled extraction pressures, since con-
trol valves can readily be supplied in the inter-cylinder
crossover piping downstream of the IP exhausts. The
asymmetry is provided by designing for a different
number of stages in each flow of the turbine.
Figure 1.131 depicts three large existing turbines
for power which have been modified to incorporate
steam extractions to a bled-steam range. This sup-
plies an auxiliary back pressure turbine providing
further electrical power generation and feeding two
district water heaters from its asymmetric double-flow
cylinder. For clarity, the feedheater systems of the
three main turbine-generators have not been shown.
Because steam is bled from all three main units if
they are running, there is a loss in the water inven-
tory of each unit which must be made good by the
provision of a condensate return system, suitably con-
trolled to return the correct water quantity to each
unit.
All the plant shown in Fig 1.131 would normally
be installed at the existing power station. The only
modification to the existing turbine-generators would
117
The steam turbine
FIG. 1.131 CHP conversion for a district heating supply scheme
be the provision of bleed and condensate return tap-
pings, with control valves as shown. The district water
system would include the heaters, pumps and pro-
vision for make-up and heat storage so that the
operating periods of the auxiliary turbine generator
and its loading schedule can be controlled with a
degree of independence from the heat demand.
Such a scheme could provide heat as well as power
to a large city located many kilometres away from
the power station.
The total 'efficiency' or utilisation of heat in the
fuel in district heating schemes may be over 80%,
which makes it attractive for countries with cold
winters. One difficulty which has prevented a more
widespread use of such schemes is the cost and com-
plication of distributing the heat thus provided to
hundreds of domestic premises. The most successful
schemes have been applied to new developments of
large apartment blocks. With ever increasing fuel
costs and the need to conserve valuable fossil fuels,
118
Chapter 1
|LP INLET CONTROL
VALVE (NEW)
the economics of such schemes are likely to find
increasing favour.
9.4 Combined-cycle plant
The term 'combined cycle' implies any heat and power
producing process where the prime movers employ
more than one working fluid in a combination of
turbines. The most common and practical form of
such plant is the combination of one or more gas
turbines with a steam turbine; this section will deal
with variants of this basic theme.
Figure 1.132 shows a combined-cycle plant in its
simplest form with the heat from the gas-turbine
exhaust utilised to generate steam in a heat-recovery
steam generator. This cycle makes use of the inher-
ent characteristics of the gas turbine process, where
combustion takes place and, following expansion in
the turbine, heat is rejected at a relatively high tem-

FIG. 1.132 Simple 'combined cycle' plant, employing one gas turbine and one steam turbine
perature suitable for steam generation. The comple-
mentary steam turbine is able to make use of this
because of the low temperature exhaust made possible
by its condenser. The condensate is returned to the
steam generator, via a single combined feedheater
and de-aerator, followed by a pump. Typically the
steam turbine output will be about 50% of the gas
turbine output.
Turbine applications
The advantages of such an arrangement are most
applicable to countries having an abundant supply
of oil or natural gas where there is a need to rapidly
extend the utilisation of these resources to meet the
populations' demands for electrical power. A phased
development could be implemented, the first stage
being the installation of gas-turbine generators to
meet the immediate needs for electrical power, thus
119
The steam turbine
exploiting the potential short delivery times and simple
installation of packaged units associated with gas tur-
bine technology. The second stage would be the in-
stallation of the steam generators, steam turbine and
auxiliaries, thus providing a further increase in power
output at a high overall thermal efficiency of about
45%.
A third stage might be considered if a further
increase in output for short periods during load peaks
is desired. Supplementary firing would be fitted to
the boiler to generate more steam to meet the full
capability of the steam turbine in respect of steam
inlet temperature. Because gas turbines are normally
operated with a high excess air factor, there would
be sufficient air in the gas turbine exhaust to support
the combustion of the additional fuel.
Plant using a high proportion of supplementary
firing is sometimes constructed making use of the
gas turbine primarily as an air supply for the main
combustion process. In this type of plant, the steam
turbine may generate as much as eight times the
power of the gas turbine and employ a multistage
feedheating system to maximise efficiency. This may
be more thermally efficient than a steam turbine on
its own, but is prone to giving a lower availability
unless a means of changeover from gas turbine to
forced-draught fan is provided.
A more common variant is to use one or more
gas turbines in a dual-pressure heat-recovery steam
generator. This permits more heat extraction from the
gas turbine exhaust since the low pressure circuit heat
transfer can take place at a lower temperature than
in the high pressure circuit. A typical arrangement is
shown in Fig 1.133. If more than one gas turbine is
used, additional flexibility of steam turbine operation
is possible, since shutdown of one gas turbine will
not prevent steam turbine operation. More efficient
part-load operation can be obtained in this way.
Combined-cycle plant developments are likely to
follow the development of the gas turbine. Higher
combustion and exhaust temperatures will lead to
higher overall efficiencies. As the practicability of
burning a wider range of fuels (including coal) in
the gas turbine improves, the application of combined-
cycle plant will become more widespread. With the
current state of the art, there are no limitations to
such further development in respect of the steam
turbine. A wide range of outputs is generally offered by
manufacturers, using various numbers and size-ranges
of standard gas turbines in combination with steam
turbines of modular design.
10 Future outlook
10.1 Unit size and rating
The selection of unit size for a particular application
120
Chapter 1
depends on:
The economies of scale; i.e., the generally lower
capital cost per unit output given by larger output
plant.
The steam cycle and conditions associated with the
selected steam generation system.
The availability of plant designs for the steam
generator and the turbine-generator.
The size of the grid system and the individual
generating units on it.
The size of the organisation owning the plant, and
its economic environment.
The available construction time.
The available site area.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was a gen-
eral period of consolidation worldwide, with relatively
few new stations being ordered. Those that were
ordered were generally established design, or part of
a deliberate series ordering of plants. In the larger
industrial countries, tandem-compound turbine sizes
have stabilised in the range 600-800 MW for super-
heat plant, and 900-1300 MW for saturated steam
plant. There have, however, been a few individual
exceptions, with superheat plant including a 1200 MW
tandem-compound unit in the USSR, and 1300 MW
cross-compound units in the USA. Saturated steam
plant has included a 1500 MW tandem-compound
design in France in association with a PWR.
With the adoption of modular design principles, a
turbine manufacturer can offer a range of outputs
in his product range of large machines, typically from
200 MW upwards. There are many smaller or less-
developed countries where the size of the grid system
will preclude the larger plants, and the 250-350 MW
range is often favoured.
Looking to the future, it appears that the selection
of the unit size will be increasingly determined by
the system size, the plant ownership and the rating
of nuclear steam supply systems. In the USA, where
there are a number of relatively small utilities, the
preferred unit sizes for fossil-fired plant are likely
to be around 350 MW and 700 MW. If new nuclear
plant is ordered, it is expected that this would be
at most only a modest development of the 1300 MW
reactors. In France, with a large utility (EDF), the
plan is likely to be a series of orders for 1500 MW
PWRs, with little or no fossil-fired plant. In Germany,
with a number of utilities, the American pattern is
more likely. In Japan, there is a committed plan of
development towards fossil-fired units rated at up to
1000 MW, and nuclear plant up to about 1200 MW.
 Future outlook

FEEDWATER ,
TANK AND
DEAERATOR I

^ HEAT "

e
RECOVERY
STEAM
GENERATOR

ECONOMISER (LP)

EVAPORATOR (LP)

SUPERHEATER(LP)

ECONOMISER (HP)
^
EVAPORATOR (HP)

SUPERHEATER

COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
STEAM TURBINE
SUPPLEMENTARY
FIRING

CONDENSER
GASTURBINE

FEEDHEATER
-

FIG. 1.133 Dual pressure 'combined cycle' plant

121
The steam turbine
The United Kingdom has also gone through a
period of consolidation in the 1970s and 1980s. After
a relatively rapid increase in unit size from 30 MW in
1945 to 500 MW in 1970, this has only increased to
660 MW subsequently. The earliest 660 MW unit was
ordered in 1966 and was in service by 1974. This
modest rate of development has produced plant of
excellent thermal efficiency and reliability, and UK
manufacturers' designs have been progressively devel-
oped and refined to take advantage of new technology,
design methods, and manufacturing methods in the
intervening years.
In the late 1980s, it has been judged that the time
is right for a further increase in unit size for super-
heat plant to 900 MW, in order to meet both domestic
and overseas requirements. For the domestic UK needs,
this offers substantial benefits from the economies
of scale typified by the physical dimensions of
the turbine-generator being only marginally increased
from the 660 MW units. The initial steam conditions
have been advanced from 160 bar, 565C to 176 bar,
565C, thus providing an increase in thermal efficiency
without sacrificing operational flexibility.
For nuclear plant, the choice will be determined
mainly by the reactor type and size. For advanced gas-
cooled reactor plant (AGR), the preferred reactor size
is in the 660-750 MW range. Being a superheat cycle,
this requires a steam turbine almost identical to that
for a fossil-fired unit of similar output. Any turbines
required can therefore be derived from the existing
families of modules covering plant up to 900 MW
or more.
For water-cooled reactors, the reactor sizes are up
to 1200-1300 MW, although some enhancement of
this may be expected. For the first UK PWR at
Sizewell B, the decision was made in 1979 to employ
two 630 MW turbine-generators with the 1260 MW(e)
reactor, as these made substantial use of modules
developed and proven for the 660 MW fossil-fired
plant, in particular the LP turbines and the generator.
Those elements specific to the saturated steam cycle,
such as the HP turbine, moisture separator, and
steam/steam reheater (see Chapter 2), had been de-
veloped and proven in plant supplied to overseas
by UK manufacturers at ratings up to 110 MW. It
is expected that, if there is a series of PWR stations
in the UK, the decision will be made at some stage
to select a single turbine-generator per reactor, thus
taking advantage of recognised savings in capital cost,
construction time and operational costs. In line with
developments elsewhere, it is not expected that reactor
size, and hence turbine-generator size, will advance
beyond 1500 MW in the foreseeable future.
There is therefore no perceived need for unit sizes to
advance substantially in the next ten or twenty years,
beyond about 1000 MW for superheat plant or 1500
MW for saturated steam plant.
122
Chapter 1
10.2 Supercritical plant
One effective way of achieving increased thermal effi-
ciency is to increase steam pressure. The limits of a
natural circulation boiler are around 180 bar, and
although assisted circulation may be used at higher
pressures, an overall improvement in station efficiency
is not achieved unless the pressure is advanced to
about 240 bar, i.e., above the critical pressure of
water/steam (221.2 bar). Although the use of super-
critical pressure requires special consideration in the
design of the boiler, the implications for the turbine
only concern the higher pressure as such.
A further improvement may be obtained by in-
creasing steam temperature. Most of the supercritical
plant in service worldwide operates at 538C, although
some 565C plant exists, and there are some pioneer-
ing units with temperatures as high as 650C. At the
higher temperatures, the efficiency is often boosted
still further by using double reheat. Apart from the
efficiency benefit, this has the merit of reducing the
turbine exhaust wetness from the high level that such
advanced initial conditions would otherwise entail.
The use of supercritical plant has varied consider-
ably through the world. In both the USA and Japan,
it has been used to a considerable degree for large
units for base-load operation, typically up to 700 MW
tandem-compound and 1300 MW cross-compound.
The initial steam conditions have normally been around
240 bar, 538C. In Germany, supercritical plant has
been in the smaller range, up to about 200 MW. In
the United Kingdom, two prototype units were built
at Drakelow C with steam conditions of 240 bar,
593C.
At temperatures up to 565C, low-alloy creep-
resistant steels such as 0.5%Cr Mo V and 2.25Cr
Mo are used for the high temperature components.
The pressure determines the thickness of pressure-
containing sections such as steam chests and pipe-
work. The combination of steam conditions, material,
thickness, and operating regime determines the plant
life in terms of creep and thermal fatigue. At pres-
sures of 240 bar and above, and particularly at the
higher temperatures or where reasonable operational
flexibility is required, other high temperature materials
are used, such as high-Chromium (9-1297) ferritic
alloys, or austenitic alloys. Austenitic alloys have some
adverse properties, such as poor thermal conductivity
and high thermal expansion, so the current trend is
to develop the ferritic alloys for use in the large cast
and forged components. Development programmes are
under way in the USA, Europe, and Japan for de-
signs and materials for the so-called 'ultra-supercritical'
plants of 350-1000 MW with steam conditions such
as 310 bar 590C, and later up to 350 bar 650C,
all with double-reheat cycles. These plants are not,
however, likely to be in service until after the year
2000.
The use of the double-reheat cycle introduces
additional complexity. First, additional boiler controls

are required for steam temperature, and secondly the
turbine must either have an extra cylinder or it must
use a combined cylinder for the first two expansions.
The extra cylinder increases machine length and cost,
while the combined cylinder may give the possibility
of problems due to sealing between the two expan-
sions or due to the close proximity of sections at
hot and cold reheat temperatures. Combined HP/
IP cylinders have, however, been widely used by
American companies and their associates in machines
up to 700 MW.
None of these developments presents technical
problems, given sufficient time and resources. Their
application in practice depends on potential customers
being satisfied that the potential return in improved
efficiency is not accompanied by additional risk either
to plant life, operational flexibility, or availability.
To this end, the development programmes embody
the full range of research, design, rig testing, and
prototype component testing, which, coupled with the
first full-size prototype unit, will give the necessary
assurance.
The rate at which such plant will be introduced is
however uncertain, depending as it does on factors
such as electricity demand, fuel costs, the economic
environment, the extent of alternative energy sources,
and the refurbishment of existing plant for extended
life.
10.3 Turbine blading development
The development of turbine blading can be expected
in the future to meet three objectives:
Reduced manufacturing cost.
Improved integrity.
Improved efficiency, including new LP blading of
increased exhaust area.
The cost of blade manufacture can be minimised
by the application of computer-aided design and
manufacture, in which the optimised geometry from
performance, vibration, and stress considerations is
transferred directly to the numerically-controlled
machines.
Improved integrity blading can be obtained by at-
tention to detailed design to reduce stress concen-
tration, by controlling the vibration characteristics to
avoid resonances near running speed, and by reducing
the use (or improving the quality) of attachments such
as shrouding lacing wires, and erosion shields. There
is a balance to be made between robust blading with
thicker sections and efficient blading which favours a
higher aspect ratio (length/chord).
References
As most modern turbine blading in HP and IP
turbines already has an internal efficiency in the range
90% to 95%, the potential improvement is not large.
Turbine makers have developed standard blading fa-
milies of high efficiency which are tolerant to the
range of steam flow incidence angles, which arise in
different applications and different conditions of op-
eration. Root and tip clearances are as small as
practicable, with as many flow constrictions as the
design permits. The detailed geometry of these restric-
tions can allow some reduction of the flow discharge
coefficient, so that steam leakage through these clear-
ances is minimised.
The development of LP turbine modules is a costly
and lengthy process, yet there is always an incentive
to increase the exhaust area of each flow section to
reduce the exhaust kinetic energy (the leaving loss).
This development may also permit, for particular unit
sizes and steam cycles, a reduction in the number of
LP cylinders: this is a worthwhile objective to save
cost and reduce the size of turbine hall required. The
last-stage and penultimate stage blading is always
the limiting area of design; in terms of the steam
bending stresses on the blades and the large mass of
the blades which imposes a large centrifugal stress
on the blade fastening to the disc. Last-stage blades
for 3000 r/min turbines have been developed up to
1200 mm long: this is believed to be about the limit
for conventional 12% Cr blade materials. Indeed,
the 1200 mm blades in service in the USSR are made
from titanium alloy, and this is likely to be the pre-
ferred material for longer blades. In particular, the
introduction of longer last-stage blades is likely to
permit the use of 3000 r/min machines with the lar-
gest nuclear reators in 50 Hz systems, although the
3600 r/min equivalents are much further away.
11 References
[1] Traupel, W.: Steam turbines, yesterday, today and tomorrow:
Proc. IMechE 193 No 38, 391-400: 1979
[2] Harris, F. R.: The Parsons Centenary a hundred years of
steam turbines: Proc. IMechE 198 No. 53, 1-42: 1984
[3] Harris, F. R. and Kalderon, D.: The choice of design speed for
PWR turbines for 50 Hz generating systems: IMechE Conference,
Steam Plant for Pressurised Water Reactors: 1983
[4] Stodola, A.: Steam and Gas Turbines, Volume 1 p 316: Peter
Smith, New York: 1945
[5] Traupel, W.: Thermische Turbo Maschinen, Volume 1 p 491:
Springer-Verlag: 1966
[6] Miller, D. S.: Internal Flow Systems, Volume 5: British Hydraulics
Research Assocation: 1978
[7] Craig, H. R. M. and Cox, H. J. A.: Performance Estimation
of Axial Flow Turbines: Proc. IMechE 185, 32-71: 1970-71
[8] Briggs, J. Z. and Parker, T. D.: The Super 12% Cr Steels
an update: Climax Molybdenum Company
[9] Smith, D. M.: Journal Bearings in Turbo machinery: Chapman
and Hall: 1969
123
 C H A P T E R 2

Turbine plant systems

1 Governing systems 6 Lubrication systems

1.1 Introduction 6.1 Lubrication requirements and typical arrangements
1.2 Governor characteristics 6.2 Oil pumps
1.2.1 Simple scheme boiler on pressure control 6.2.1 Main lubricating oil pump
1.2.2 Turbine master load controller with boiler on pressure 6.2.2 Turbine-driven oil booster pump
control 6.2.3 AC and DC motor-driven auxiliary oil pumps
1.2.3 Boiler master load controller 6.2.4 Jacking-oil pumps and priming pumps
1.3 Subsidiary functions 6.2.5 Other pumps
1.3.1 Acceleration feedback 6.3 Oil tanks
1.3.2 Unloading gear 6.4 Piping
1.3.3 Governor speed reference 6.5 Oil coolers
1.3.4 Closed-loop control of turbine electrical load 6.6 Oil strainers and filters
1.3.5 Overspeed testing 6.7 Oil purifiers and coalescers
1.3.6 On-load testing 6.7.1 Centrifugal separation systems
1.3.7 Automatic run-up and loading systems 6.7.2 Static oil purifiers/coalescers
1.4 Electronic governing 6.8 Oils and greases
1.4.1 Digital processing 6.8.1 Oils
6.8.2 Greases
1.5 Governor valve relays
6.9 Jacking oil systems
1.5.1 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 1
6.10 Greasing systems
1.5.2 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 2
1.5.3 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 3 7 Gland sealing system
1.5.4 Reheater relief valves
7.1 Function and system layout
1.6 Hydraulic fluid system 7.1.1 Labyrinth glands
1.6.1 Filtration 7.1.2 System layout
1.7 Boiler feed pump turbine governors 7.2 Temperature and pressure control
2 Steam chests, valves and loop pipes 7.2.1 Temperature control
7.2.2 Pressure control
2.1 Steam chest arrangements and construction
7.3 Gland steam condenser
2.2 Steam chest materials
2.3 Cover seals 8 Flange heating system
2.4 Steam strainers 8.1 Function and system layout
2.5 Stop valves 8.2 Control
2.6 Governor valves
2.7 Loop pipework 9 LP exhaust spray cooling system
2.8 Crossover pipework 9.1 Function and system layout
3 Turlsine protective devices 9.2 Control

3.1 Possible hazards 10 Drains systems

3.2 Protection scheme 10.1 Function and system layout
3.3 Electrically-signalled trips 10.1.1 Start-up drains
3.4 Overspeed trip 10.1.2 Continuous drains
3.5 Mechanically-operated trips 10.2 Control
3.6 Operator tripping facilities
11 By-pass systems
4 Turbine instrumentation
11.1 Configuration
4.1 Classification of instrumentation 11.1.1 Pressure control valves
4.1.1 Supervisory instrumentation 11.1.2 Isolating valves
4.1.2 Efficiency instrumentation 11.1.3 Dump tube
4.1.3 Auxiliary system instrumentation 11.2 By-pass systems for nuclear plant
4.1.4 Condition monitoring instrumentation 11.3 By-pass systems for fossil-fired plant
4.1.5 Instrumentation associated with protection and control 11.4 Problems with by-pass systems
equipment 11.4.1 Noise
4.1.6 Instrumentation to provide post-incident records 11.4.2 Water ingress
11.4.3 Thermal shock
5 Turbine foundations
11.4.4 Leakage flows
5.1 Tuning
5.2 Concrete foundations 12 Operational flexibility
5.3 Steel foundations 12.1 Typical operational regimes
5.4 Spring foundations 12.1.1 Base load
5.5 Sub-foundation 12.1.2 Two-shifting

124

12.1.3 Load cycling
12.2 Influence on machine design
12.2.1 Turbine cylinders
12.2.2 Turbine rotors
12.2.3 Stress monitors
12.3 Forced-air cooling
12.3.1 Cooling of turbine
12.3.2 Cooling system
13 Wet steam turbine plant
13.1 Influence of steam on components
13.2 Water extraction devices
13.3 Erosion protection
1 Governing systems
1.1 Introduction
The main functions of the governing system of a large
turbine-generator unit used for electricity production via
an extensive power network are:
To contain the speed rise within acceptable limits
should the unit become disconnected from the load.
To control the steam valve positions (and hence
the load generated) in response to signals from the
operator, or from a separate station automatic control
system.
To control the initial run-up and synchronisation of
the machine.
To assist in matching the power generated to
that demanded by responding to network frequency
changes.
The first of these functions is a vital one for the safety
and availability of the plant. Consider a unit at full-load
supplying a power network through its generator con-
nections. If these connections are opened, either by a
power system fault or by the unit's own protection
system, the steam flow at the instant of disconnection
exceeds the steam flow necessary for steady state opera-
tion at 50 Hz (3000 r/min) by the amount necessary to
generate full-load. The excess energy input must be
reduced rapidly if an unacceptable overspeed is to be
avoided. The governor performs this function by re-
sponding to the initial change in speed to close the
steam valves.
Separate overspeed trips (described in Section 3.5
of this chapter) are provided to guard against possible
governor failure and ensure that the safety of the plant
and personnel is always maintained. The governor
supplements this safety function and, since it maintains
the unit at the running speed, ensures the continuity
of unit supplies from its own generator as well as
the ability to reconnect the generator to the power
Governing systems
13.4 Moisture separator reheaters (MSRs)
13.4.1 Separators
13.4.2 Steam-to-steam reheaters
13.5 Steam supply and drains systems
13.5.1 First-stage reheat
13.5.2 Second-stage reheat
13.5.3 Performance monitoring
13.5.4 System drains
13.5.5 Separator drains
13.5.6 Reheater drains
14 References
15 Additional references
system. The initial transient speed rise following such
a load rejection, contained by the governor, is pri-
marily due to two factors:
The stored energy of steam within the turbine and
its associated pipework.
The time taken by the turbine valves to close in
response to the sensed overspeed.
It is always well inside the overspeed trip setting and a
full analysis is given in Heilbronn [1].
An electrical governing system for a typical turbine-
generator with multiple steam admission paths comprises
many elements, as depicted in Fig 2.1. Since it includes
at least one closed-loop control function, the machine
and network characteristics form an integral part of the
system. The primary feedback is of turbine shaft speed
which is usually measured by a toothed-wheel and probes
at the HP end of the machine. This signal is processed
by a modular electronic system, often mounted in a
cubicle quite remote from the turbine, to form output
signals which are directed back to each steam valve on
the turbine. The processing is complex and is subject to
detailed variations for each application; it generally
includes the following:
The speed/load characteristics of the machine when
synchronised.
A predetermined relationship between the high
pressure (HP) and interceptor valve position.
Facilities for operator control.
Features to limit the maximum speed of the machine.
Features to limit the output in the event of abnormal
operating conditions.
Features to permit routine proving and testing of the
system.
The above functions are described in detail in Sections
1.2 and 1.3 of this chapter.
125
Turbine plant systems
LUMPED INERTIA, SHAFT TORSION & MECHANICAL DAMPING CONSTANTS
WHEEL & PROBE
SYSTEM
FIG. 2.1 Electrical governing system applied to a wet steam turbine
Fitted to each steam valve is a relay, whose function
is to convert the low power electrical signal formed
by the processing equipment into the movement of
the steam valve. Since the mechanical forces involved
are substantial (150 kN) and the time for full stroke
may be less than 200 ms in the case of a load rejec-
tion, several stages of hydraulic amplification may be
necessary. Conversely, in order to obtain fine control
over load (or speed when unsynchronised), the gov-
erning system needs to be very sensitive and capable of
moving the valves to within about 0.2% of the required
position. The needs of high resolution and the ability
to amplify small electrical signals, necessitates the use
of precision hydraulic components with fine clearances.
Although earlier mechanical/hydraulic governing systems
shared the lubricating oil supply, adequate reliability
of the precision systems is only assured by the use
of a separate high quality fluid supply unit. Various
configurations of valve relay and typical fluid supply
126
Chapter 2
ELECTRICAL
COUPLING
unit characteristics are described later in this section.
One of the features of an electrical governing system
is that since the conversion to mechanical movement is
made at the steam valve relay, all other interfaces are
electrical. This facilitates connections to station
automatic control systems, alarm systems, data process-
ing systems, switches and indicators both on the
operator's desk and at the governor cubicle. All these
other systems are closely associated with either the opera-
tion or maintenance of governing systems.
1.2 Governor characteristics
In normal operation the turbine-generator is synchro-
nised with and connected into an electrical power sys-
tem, comprising other generating units and an extensive
network for distributing power to the consumer. Typi-
cally, in the UK, the power supplied at any instant is
 Governing systems

in the range 15 to 50 GW and many turbine-generators

are needed in parallel to supply the power at a steady
z o
voltage and frequency. Consumers expect to switch Q
LU
cc z
their loads on and off at will. On a large power system,
Z Q
LU LU
CL Q LU
C/5
the minute-by-minute fluctuations will be a small per-
LU
LU
_
CL

centage of the total load. On a local power system, S C/)
<

Q 1
supplying only a few consumers from a small number _J LU _l

fei O
of generating units, similar consumer demands may apply LLI DC 1 Z

and the fluctuations may be a significant percentage

of the total load.
Nevertheless, on both large and small systems, faults
will occur, and to maintain safety in such an event protec-
tive equipment operates to open circuit-breakers to isolate
the fault. .
O
2
For the individual turbine-generator unit and its gover-
ning system, these power system requirements imply a Q

need to withstand a full-load rejection safely and to

provide appropriate contributions to system frequency
regulation.
The main characteristic of a governing system is
therefore the relationship between the generated load of
the controlled machine and speed, which is the prime
governor input. This is known as the speed-loop droop
or frequency regulation characterstic of the governor and
is shown in Fig 2.2. The steady state overall frequency
regulation is defined as: 2880 3000 3120
SPEED, r/min

Nn - N PR FlG. 2.2 Governor frequency regulation characteristic

x 100%
Nt

where N R = rated speed

NPR = speed at full-load
N0 = speed at no load

This regulation permits a machine to share load with

other machines in a stable manner and also allows
the operator to adjust the load contribution made
by the machine relative to the others on the system. C1 c
2 Lb3

1
Figure 2.3 shows how the droop characteristic is varied
by altering the speed setpoint. If the machine is at \
no-load and unsynchronised, point aj on the diagram, \ \
and the setpoint is raised, the frequency will change
from aj to a 2 and then to a 3 . If, however, the machine
is synchronised to an infinite system running at constant o
frequency a 1? an increase in speed setpoint will cause
the load to be raised to b 2 and eventually to b 3 . It
\ I
\ "1
should be noted that the linear characteristics drawn
are idealised; in practice they may be non-linear.

1
^Ab2
Nevertheless, the degree of adjustment of the speed
\

1
setpoint should permit no-load to be set at the lowest \
normal operating frequency and also full-load at the \
highest normal frequency, with a margin. Typically the \ \ .
range of operation is 6 % of nominal system frequen- ai a2 a3
\
cy with the turbine unsynchronised at no-load. FREQUENCY
Another feature to be noted from Fig 2.3 is the
phenomenon of an 'overwound' speed setpoint. If the
operator has set the unit to run at full-load at fre- FIG. 2.3 Effect of variation of speed setpoint

127
Turbine plant systems
quency f by adjusting the speed setpoint to give char-
acteristic a 3 b 3 , then a fall in frequency by an amount
f will give a notional load of value c 3 . However, this
value of load will not be attained, as the turbine valves
are already fully open at point b 3 . The speed setpoint
is said to be 'overwound'. The disadvantage of this condi-
tion is that, if asked to reduce load on the unit, the
operator is unable to do so immediately until he has
reduced the speed setpoint to the line given by c 2 a 2 .
Normal practice is either to draw the operator's atten-
tion to the overwound condition by an alarm or to
provide an automatic reduction at the setpoint so
that an immediate response is possible, if required.
Facilities for droop adjustment are often provided.
Typically a high value of droop, like 25%, may be
beneficial in reducing transient steam pressure varia-
tions if the system frequency fluctuates to a marked
degree. The droop may be adjustable within a range
or alternatively switched from a selection of two or
more values. Droop adjustment, or switching, on-load
generally implies a load change unless carried out at
the pivot point of the characteristic or unless coupled
with a simultaneous change in speed setpoint. Many
governors incorporate facilities for a 'bumpless' change
in this fashion.
Figure 2.4 is a development of Fig 2.3, showing the
characteristics of additional overspeed limiting facilities
that have to be built into the design so that the speed
rise on a load rejection can be adequately contained
48 49 50 51 52
MINIMUM SPEEDER GEAR RANGE AT NO LOAD
FREQUENCY, Hz
NOTE
THE REQUIRED RANGE OF OPERATION IS INDICATED BY THE SHADED AREA.
GOVERNOR CHARACTERISTICS MAY EXTEND OUTSIDE THIS AREA PROVIDED
THIS DOES NOT IMPAIR THE SAFETY OF THE SYSTEM OR CAUSE THE SET TO
TRIP ON OVER-SPEED OR LOSS OF FULL LOAD.
FlG. 2.4 Turbine speed governor characteristics
128
Chapter 2
below the overspeed trip setpoint on a high droop gover-
nor. On a low droop governor (say 4% or less), the
overspeed may be contained by the normal droop
characteristic without any need for the special overspeed
limiting facilities.
In either case, to meet the requirement of containing
the overspeed within the trip setpoint, it will be necessary
to close all the turbine valves within a fraction of a
second. When the speed error reduces, the governor
reopens the valves to the amount necessary to maintain
the speed at the reduced value of load.
On reheat machines such as that depicted in Fig 2.1,
it is necessary to control not only the HP governing
valves but also the interceptor governing valves follow-
ing the reheater. If the HP valves only were closed rapidly
on a full-load rejection, the amount of stored steam in
the reheater and associated pipework would be sufficient
to overspeed the machine to destruction. Therefore,
similar rapid response to close the interceptor governing
valves is provided.
Most large turbine-generators employ reheating of the
intermediate pressure (IP) steam to improve thermal
efficiency. Thermal efficiency is reduced if throttling
takes place in the interceptor valves, so these valves are
usually fully open over the normal load range of the
machine. This operating regime is referred to as HP
governing and is achieved by applying a fixed bias to
the interceptor governing valves, thus giving them the
same speed/load characteristics as the HP governor
valves but more open by the amount of the fixed bias
(typically 50%). In the event of an overspeed, these valves
will close, albeit at a greater speed-error than the HP
governor valves.
Another possible mode of operation (often provided
as a switched option) is to allow the interceptor govern-
ing valves to operate in a throttled condition. Although
the thermal efficiency is reduced, 'the spinning spare
capability' of the plant is enhanced: the capability of
the machine to increase load rapidly in response to
either a reduction in the power system frequency or
a demand by the operator to increase load. This may
be important in power systems where there are large
fluctuations in network frequency, or where there are
insufficient machines with good regulating character-
istics. This mode of control is referred to as HP plus
IP governing or sometimes as parallel governing. In the
HP governing mode, the reheater pressure is normally
proportional to the load on the machine, but in the HP
plus IP governing mode, the aim is for a constant re-
53 heater pressure, at least over the load range of 50-100%.
I This means that at 50% load, instead of the pressure
in the reheater being say 20 bar, it will be at the
full-load value of 40 bar and the 'spinning spare'
capability will be improved by the additional thermal
storage available through having reheater steam at the
full-load pressure. Thus the IP and LP cylinders will be
able to provide their full-load torque almost immedi-
ately, although there may later be some decay until the
boiler firing rate has picked up to its full-load value.

The characteristics described so far in this section are
those that suit the parallel connection of turbine-
generators onto the power system. However, some of
the features of a governing system arise from a considera-
tion of the types of plant being controlled and the way
in which the control of the separate boiler and turbine
units is integrated to form an overall Station Control
scheme. The purpose of this description is to note the
main features affecting the governor. Three basic options
are described, each of which may include enhancements
(not described) to improve the response to particular
operational circumstances.
1.2.1 Simple scheme boiler on pressure
control
In this scheme the governor speed setpoint is controlled
by the operator to load the machine by means of the
governor droop characteristics. Options for droop adjust-
ment are often incorporated.
For commissioning purposes it may also be an ad-
vantage to include a valve position limiter or a load
limiter. These would either prevent the turbine valves
from opening above a certain proportion of their travel
or, by load measurement, would prevent further valve
opening above a certain load setpoint. The main dis-
advantage of the overall scheme is that a load rejection
would cause the turbine steam valves to close rapidly,
thus losing all flow through the boiler, possibly with
maximum firing rate applied. Although the boiler safety
valves would lift a few seconds later, there is some
likelihood of thermal damage to superheater tubes.
A turbine by-pass system (described in Section 11
of this chapter) is one option which could ameliorate
this effect.
Another disadvantage is that any load increase,
whether applied to the turbine manually by the opera-
tor or automatically because of a fall in frequency,
is necessarily matched by the boiler. Because the flow
increases, the pressure will fall to a degree dependent
on the response of the boiler control system. Addi-
tionally, the droop characteristics provided in the
basic governor are usually derived by measurement
valve position rather than electrical load. This may
result in incremental droop deviations at any operating
point due to the imperfection of valve linearisation
characteristics (see Section 1.4 of this chapter).
1.2.2 Turbine master load controller with boiler
on pressure control
To overcome the previous point about non-linear droop
characteristics, a separate load/frequency controller is
built having the features shown in Fig 2.5. For any
operating frequency, depending on the characteristics,
there will be a demanded load determined by this
characteristic which is compared with the measured
electrical load in the master load controller. The result-
ing error signal provides the input to the governor
Governing systems
MEASURED LOAD MASTER LOAD
CONTROLLER
DEMANDED LOAD
ERROR SIGNAL
TO INCREASE OR
DECREASE
SPEED SET-POINT
VOLTAGE ANALOGUE
OF FREQUENCY
SET LOAD
LOOP DROOP
FlG. 2.5 Schematic of a simple load frequency controller
speed setpoint, which changes the load on the turbine
to reduce the error. This form of slow-acting integral
error correction gives accurate droop characteristics
or control to a fixed load (infinite droop), if selected.
The master load controller may be included as part of
the governing system or may be provided separately in
a unit control scheme. Apart from providing accurate
linear droop characteristics, the performance of this
scheme is very similar to the scheme described in the
previous subsection.
1.2.3 Boiler master load controller
In this scheme, the output of the master load controller
described in the previous case is used to set the boiler
firing rate. The governor speed setpoint is controlled by
a boiler pressure error signal, so that the turbine valves
increase or decrease steam consumption in a sense to
reduce the error. This responds very satisfactorily to load
changes demanded by the operator as the boiler firing
rate correction is made first and, subsequently, the rapid
response of the turbine can easily control any pressure
fluctuations.
However, rapid changes in frequency, particularly
the increase arising on load rejection, still produce
the necessary governor safety response and abrupt
changes in firing which cause large boiler pressure
fluctuations.
1.3 Subsidiary functions
This section describes additional functions of gov-
ernors, giving typical characteristics of these features.
Not all governors include all these features; in some
cases they may not be essential to the plant being
controlled, or they may be carried out in other equip-
ment but operating through the governor. Equipment
for HP rotor stress control during run-up and load-
ing is a typical example of the latter. It can be
performed by an external computer modulating the speed
setpoint of the governor or it can be an intrinsic part
of the governor.
129
 Turbine plant systems
1.3.1 Acceleration feedback
Acceleration feedback is commonly used to provide a
secondary stabilising term to improve the damping of
the governor and to assist the prime safety function of
the governor in preventing overspeed due to a load
rejection.
With a disconnection from the power system, the
response of a governor without acceleration feedback
would be controlled by the speed error term as modified
by the droop law. If the speed droop is set to 4%, the
valves would have fully closed by the time the speed was
4% above nominal. A typical value of the initial accelera-
tion rate is 12% per second, so it would be at least 0.33
seconds before the valves had been signalled to the fully-
closed state. In addition, inherent delays in the hydraulic
system mean that the valves do not achieve the signalled
closure response. Taking a linear acceleration rate of
12% per second, the time to reach an overspeed of 10%
would be 10/12 = 0.833 seconds. Because of the
expansion of steam entrained between the steam valves
and the turbine, the turbine will continue to accelerate
after the steam valves are closed. To contain the
overspeed within the trip setting of 10%, it is generally
necessary to incorporate an acceleration term.
A governor incorporating acceleration detection can
sense the need to close the steam valves as soon as its
measurement circuits are able to respond. The valves can
be instructed to close at maximum rate within 30 ms of
the load rejection and should be fully closed 100 ms later.
Figure 2.6 shows a typical response to a load rejection.
To ensure that this form of acceleration feedback only
comes into play during a significant load rejection, a
threshold is preset into the sensing system below which
there is no output. The acceleration signal must also be
present for a preset time before it takes effect.
1.3.2 Unloading gear
Unloading gear may take several different forms, depen-
ding on the plant being controlled. It is usually
complementary to a protective function, the operation
TIME
FIG. 2.6 Turbine response to load rejection
130
Chapter 2
of which would normally cause a turbine trip. It is
incorporated so that the condition likely to cause a
trip is sensed early and the turbine load is decreased
to reduce the probability of tripping. If a trip does
occur, then the transient effect on the plant is reduced
because it occurs at a lower load.
Low exhaust pressure unloading-gear is normally
provided. The pressure is usually sensed at tapping points
on the condenser. During normal operation the unloader
has no effect. However, if a condenser or cooling water
system fault causes the exhaust pressure to rise above
a threshold value, typically 120 mbar, any further rise
causes the turbine to progressively unload, the degree
of unloading being linearly proportional to the further
rise in exhaust pressure. A typical unloading character-
istic is shown in Fig 2.7. The purpose of unloading
is to reduce the effects or probability of a trip. The
reason for providing a trip is discussed separately in
Section 3.1 of this chapter. The degree of unloading
is usually limited to about 20% load to avoid the pos-
sibility of motoring. The rate of unloading is generally
consistent with the rate of increase in exhaust pressure.
However, if the initiating cause of unloading is remov-
ed and the exhaust pressure falls to a normal value,
the turbine remains unloaded until the operator or a
separate external automatic control function restores
the load. This is achieved by resetting the governor
speed setpoint which has been independently reduced
to track the degree of unloading that has taken place.
On initial start-up and loading, it may be necessary
to veto the operation of the loading gear until the
exhaust pressure has reduced to a value such that it is
unlikely to restrict the initial loading up to full-load.
The veto is normally removed by the operator but, if
forgotten, the veto will be automatically removed when
80
o
2
60
Q
<
O
OPeRAHN$
REGIME
40
20
Mr ^50 -L
100 150 200
f TURBINE EXHAUST PRESSURE, mbar
TYPICAL FULL LOAD SETTING OF HIGH
OPERATING PRESSURE EXHAUST PRESSURE TRIP
FIG. 2.7 Turbine exhaust pressure unloading characteristic
 Governing systems

the exhaust pressure reaches the value which permits
full load (about 120 mbar, as shown on Fig 2.7).
1.3.3 Governor speed reference
The governor speed reference is the prime input by
which the turbine can be controlled, either by the
operator or by one or more external automatic con-
trolling functions. The range of speeds over which the
reference can be set will depend on whether the turbine
is synchronised or unsynchronised. Prior to synchronisa-
tion, the speed reference range will extend from the
lowest controllable speed (typically 3% of nominal) up
corporates an inverse function so that all upstream gover-
nor processing has an almost linear effect on the steam
demand at one nominal set of steam input conditions.
However, if the conditions vary, the significant non-
linearities will give rise to imperfections. Closed-loop load
control overcomes these imperfections by superimpos-
ing a trimming signal onto the governor speed reference.
A block diagram of the load loop is shown in Fig 2.8
and the characteristic it produces in Fig 2.9.
MEASURED LOAD MASTER LOAD
CONTROLLER

to the highest speed at which the turbine-generator

must be capable of synchronisation (104%). Once DEMANDED LOAD
ERROR SIGNAL
synchronised, the speed reference will be limited to the TO INCREASE OR
range 94-106%. DECREASE
SPEED SET-POINT

Different maximum rates of increase or decrease of VOLTAGE

the speed reference also apply. Prior to synchronisation, ANALOGUE
OF FREQUENCY
the rate of increase may be selected by the operator or
FUNCTION GENERATOR
it may be a quite rapid fixed rate which is compatible LOAD LOOP FREQUENCY

with the maximum conceivable rate at which the turbine CHARACTERISTIC

speed could be increased if warmed through and all

conditions were at an optimum. In this latter case, the
FIG. 2.8 Block diagram of load loop
setpoint would either be manually raised by the operator
in small steps, subject to the observed conditions, or
raised by a separate automatic run-up system. The rate
of decrease is usually a single fixed rate.
When the turbine-generator comes under control 1l 4% DROOP
of the auto-synchroniser, or if manual synchronisation
is to be performed, another rate-of-change of speed V2% DROOP
reference will apply. This must be compatible with the
autosynchronising unit and is usually designed to give
,1
fast and certain synchronisation. 10% D R O O P N X
When synchronised and under operator control, the ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H 00 DROOP

rate-of-change is conventionally set to give full travel 3% MCR TO

from - 6 % to +6% of nominal speed in 2 minutes. Q
30% MCR

The governor speed reference now acts as a load S

reference and, if a 4% droop is applicable, this means
_l

^ADJUSTABLE
that the equivalent rate of load change is 2.5% per RANGE

second. Whether or not this rate-of-change can be

DEMANDED
\\ ! '
LOAD
^^^^^\
sustained is dependent on the steam supply system, so V t ^ 4% DROOP

the operator must take care to control the appropriate

parameters if a prolonged increase or decrease is 0.05 Hz
required. to 0.20 Hz

An automatic unit controller is generally used to raise 1

or lower the governor speed setpoint in preference to

50 ~~
FREQUENCY, Hz
the operator. In this case a specific rate, usually slower
than 2.5% load per second, will apply.

FIG. 2.9 Load loop frequency 'box' characteristics

1.3.4 Closed-loop control of turbine electrical load
Closed-loop control of turbine electrical load is added
to the basic governing system to give accurate load droop
characteristics and facilitate the provison of variable-
droop settings. The basic governor incorporates a speed
droop system where the trimming signal is derived from
steam valve position. Because the steam flow/position
relationship is non-linear, the basic speed governor in-
The frequency range over which the load loop is
operative is limited so that, even when the load loop
droop is set to high or infinite values, the unit responds
to any large frequency errors in a manner matched
to the characteristics of the normal 4% droop of the
131
Turbine plant systems
basic speed governor. By limiting the load range over
which the load loop is operative, the magnitude of
sudden load changes on the boiler system is limited if a
low speed droop is used. For obvious reasons (Fig 2.9),
speed and load variations over which variable-droop
is permitted are known as the box characteristics.
Consider a sudden fall in network frequency on a
number of machines operating in parallel with different
droops but similar box size. Because the load loop is
slow-acting, through the governor speed reference, all
machines initially contribute an increase in demanded
load. Then those machines with high or infinite load loop
droops will slowly reduce in load, returning to a value
at or near their original load. This allows the other
machines with low droop to pick-up load at a rate
compatible with their boilers. The advantage of this
arrangement is that some units can be designated for
rapid load pick-up, whilst those unable to sustain such
a transient can still contribute usefully to the control of
falling frequency.
1.3.5 Overspeed testing
Overspeed testing to prove the actual value of trip
setpoint of overspeed protection systems is an essential
subsidiary function of governing systems. The testing is
carried out on an unsynchronised turbine. Initially, the
operator has to operate a key-locked test switch which
permits a higher than normal governor speed range
up to + 13% rather than + 6 % . The normal governor
raise button is used to increase speed to the trip set-
points. The full method of testing is described in
Section 3.5 of this chapter.
The ability to test the correct functioning of each
turbine steam valve is necessary for both on-load opera-
tion and also prior to run-up. The latter is described as
valve exercising, the requirement being to stroke each
valve open and closed individually, to test valve freedom
of movement. As far as the operator is concerned this
uses the same controls as on-load testing, with the excep-
tion that selecting exercise' ensures that the valves can
only be opened if the boiler stop valves are closed.
1.3.6 Onload testing
On-load testing can only be carried out on groups of
valves in turn. Thus, on a four-inlet turbine, one group
of valves comprises the left-hand front HP governing,
HP stop, IP governing and IP stop valves. The on-load
test system includes facilities for checking the operation
of all the valve relay inputs. On HP and IP governing
valves the ability to close in response to governor signals
is checked and also the means of tripping the valve in
response to the action of the protection system. On HP
and IP stop valves, the normal tripping and resetting
action from the protection system is checked and also
the facilities provided as back-up for emergency closure.
Testing of a group of valves is carried out sequentially,
starting with the closure of the HP governing valve,
132
Chapter 2
then the HP stop, IP governing and IP stop valves until
the whole group is closed. Valves are opened in the
reverse sequence and there is also the capability for rever-
sing the sequence at any point when the group test is
only partially complete.
On a typical wet steam (PWR) turbine, there will be
four HP inlet and six LP inlets so a group cannot be
defined in the above manner.
A vital part of the on-load test equipment is the provi-
sion of some means for the operator to monitor the
performance of the valves. This may be done by
automatic initiation of a chart recorder, giving a time-
base against which the opening and closing times of the
valves may be judged for conformity to the specifica-
tion. Another method is to use an XY plotter with the
actual valve position being plotted against the demand-
ed position. This can be arranged to give a well-defined
characteristic for a correct test, so that an incorrect test
is readily identified. A third method, likely to be
employed in the future, is to make use of the VDUs
provided in the control room for data processing. A
similar type of record to that described for the XY plotter
may be obtained, using a temporarily enhanced scann-
ing rate for the valve position signal of the valve under
test.
1.3.7 Automatic run-up and loading systems
Automatic run-up and loading systems are provided for
two main reasons:
To assist the operator in making the complex sequence
of checks necessary prior to and during start-up.
To run-up and subsequently load the turbine in a
safe and consistent manner. Sophisticated schemes
can be provided where the rate of run-up or loading
is faster and less stressful for the machine than a
human operator could reasonably achieve.
The primary output of a typical system is to the basic
speed governor, either to increment the speeder gear
or to the governor in such a way that failure of the
output signal gives a similarly rate-limited change in
demand. Some outputs of digital state signals provide
interlock or initiation signals to the governor and auto-
synchroniser, whilst others provide indications to the
operator. The inputs and outputs are shown on Fig
2.10. The inputs to system depend on the degree of
sophistication, in the most comprehensive case they
would be as shown.
The scope of the system described here assumes that
separate operator actions or sequencing systems bring
all the auxiliary systems necessary for the safe opera-
tion of the turbine to a satisfactory state of readiness.
Thus lubricating oil, main and auxiliary CW systems,
etc., will have previously been brought into service.
A digital state signal will indicate that each of these
conditions or prestart interlocks has been satisfied.
 Governing systems

HP STRESS REFERENCE

HP PROBE INNER/MIDWALL SIGNAL

CONDITIONER COMPENSATOR
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL

HP STEAM/METAL
SIGNAL
HP THROTTLE DROP CONDITIONER

CALCULATED FROM
TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES

ru
HP GOV. VALVE CHEST SIGNAL
STEAM/METAL CONDITIONER
TEMP DIFFERENTIAL
HP GOVERNOR VALVE CHEST STRESS REFERENCE HOLD SIGNALSl PROPORTIONAL GOVERNOR
LOW VALUE PLUS
COMPENSATOR AND

GATE
LOGIC NTEGRAL TERMS
HP GOVERNOR VALVE INNER/
MIDWALL SIGNAL
CONDITIONER
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL

VIBRATION

ECCENTRICITY TURBINE
SUPERVISORY
LIMITS
DIFFERENTIAL EXPANSION

PLANT INTERLOCKS PRE-START

CHECKS

FIG. 2.10 Automatic run-up and loading equipment

Because of the large number of plant-mounted trans-
ducers providing inputs, careful consideration is given
at the design stage to provide enough redundancy to
permit fully automatic run-up and loading with high
availability. Most inputs are either duplicated by f a s t e r '
and 'check' transducers at the same measuring point, or
there is functional duplication built into the system
because of measurements made at entirely different
measuring points (e.g., separate measurement of inlet
steam pressure in left-hand and right-hand steam chests).
Thus, if one of the minor input signals is lost, fully
automatic operation may still be possible. The failed
transducers are identified to the operator.
If several minor input signals are lost or one of a
duplicate pair of major signals, automatic control may
be restricted such that there is only a fixed safe accelera-
tion rate (if in run-up mode) or fixed safe loading rate
(if on load control).
If further signals fail, only manual control may be
possible. The turbine governor will provide a limitation
on the rate-of-change of speed or load, but this will not
necessarily be safe, particularly if a cold start is in
progress. The operator must then decide whether there
are sufficent desk indications to permit progress, or to
hold at a safe condition whilst a repair is effected, or
to shut down the turbne.
The main requirement of the automatic run-up and
loading system is to limit the thermal stresses within the
turbine rotor and valve chests during changes of speed
and load. The method of controlling these is dependent
on the type and size of the turbine and the steam condi-
tions for which it is designed. Thus large turbines
working at high main and reheat temperatures, when
specified for two-shifting duty, require the most
sophistication if optimum run-up and loading rates are
to be achieved. A large wet-steam turbine for base load
operation requires control of stress in the HP chests and
rotor, but the LP chests and rotors do not need any
separate control at all. Direct measurement of stress, by
thermocouples measuring the difference between inner
and midwall metal temperatures at suitable measuring
points, provides a means ofcontrolling run-up or load
changes to the optimum values. Control is of a closed-
loop proportional form, acting into the governor as
shown in Fig 2.10, so that stress is held constant at the
reference value throughout most of the run-up.
One exception to this concerns the critical speed bands
of the turbine, which are determined by rotor dynamics.
Here the strategy is to ensure that there is a large stress
margin before entering the critical speed band and then
to provide a rapid acceleration through it. Any 'hold'
signals from the operator (or any other source) are vetoed
whilst within the band.
Provision is often made to 'hold' run-up and loading
by vibration, eccentricity or differential expansion signals
sensed by the separate Turbine Supervisory Equipment
(TSE). These will also be vetoed within critical speed
bands or during block loading; outside these bands

133
Turbine plant systems
they act first to hold and then to advise the operator
if any of the TSE signals exceeds a predetermined
limit. The 'hold' will be released if the controlling
parameter reduces to 80% of the application level. If
the TSE signal continues to increase above the 'hold'
limit, a second limit is reached at which the operator
is advised to trip the machine.
When the turbine reaches synchronous speed, a num-
ber of pre-synchronising checks are made (e.g., the
Automatic Voltage Regulator must be on 'Auto') and
then a signal is given to the autosynchronising system
that the turbine is ready and in a safe state to accept
load. The governor speed demand is then increased or
decreased automatically by pulses from the autosyn-
chroniser until synchronism is achieved, the circuit-
breaker being automatically closed by the synchroniser
following the operator's command to autosynchronise.
Alternatively, the synchronisation and circuit-breaker
closure is carried out manually.
Following synchronisation, a block load of about 5%
is applied automatically. This is to ensure that changing
network frequency does not act through the governing
speed loop to unload the turbine completely and produce
undesirable motoring of the generator.
Thereafter loading takes place as required by the
operator or by the unit control system. As described
previously, the rates-of-change are controlled by limiting
stress levels, default rate limits or by TSE 'hold' signals.
The operator interface is an important factor taken
into account in auto run-up and loading schemes. The
essentials are that the operator has the ability to ini-
tiate the sequence of run-up and the synchronising
action. He must also have overriding control to hold or
to reduce speed at all points in the sequence if required,
apart from critical speed bands and when block loading.
Information must be presented to the operator so that
he knows the state of the turbine, the limitation being
applied at the time and the status of the control inputs.
Failed signals must be brought to his attention and
abnormal turbine operating conditions alarmed.
In a wider context than auto run-up and loading
schemes, it is vitally important to keep the operator aware
of any abnormal control action, such as the operation
of unloading gear or any governor fault which is causing,
or likely to cause, a load reduction if not rectified.
Typically an unloading gear operated' alarm and a
'governor fault' alarm would be provided. If a governor
fault developed into a situation where the governor could
no longer control the machine, a further alarm 'gover-
nor tripped' would be generated concurrently with the
signal to trip the turbine.
The component parts of governing systems have
now been discussed fully in functional terms. The
subsidiary functions described may be provided in total
or in part for any particular application. Irrespective
of the method of implementation, it is necessary to
understand how the subsidiary functions are connected
into the main governor. Figure 2.11 shows the most
complex scheme, incorporating all the described func-
134
Chapter 2
tions. The speeder gear provides the basic setpoint to
the governor. The acceleration feedback is normally
not effective in the steady state but comes into op-
eration transiently when required. Unloading gear can
reduce the steam demand when required. Other in-
puts, such as the overspeed test speed demand or valve
testing controls, are switched into service by the op-
erator when required. Auto run-up and loading rates
apply the demands of operator or the unit control
system for a change in turbine output to the speeder gear
in the optimum manner. Note that the governor can
be split into two parts a common processing system
and a number of individual valve controllers.
1.4 Electronic governing
Traditionally, the early mechanical and mechanical-
hydraulic governors, performed their main function of
maintaining the safety of the unit reliably. The provi-
sion of series emergency stop and governor valves has
provided protection against the occasional failure of a
valve to respond to its control signal, while the failure
mode of the mechanical speed error sensing arrange-
ment has generally been to deteriorate slowly in per-
formance rather than to fail suddenly. Even so, the
provision of two sets of steam valves in series, with one
set operated directly by a separate protection system has
also negated the effect of a sudden failure. The relia-
bility of mechanical governing systems has therefore
not been closely monitored in the past.
Before discussing the configuration of the electro-
hydraulic governing systems current on modern turbine
plant, it is necessary to understand the meaning of
reliability in this context. The general definition of
reliability is the probability of successfully achieving a
desired task, usually over some specified time period.
Taking the total task of the governing and protection
systems to prevent a dangerous overspeed, the probability
of success in this must be of such a high order that failure
is never encountered. This is achieved by providing
completely independent governing and protection sys-
tems, using different hardware and different techniques
for speed sensing, operating by different routes to the
two series-connected sets of valve gear. Obviously, the
reliability of the speed governor should be as high as
possible to achieve this and may be defined as the
probability of not exceeding the overspeed trip setpoint.
However, in any general governing system, the valve
position output has three failure modes. A valve can close
down, open up or stick in its current position. It is
only when either of the last two occurs and is followed
by an event leading to a sudden unloading of the
turbine, for example, the opening of the circuit-breaker
on a turbine driving a generator, that the overspeed
trip is brought into operation. There is also the pos-
sibility, in an uncoupled turbine, that a failure will
occur through an excessive speed demand.
 Governing systems

OPERATOR
CONTROLS WIDE RANGE
RUN-UP
SPEED
CONTROLS
CONTROL

WIDE RANGE
SPEED
DETECTOR =Ch
STABILISING HP GOVERNOR
VALVE SERVO &| HP
LINEARISING VALVES
CHANNELS
ACCELERATION
NARROW FEEDBACK
RANGE
PLANT
SPEED
INPUTS ON-LOAD
DETECTOR [SPEED LIMITING!
AND TEST

a
OVERSPEED CONTROLS
TEST MAIN 1& INTERLOCKS!

m
LIMITER
(LOW VALUE [ I I INTERCEPTOR I
INTERCEPTOR!
LrOJ
H
DROOP GATE) : T
l GOVERNOR I
(VALVE OFFSET W VALVE SERVO &l _ _
VARIATION SEQUENCE |
: LINEARISING I
J I CHANNELS |
OPERATOR INTERCEPTOR
(SPEEDER GEARI VALVES
CONTROLS- LOADING AND MAIN
CONTROLS LOAD/SPEED
CONTROL

UNLOADING
GEAR

PLANT OUTPUTS
INTERLOCKS -GOVERNOR

GOVERNOR
-^"
INTERNAL OPERATOR
SIGNALS INDICATIONS
H ALARMS

FIG. 2.11 Governor overall block diagram

Failures caused by spurious valve opening can be
designed to be less likely than failures resulting in valve
closure. For instance, loss of hydraulic or electrical
supplies can be made to close the valve by a closing spring
or by a preset electrical null bias.
In practice, the most likely effect on operation will
be a fault causing a load reduction or a complete loss
of load. It will be seen from the block schematic diagram
(Fig 2.11) that single faults in a valve channel can cause
one valve to close, giving a partial loss of load. A
complete loss of load would require a failure in the
common processing part of the governor. There are thus
strong grounds for enhancing the reliability of this part
of the governor by providing redundancy or monitoring
techniques. These are described later in this section. The
probability of not achieving a complete loss of load is
therefore another important governor characteristic.
Because redundancy or monitoring is normally em-
ployed, when faults occur in the common processing
part of the governor, they will be annunciated to the
operator so that maintenance can be carried out. Faults
can also occur in individual valve channels causing
only a partial loss of load. These can usually be re-
paired on-line without interfering with operation or
registering in any of the previous definitions of re-
liability. They will, however, be embraced in the overall
'mean time between failures' statistics for the governor
and will obviously be of importance to the user of gover-
ning systems.
Figure 2.12 shows a detailed block diagram of a typical
governing system. The main feature of an analogue
system is that each function is performed by a discrete
set of circuit components, whose sole task is to perform
that function by converting input signals into output
signals whose amplitude (in voltage or current terms) is
directly proportional to the required transfer function.
This feature is particularly suited to the adoption of a
modular approach to the hardware, where a function
(or a group of functions) are performed by a module
and the output (or outputs) passed on to following
modules. This permits a simple approach to fault finding
by monitoring signal levels.
A three-channel system can be made to satisfy the
reliability requirements established for governing systems.
If a failure occurs in one channel, it causes the output
of that channel to deviate from the other two channels.
Detection circuits are incorporated, in addition to the
three processing channels, to identify failed channels
and to disconnect them before they can contribute an
erroneous output. Because the detection circuits deter-
135
136
EXHAUST CONDENSER
PRESSURE "
TRANSDUCERS

GENERATORU
Turbine plant systems

INTERCEPTOR
OFFSET
CONTROL

FIG. 2.12 Detailed block diagram of a single-channel governing system

Chapter 2

mine the output on the basis of the correctly operat-
ing channels, they are often called 'majority voting
cireuits\ Figure 2.13 shows the block diagram of Fig
2.12 divided into three independent parallel channels.
The central processing part of the governor terminates
where the three outputs of each linearising network
are monitored by the final majority rating circuits
associated with the steam valve servos. These circuits
are extremely simple and therefore reliable. They have
the characteristic that for small discrepancies in the
input signals, the output signal is the average of the
inputs whilst, for large discrepancies, the mode of
action becomes that of a median-selector.
It will be noted from the diagram that the exhaust
pressure unloader is isolated from the main signal path
by a triplex majority-voting system. Since transducer
failures are a major factor in system reliability, this gives
a further measure of protection for the basic governor
which will continue to operate as a full three-channel
system.
Each valve servo amplifier is ostensibly single-channel
and the precise configuration is closely associated with
the hydraulic system used to amplify the electronic
WIDE RANGE
SPEED
CONTROL
EXHAUST
PRESSURE
TRANSDUCERS
ACCELERATION
CIRCUITS
FIG. 2.13 Block diagram of a three-channel governing system
Governing systems
signals into forces large enough to position the steam
valves. The variety of configurations employed are fully
described in Section 1.5 of this chapter. For the moment,
it should be noted that a degree of self-monitoring is
provided so that a faulty valve, hydraulic relay or servo
amplifier will identify itself to the operator and apply
a closing signal to the valve. Inter-valve monitoring is
performed in some governors, since it is usual for all
valves of one type (e.g., HP governor valves) to have
the same percentage opening, within limits. However,
this form of monitoring must be vetoed during on-load
testing of valves where only one valve of a set is closed
at any time.
Having now outlined the basic structure of a three-
channel analogue governing system, it is now appropriate
to examine in more detail some of the functional blocks
shown in Fig 2.12. The provision of separate narrow
range and wide range speed detectors stems from the
requirement (for a turbine driving a generator) for
accurate control at the network frequency.
The narrow range speed detector uses either the
characteristics of a tuned circuit or pulse timing tech-
niques to determine the deviation from the reference
FINAL GOVERNOR
MAJORITY VALVE
VOTES SERVOS
137
Turbine plant systems
speed corresponding to the nominal network frequency.
The detector circuit provides a linear frequency to
voltage conversion over a limited range only. The rea-
son for providing a separate narrow range signal is
that, by using such techniques, better long-term accu-
racy can be obtained. However, neither technique will
function correctly when there is a substantial deviation
(e.g., >10%) from the reference frequency. In the
tuned circuit, this is because of a loss of linearity away
from the null point to the extent that gross errors in
the sense of the output will occur at sub-harmonic
frequencies. The timing circuit measures the time for
a number of teeth on a speed-sensing wheel to pass
the detector and compares this with a fixed accurate
time reference. The number of teeth passing in one
revolution of the wheel and the number of teeth taken
for measuring purposes are determined to provide a
compromise between accuracy of measurement (the
more teeth the better) and adequate transient response,
particularly of the derived acceleration signal (the more
measurements per second the better). The accuracy with
which the teeth are cut on the wheel and the combina-
tion of speed detector and trigger circuitry for register-
ing the passage of teeth are also considered carefully
in the design.
Some of the latest governors employ a pulse timing
technique for speed sensing with auto-ranging to deter-
mine the optimum number of teeth which are to be
timed. This gives an adequate range of the speed signal
over the whole operating regime of the turbine from
approximately barring speed to the overspeed range.
For turbines where there is a narrow range detector,
a separate wide range speed-sensing circuit must be
provided. Typically, this comprises a diode pump cir-
cuit, giving a linear conversion of frequency to voltage
over a required range from barring speed up to the
maximum synchronous speed. Wide range governing
systems may operate to control the run-up by means
of either the governing valves or the HP stop valves.
Run-up on the governor valves has the advantage
that the HP steam chest can be 'warmed through'
prior to steam admission to the turbine, but this
arrangement requires very sensitive control at small
valve openings in order to provide a smooth increase
in speed. Control of the HP stop valves permits the
use of a built-in pilot valve for steam control of
the run-up phase. Since this has a lower-gain valve
position/steam flow characteristic, the required sensi-
tivity of the valve position controller is less critical.
The typical facilities required by the operator are:
The ability to preset the terminal speed.
A 'hold' button so that the speed can be held at the
current value.
A 'release' button to allow the run-up to continue.
The ability to preselect speed ramp rates to any one
of several values (usually five).
138
Chapter 2
An automatic run-up mode; this may be selected as
an alternative to the fixed ramping rate which requires
close operator supervision of machine parameters.
Therefore, as in the case of the narrow range governor,
these requirements are conveniently carried out by a
motorised potentiometer suitably controlled by the
operator. More recent practice employs the electronic
equivalent of the motorised potentiometer (shown in
Fig 2.14).
The speed control on the operator's terminal pro-
vides an input to two signal comparators Cl and C2,
whose other input is equivalent to the demanded speed.
If there is no difference between these two speed
demands, neither oscillator is activated and the counter
retains its existing count, giving the defined demand
signal at the output of the digital-to-analogue converter
(DAC). If the operator demands a higher terminal
speed, the appropriate comparator activates its asso-
ciated oscillator to increase the count until the DAC
output reaches the terminal speed selected by the op-
erator. The effect is that the DAC output is ramped-up
until it reaches the terminal speed, the rate of increase
being proportional to the oscillator frequency, set by
the run-up rate control which is also on the operator's
desk. Although typically there is a choice of five run-
up rates, the 'lower' oscillator is normally fixed to
give a single fast rate-of-speed decrease.
The demanded speed is compared with the measured
speed in the speed error amplifier, the gain of which
is set such that a 10% change in valve position is
achieved for about 1% change in turbine speed error.
This implies a lower loop gain than the normal 4%
droop of the narrow range governor, giving a large
stability margin. The speed error amplifier acts through
either the stop or governing valve controllers to give
precise control of the actual turbine speed to that
selected by the operator. Since the turbine-generator
remains unsynchronised during run-up, the loading
is light and with near normal steam pressures only a
small proportion of the full valve opening is necessary
to achieve run-up to speed. Often a steam demand
limit is applied during run-up and if this limit is
exceeded the operator is alerted to a possible fault.
Two types of speed-sensing device are in common
use, both employing non-contact sensing of the rota-
tion of a toothed wheel directly keyed to the main
turbine shaft. For safety reasons, the toothed wheel is
mounted at the HP end of the machine so that in the
unlikely event of a shaft or coupling failure, the sudden
loss of load torque would be sensed by the overspeed-
ing of the HP end of the machine and the governor
would act to close all the turbine steam valves.
The first type of speed-sensing device is the mag-
netic pick-up shown in Fig 2.15. The sensing coil is
wound round the pole-piece which directs the magnetic
field from the permanent magnet towards the toothed
wheel. A voltage is generated whenever the magnetic
field is disturbed.
 Governing systems

RUN-UP
RATE
SELECTOR
'RAISE'
OSCILLATOR
SIGNAL
COMPARATOR
CI
DEMANDED
SPEED
TERMINAL 0-10V RUN-UP 8-BIT DIGITAL 0-10V DC
SPEED HOLD REVERSIBLE TO ANALOGUE
DC
SETTING RUN-DOWN COUNTER CONVERTER

SIGNAL
'LOWER'
COMPARATOR
OSCILLATOR
C2

FIG. 2.14 Digital speed setpoint block diagram

If a tooth on the wheel is opposite the pole piece, the
magnetic field is concentrated by the tooth. In the
absence of a tooth, the field is less concentrated. The
passage of teeth on the wheel past the pole piece causes
the flux linking the coil to vary and generate a voltage,
which is of near-sinusoidal waveform at normal running
speeds. However, at low speeds the waveform will be
more distorted and below some well-defined threshold
the probe output will be inadequate. This is acceptable
for governing purposes since speed integrity checks are
built in from an early stage in the run-up. Probe output
voltage amplitude depends on the gap setting, which
should be checked against the turbine maker's recom-
mendations during overhauls. In general, a triplicated
analogue governing system requires three probes; how-
FIG. 2.15 Magnetic pick-up speed sensing device
ever, a spare probe is often fitted, which can be sub-
stituted for a faulty probe by manual connection whilst
on-line.
The second type of speed-sensing device is the proxi-
mity transducer which consists of a probe connected to
an oscillator-demodulator unit by an interconnecting
extension cable. The advantage of this system is that it
can sense the passage of teeth down to zero speed, which
may be important in applications requiring a low barring
speed. The equipment is more complex though and relies
on the use of specially trimmed interconnecting cables
between the two units. The principle of operation is that
a radio frequency signal is generated by the oscillator
and radiated in the region of the probe tip. As this
electromagnetic field is intercepted by the toothed wheel,
eddy currents are generated in the material and depen-
ding on whether or not a tooth is present, a varying
energy loss occurs in the strength of the return signal
which is sensed by the demodulator.
A characteristic feature of most electronic governors
is that they exercise individual control over each steam
control valve in the turbine in response to an overall
steam demand signal. This permits on-load testing of
individual valves and also fault monitoring with the
capability to close a valve in the event of a failure.
Particular mention is made here of the characteristics
of the valve position loop and its significance in achiev-
ing the desired control of turbine load.
Given constant steam inlet conditions, the power
output of a turbine is a linear function of steam flow
passing through the no-load point at a small percentage
of maximum steam flow. This characteristic is known
as the Willans line and is shown in Fig 2.16 (a). In the
conventional condensing turbine used for driving a power
generator, the pressure drop across the turbine is also
directly proportional to the steam flow through it.
The desired characteristic is therefore that the steam
demand input to the valve position controller should have
a linear relationship with steam flow. However, inherent
features of valve design are non-linear so that a valve
139
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

linearising function has to be introduced into the gov-

ernor to restore the required linearity. In particular, the
valve area/steam flow relationship is non-linear for val-
ues of pressure ratio (across the valve) less than the
critical value. Refer to Kearton, page 628 [2] and the
typical characteristic is shown in Fig 2.16 (b). Depend-
ing on the valve shape, there will also be a non-linear
STEAM FLOW relationship between valve lift and valve area, giving
the characteristic shown in Fig 2.16(c). To linearise
these two effects, the steam demand is shaped by
linearising circuits to give a characteristic of the form
(a)
shown in Fig 2.16 (d). Additional versine effects arising
from the lever arrangement driving the valve position
pick-off may also be included in the compensation.
LOAD 10 0/
Each individual valve controller has three-channel
PRESSURE RATIO P2/Pi valve steam demand signals as input. Its function is
100%
to take a majority vote of these signals to form a sig-
nal demand, to provide linearisation and to provide
position control of the turbine steam valve, using the
signal derived from a valve position transducer as feed-
VALVE AREA' back. Additionally, monitoring of majority voter opera-
tion and of servo-valve or position transducer faults is
carried out, with the capability of automatic shutdown
in the event of loss of accurate valve position control.
(b)

1.4.1 Digital processing

Two types of digital processing are employed on the latest
100%
STEAM FLOW
governing systems for CEGB machines. Both provide
highly accurate measurement of turbine speed and have
precise functions, such as steam valve linearisation
characteristics, resident in the software for accuracy and
ease of setting-up.
One type uses the triplex, modular redundant
VALVE AREA 4
configuration very similar to that previously shown in
Fig 2.13. Each single channel uses a combined processor
and memory module which is an independent speed-
(c) computing element in its own right. The module also
includes all the built-in features to permit its use in the
triplex system. Parallel bus-links are used for the
communication with peripherals, whilst secure serial links
provide interchannel communication for channel
harmonisation and fault detection purposes.
As with an analogue governor, '2 out of 3' majority
voting is carried out at key points in the system. Control
variables are entered by means of setpoints which can
be ramped up or down by the user. High priority
STEAM DEMAND
setpoints such as the speed and load setpoints are avail-
able to the operator by direct access to the processor.
Lower priority setpoints, which alter the control char-
acteristics (e.g., droop variation), are accessed via a serial
(d)
communications link to the interface processor. Control
modifiers, such as vacuum unloading, are sent to the
channels from the interface processor via serial links.
The system timing, the synchronisation between channels
and the fault monitoring process are chosen to suit the
needs for adequate transient response and to allow for
abnormal operation, such as operation with a faulty
FIG. 2.16 Typical steam flow/load/valve characteristics channel and the subsequent channel reinstatement.
140

As with the analogue governor, individual valve
amplifiers accept the three triplex speed channel outputs
in analogue form and process them to drive the servo-
valve coils on each steam valve.
The second type of governor employing digital
processing uses a completely different configuration. A
separate single-channel, basic speed governor is pro-
vided for each steam valve. At this level, termed the base
level governor (BLG), there is high integrity due to the
multiple redundancy and built-in error checks which
initiate closure of the related steam valve in the event
of a valve channel fault.
At the upper control level (UCL), a single Unit Pro-
cessor provides all the other functions required in a
governing system. All interfaces to the operator and
plant, except the basic signals connected directly to
FIG. 2.17 Microgovernor block diagram
Governing systems
the BLG, are processed by the UCL. Output commands
from the UCL to alter the speed, load or operating
mode take effect through the BLG, but only if they
meet the acceptability criteria stored at base level. This
form of digital governor is shown diagrammatically
in Fig 2.17.
The BLG hardware'and software are totally standard
for all applications whereas, at the UCL, the hardware
is a standard minicomputer but the software incor-
porates all functions and parameters special to the
application. A particular feature of the design is the
ability of the UCL to provide communications to the
operator via a multi-character display panel. This permits
the interactive prompting of the operator for every mode
of operation and enables him to see the response to
his actions. Additionally, precise details are given of
141
Turbine plant systems
any governor fault alarm which might occur. The op-
erator may also select particular forms of display, for
example, to facilitate turbine run-up.
The BLG channel includes all the hardware and
signal routes from the speed probe signal-bus to the
electrohydraulic servo-valve of its associated steam
valve relay. As well as validating data inputs from the
UCL, the BLG incorporates extensive self-checking
facilities. In the event of a fault, the steam valve is
closed by an independent means through its own
failsafe watchdog hardware.
1.5 Governor valve relays
The output of the electronic speed governor requires
conversion from a current signal to a mechanical force
of sufficient power to actuate the steam valves. It is the
function of the governor relays to perform this duty.
The hydraulic relay has no competitor as a force
amplifier for steam valve actuation. It has the capabili-
ty to develop the high power needed for rapid valve
opening or closing, without a significant deadband or
hysteresis.
The usual arrangement for electronic governing is to
employ a single separate relay for each steam valve, the
conversion being carried out by a proprietary
electrohydraulic servo-valve. There are many different
forms of valve relay, of which three are used on CEGB
turbines with electronic governing. These will be refer-
red to as Types 1, 2 and 3 in the descriptions which
follow. Types 1 and 2 use the same proprietary servo-
valve which will be described first. The servo-valve used
with the Type 3 relay is included in the description of
the relay.
Figure 2.18 shows a servo-valve in cross-section,
together with a diagrammatic representation of how
it is connected in a simple position-loop controlling
a primary ram. The feedback to the amplifier in the
governing system is provided by a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT).
The function of the servo-valve is to provide an
output flow rate of hydraulic fluid proportional to the
input current. The input current, derived by the gover-
nor servo-amplifier is applied to the coils of a force
motor thereby deflecting the armature and drive arm
mounted in a flexure tube. The high pressure supply is
filtered and supplied via orifices to the boost chambers
and at either end of the spool. The fluid from each
boost chamber is cross-connected via porting to the re-
verse ends of the servo-spool. It travels down the centre
of the spool and returns to low pressure via the drain
port. The deflection of the drive arm will block one or
other of the nozzles and create a high pressure in one
boost chamber and a low pressure in the other, thus
creating a force to move the servo-spool until the pres-
sures are equalised. The spool deflection is thus pro-
portional to the drive arm deflection which is itself
proportional to the current. In the diagram, the servo-
142
Chapter 2
spool is shown in the central position with the control
ports blanked-off. This is referred to as the 'null posi-
tion'. When the spool moves, one control port is opened
to the supply port and the other opens to the drain port.
The flow rate is proportional to the spool deflection.
When connected as a position controller, as shown
diagrammatically, the null position of the spool
corresponds to the condition of equal 'demanded' and
'actual' positions. Any discrepancy with the position
measured by the LVDT causes a current to flow, resulting
in a hydraulic fluid flow to the power piston until the
required position is achieved.
To avoid stiction of the valve it is usual practice
to superimpose a 'dither' current on the servo-valve
amplifier output. This is a medium frequency (1 kHz)
low amplitude current which plays no part in the overall
position control, but keeps the servo-valve spool in a
'live' condition, the effect being to vibrate it by a negli-
gible amplitude at the 'dither' frequency.
The null is adjusted by altering the spring bias applied
to the armature. In the event of a loss of the electrical
signal driving the servo-valve, it is essential that the valve
relay and hence the power piston is driven to a closed
position, so a 'null bias' is set to give a small offset in
this direction. The control characteristic of the servo-
valve in this condition is shown in Fig 2.19 (a). Also
plotted (in Fig 2.20) is the corresponding valve internal
leakage which reaches a peak at the normal controlling
point of the valve. The servo-valve is likely to be the
most sensitive item in the hydraulic system owing to the
small clearances, especially in the nozzles, and the align-
ment of the control edges of the spool with the ports
in the valve body. The hydraulic fluid must be kept in
a pure condition with a low contamination level, other-
wise the control edges will become eroded and the inter-
nal leakage will increase substantially. If this leakage
persists, it will result in an excessive fluid consumption
and a reduction in the fluid pressure, eventually resulting
in the need to shut down the turbine and replace all the
worn components.
The needs for the control of the fluid characteristics
are described in the section on the fluid pumping system.
However, at this point, it should be noted that CEGB
standard practice is to provide a test rig in the laboratory
for checking the characteristics of servo-valves removed
from the turbine.
Before going on to describe the details of the valve
relays following the servo-valves, it is necessary to set
out the requirements of the final drive to the steam valve.
In the event of a failure of the hydraulic system, the
steam valve must be capable of closing in less than 200
ms against any force acting to open the valve. The flow
of steam through the valve usually generates an opening
force over some part of the travel. Figure 2.21 shows
a typical case where the steam force acts to open the
valve over the last 70% of the valve lift. A substantial
spring (or even a nest of springs) is provided to give
the closing force with a large margin over the steam
valve opening force to overcome frictional effects. The
 Governing systems

ARMATURE

MAGNET

DEMAND POSITION
NULL VOLTAGE
ADJUSTMENT

DITHER

FLEXURE TUBE

OSCILLATOR
AND
DEMODULATOR

LINEAR VARIABLE

o
DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

FIG. 2.18 Basic servo-loop

143
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

APPROXIMATE FLOW GAIN

LINEARITY & SYMMETRY
ENVELOPE

INPUT CURRENT

INPUT CURRENT, + mA

(a) Point-by-point data

(a) Point-by-point data

INPUT CURRENT, + mA
APPROXIMATE FLOW GAIN
LINEARITY, SYMMETRY (b) Continuous data
& HYSTERISIS ENVELOPE

FIG. 2.20 Internal leakage flow characteristics

These requirements are best met by a single-acting

(b) Continuous data
FIG. 2.19 No-load flow characteristics
figure shows a typical spring force characteristic and
the net force closing the valve. Frictional forces are
kept to a minimum by designing the valve so that side
loads on the valve spindles are minimised. To open the
valve, it is necessary for the valve relay to supply a
force sufficient to overcome the spring force and any
steam closing force, such as that occurring over the
first 30% of movement shown in Fig 2.21.
144
power piston opened by hydraulic fluid pressure and
closed by the closing spring. Once the steam force and
spring force are known, it is a straightforward design
task to calculate the size of power piston required. Again,
a large margin is provided to allow for friction and,
where appropriate, the weight of the valve and linkage.
The valve closing rate of 200 ms for full stroke (typical
superheat unit) is set by the need to control overspeed
in the event of a load rejection. The capability of opening
at the same rate is designed into the valve, as it is needed
in some applications to improve the transient stability
of power system networks. However, this facility is
not provided on turbines supplied to the CEGB and the
opening of the steam valve is rate-limited to give a time
for full stroke of about 5 s. To achieve fast opening and
closing, the servo stages which feed the power piston
must be designed with the appropriate size of porting
to provide the required flow into and out of the power
piston. As well as the porting, there must be pipework
of adequate size to supply the fluid flow from the high

FIG. 2.21 Typical governor valve forces
pressure source to the power piston to meet opening
demands, and from the power piston to the drain
line to meet closing demands. To assist in this, parti-
cularly where fast opening is required, hydraulic ac-
cumulators are often provided adjacent to each steam
valve relay.
A secondary means of closing the valve relays of
a main turbine unit from the unit protection system
must also be provided. This will be described in detail
in a later section, but from the valve relay point of view,
each relay is supplied with power oil at high pressure
for normal functions. It is also separately supplied with
tripping fluid at high pressure, which is routed through
the protection system. In the event of protection system
operation, this supply is cut off to all valve relays
and independently ensures their closure. Even so, the
valve relays all employ sliding pistons of relatively small
clearance, and a postulated failure mode exists in that
it is remotely possible for a failure process in the
hydraulic fluid supply unit to generate widespread fluid
contamination, thus causing sticking of a number of the
steam valve relay spools. To provide a back-up for this
eventuality, emergency stop valve relays (and sometimes
governor valve relays as well) are provided with a dump
valve having generous clearances and operated by the
tripping system so that safety is assured.
Governing systems
1.5.1 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 1
Having covered the requirements, the Type 1 system will
be examined in detail. This is used on large reheat
turbine-generators having four steam inlets to both HP
and IP cylinders, each inlet being fitted with series-
connected emergency stop and governor valves. Since
all control for both the run-up and loading phases is
carried out by the governor valves, the stop valves must
be fully open whenever the turbine is needed for opera-
tion. The simple form of open/closed control required
for the stop valves will be described separately.
Figure 2.22 shows a diagram of the governor valve
relay and control unit. The input stage, comprising the
servo-valve and actuator piston controlled by the
electronic system, is identical to Fig 2.18. The heart of
the unit is the relay plunger, rigidly connected to the
actuator piston and sliding in the relay plunger sleeve.
In the normal position of the sleeve, as shown in the
diagram, the relay plunger is moved upwards by the
actuator piston when the steam valve is required to open.
This admits power fluid above the relay power piston
to move it downwards against the force of the valve
spring (not shown), and hence open the valve until such
time as the sweep-resolver position signal is in balance
with the valve position demand. This returns the servo-
amplifier output to zero with the actuator piston and
its transducer restored to the null position. Closing is
effected in a similar manner, with the relay plunger being
moved downwards to allow fluid to be drained out of
the upper power piston chamber.
Tripping is accomplished by the relay plunger sleeve
which, in the running condition, is held downwards (in
the position shown) against its internal spring by the
presence of high pressure tripping fluid in chamber F.
If a trip occurs, tripping fluid pressure is lost and the
relay plunger sleeve moves upwards due to the spring
force. For any position of the actuator piston, this will
cause the power piston to be drained.
Figure 2.23 shows a diagram of the emergency stop
valve relay unit. Examining the operation of the relay
plunger only; in the tripped condition, this is held on
its bottom stop so that power fluid entering chamber
B through port A is prevented from gaining access to
port F. When high pressure tripping fluid is applied
through port C to chamber D, the relay plunger will lift,
thereby allowing high pressure power fluid through port
F to lift the relay power piston.
The dump piston acts as a parallel means of ensuring
that the valve is closed if tripping pressure is lost. In
the normal running condition it will be held against its
top seat by high pressure tripping fluid in chamber E,
thus sealing the power piston fluid from port H apart
from a small warming flow.
The orifice arrangement permits warming flows to the
lower end of the dump piston. In the event of a loss
of tripping pressure, the dump piston will unseat and
allow fluid to be drained rapidly from the power piston
into chamber H.
145
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

SIGNAL FROM ELECTRONIC GOVERNOR

I
I

r "^O AMPLIFIEJ>- -*"0

I ^ S W E E P RESOLVER \yS^^ 4 .

ISOLATING &
RELAY SHOWN IN VALVE OPENING POSITION FLUSHING
BLOCK

DRAIN TRIPPING POWER ACCUMULATOR

] TRIPPING FLUID FLUID IN FLUID IN TEST

POWER FLUID

DRAIN FLUID

ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

FlG. 2.22 Governor valve relay and control unit (Type 1)

146

mmmmzm DRAIN FLUID
FIG. 2.23 HP emergency stop valve relay and control unit (Type 1)
The dump piston has clearances one order higher than
the relay plunger and other servo components. The
probability of its seizure in the event of widespread fluid
contamination is therefore remote.
The orifices fitted to the systems of both the gover-
nor and stop valves ensure appropriate rates of valve
travel in normal operation and prevent excessive rates
of valve travel when on-load testing.
The arrangements of trip and test valves shown permit
on-load testing of the valves in all their functioning
modes.
1.5.2 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 2
Type 2 control units are fitted to similar machines to
Type 1, but in this case run-up is carried out on the HP
stop valves, with the governor valves partially open. The
control units for HP stop and HP and IP governor valves
are therefore similar. The IP stop valves require simple
open/closed control only.
Governing systems
Figure 2.24 shows the control arrangements for a
governing valve. Again, the input stage, comprising a
servo-valve and primary ram, is positioned by a servo-
valve amplifier using the LVDT connected to the primary
ram as feedback. In this case, however, the positioning
of the main ram is accomplished by mechanical and
hydraulic means without a further electronic feedback
loop. The primary ram provides the input onto a
feedback linkage, the other end being connected to
measure main ram position. A pilot valve is connected
to the linkage so that, with the spool aligned with its
ports, the main ram will be in equilibrium with the
primary ram. A dump valve is interposed in the outlet
port of the pilot valve supplying the main ram. In the
normal operating condition, if the primary ram lifts, it
will lift the pilot valve, allowing fluid to flow at high
pressure to open the main ram. This will move
downwards to open until the main ram position
corresponds to the primary ram input and the pilot valve
is restored to the null condition.
147
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

VALVE SPINDLE FORK END

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

PILOT ARM

DUMP VALVE

ISOLATING VALVE

CONTROL VALVES MANIFOLD BLOCK

FIG. 2.24 Governor valve relay and control unit (Type 2)

148

When protection fluid is present, the dump valve is
held down against its seat against the opening spring.
If the protection fluid pressure is lost, the dump valve
is unseated by its spring and releases the fluid supply
to the main ram to drain, thereby closing the valve rapid-
ly. The dump valve lower seat is also closed by the spring
force, thus cutting off the high pressure supply from the
accumulator adjacent to the valve relay. The dump valve
may also be operated by an electrical signal to the
solenoid valve in the protection fluid line, thereby
providing a back-up means of tripping individual valves.
Energising the solenoid valve maintains the tripping
pressure to the remainder of the valves, but locally
releases the high pressure fluid above the dump valve
to drain, causing the valve to trip.
1.5.3 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 3
Type 3 relays are similar to Type 2 but employ a different
form of primary ram and servo-valve, known as a
'positioner'. The primary ram displacement is directly
proportional to the input current to the servo-valve. The
servo-valve employs a similar principle and configura-
tion to that described in Fig 2.18, but feedback of ram
position is introduced magnetically onto the force motor
and subtracts from the armature deflection produced by
the current coils. The primary ram is used to drive the
main ram via a feedback linkage and pilot valve as in
the Type 2 relay, but there is also feedback of main ram
position to the servo-valve amplifier by means of an
LVDT. This ensures accurate fine control over the full
range of valve openings.
The Type 3 relay is now superseding the Type 2 relay
on new plant and some retrofit applications, with the
advantage that it has reduced dependency on the LVDT
signal, being able to operate without it. Additionally,
the servo-valve has generally larger clearances than the
Type 2 and is less susceptible to the effects of wear and
contamination.
Types 1 and 2 relays have seen many thousands of
hours service on large turbine-generators and have been
developed to provide a high degree of reliability and
freedom from problems. Nevertheless it is essential that
all types of valve relay, and indeed all hydraulic
components, are treated with care and that maintenance
is carried out in a clean environment by experienced
personnel. If plant is shut down or awaiting commis-
sioning for more than three months, then fluid should
be circulated round the system periodically to maintain
a protective coating on components and prevent corro-
sion problems. Components kept in store must also be
kept free from dirt and corrosion. The manufacturer will
be able to provide further information to cover specific
cases.
1.5.4 Reheater relief valves
Reheater relief valves are supplied on all machines
to prevent over pressurisation of the reheater. These
Governing systems
are of a spring-loaded type, set to open at a defined
pressure.
In addition, on some machines, there is a need to
supply relatively small release valves to release steam in
the reheater system to atmosphere when the governor
valves and interceptor valves close suddenly in an emer-
gency. Although the steam may not be at a sufficiently
high pressure to cause the relief valves to open, any
residual steam trapped in the HP cylinder and reheater
could give rise to overheating of HP blading due to
churning in the relatively high density steam. The release
valves, located in the connecting steam piping between
the reheater and the interceptor valves, are signalled to
open under the appropriate conditions to prevent this
from happening.
The release valves may be hydraulically or pneu-
matically operated. Where an electronic governor is
fitted, they are opened by energising a solenoid. Condi-
tions which signal their opening are:
Loss of tripping pressure.
High acceleration detected by governor.
Closure of all interceptor steam valve relays.
These conditions cover circumstances of machine tripp-
ing or turbine load rejection without tripping, where
churning could occur either during rundown of the
machine after a trip or during the period of interceptor
valve closure on load rejection.
1.6 Hydraulic fluid system
Universal use is made on large turbine-generators of
hydraulic fluid at high pressure to provide the large
opening forces and rapid stroking times. This section
deals with the design of the pumping system for supply-
ing fluid at high pressure to the steam valve relays and
to the protection system.
The design and construction of the system is close-
ly related to the choice of operating fluid and to the
use of small-clearance components in the valve relay
operating systems. System pressure is chosen to allow
the use of an economically-sized relay capable of meet-
ing the required opening forces. For small turbines
(<500 MW), system pressures may be 35 bar or less.
For larger turbines, system pressures of 70-150 bar are
needed.
These high pressures represent a significant fire risk,
as a small leakage can result in a jet of oil being sprayed
over a considerable distance. The proximity of steam
pipes at high temperatures (typically 565C on coal-fired
plant) makes it necessary either to provide for double
enclosure of the pipework and components or to use
a fire-resistant fluid (FRF). All CEGB systems falling
into the latter category use phosphate ester fire-resistant
fluids. These systems are completely separate from
149
Turbine plant systems
lubricating oil systems and one pumping unit is sup-
plied for each main turbine-generator unit. Where a
boiler feed pump turbine is associated with the main
unit, its control and protection systems are powered by
the same supply unit for convenience.
Phosphate-ester fluids are used because of their
superior thermal stability compared with water-based
fire-resistant fluids which would be unsuitable for the
high temperatures normally found in the vicinity of steam
valves. They also have the advantage that their viscosity
and lubricating characteristics are similar to lubricating
oil, so that conversion of earlier units running on high
pressure oil is possible with some care, subject to the
fitting of compatible sealing materials. These fluids also
have the necessary fire resistance and provide for a long
service life from the system components. They can be
maintained in good condition for an indefinite period
without the need for replacement.
The fluid system is designed to permit either on-line
monitoring or manual sampling of the fluid condition.
The parameters to be monitored, their limiting values
and the frequency of monitoring depend on the perfor-
mance requirements of the most critical items in the
system (usually the servo-valves). This monitoring
programme is set out by the turbine supplier to suit the
system components. Deviations outside limits should be
investigated promptly, otherwise component life will be
very seriously affected.
In basic form, the fluid supply system comprises a
fluid reservoir and a pump to deliver high pressure
fluid. To ensure high availability two pumping lines
are needed, one being the duty line and the other on
standby. Pumps are either of the screw-type (for use in
systems up to 80 bar) or of the axial piston variable-
delivery type (for use up to 150 bar). Additional system
BREATHER
^RESERVOIR
NORMAL FLUID LEVEL
SUCTION FILTER
FIG. 2.25 Pump suction arrangement for a separately-mounted pump
150
Chapter 2
components are necessary to ensure that the fluid is
supplied to the relays in good condition. These will be
described as the needs of the basic components are
considered.
Screw-type pumps may be of the submersible kind,
mounted on the reservoir top plate, or they may be
separately mounted. Axial-piston pumps and screw-type
pumps require that the pump suction pressure is adequate
to provide a lengthy service life. Failure to meet the
suction pressure requirements will result in cavitation-
erosion of the pump components and eventual break-up
of the pump, with the release of numerous metallic
particles. This would necessitate shutdown of the whole
turbine-generator to replace the faulty pump and to flush
the entire hydraulic system.
The phenomenon of cavitation results from the char-
acteristics of air in the fluid. The solubility of air is
proportional to the fluid pressure, so that air bubbles
present in the fluid at low pressure become dissolved into
the fluid at high pressure. Consider a reservoir open to
atmosphere and full of fluid connected by a pipe to a
pump, so that the pump suction is flooded under static
conditions (Fig 2.25). When the pump is started, the flow
through the pipe causes a friction loss and the pump
suction pressure may well become sub-atmospheric. This
will cause air, normally dissolved in the fluid at
atmospheric pressure, to come out of solution in the
suction pipe and form bubbles. At some point within
the pump, the pressure increases to the extent that the
air returns into solution with an abruptness which causes
collapse of the bubble and damage to any metal in the
vicinity. Although such cavitation is usually avoided by
good design, the user must be aware that blockage of
any suction filters could lead to a similar effect. Also,
the reservoir is provided to give a definite fluid dwell
TO SYSTEM
PUMP SUCTION PUMP DISCHARGE
PORT PORT

time to allow any entrained air to be released. Should
the fluid be allowed to deteriorate for any reason or
should there be a fault causing excess air to be entrained
in the fluid returned to the reservoir, the air release
process may be affected and excess air could be supplied
to the pump in this way.
In the case of the submersible screw-pump, a coarse
suction filter only is fitted and there is very little scope
for creation of low pressure conditions at the pump
suction. For the separately-mounted pump, it is normal
to provide a separate boost pump of the centrifugal type,
having an outlet pressure of about 7 bar. This type of
pump is not susceptible to cavitation damage and has
the additional advantage of being able to circulate viscous
fluid on initial start-up from cold. However, the pump
must be provided with relief valve facilities and LP filters
are needed, following the boost pump, to protect the
main pump from possible damage by the boost pump.
The main screw-pump shown in Fig 2.26 is a constant
flow device when driven at constant speed. In these
systems it is designed to deliver the maximum flow
requirements of the system, plus a margin. Under normal
conditions, the system flow will be a fraction of this,
so the outlet pressure is controlled by a spring-loaded
pressure control valve and the excess flow is returned
to the reservoir. Again, a separate pressure relief valve
must be provided as an overall protection. A non-return
valve is fitted in the outlet flow of the pump line, so
that two pumping lines can be coupled together.
Although only one line is needed for operation, the
standby line can be brought into operation either man-
ually or automatically by sensing loss of pressure in
the duty line.
Pumping generates heat, and circulation of the fluid
through the valve relays adjacent to hot steam pipes
causes a further rise in fluid temperature. Phosphate-
ester fluids have a high temperature gradient of visco-
sity. At 40C, the fluid has optimum conditions for the
main pump. At higher temperatures, the viscosity will
have a lower value and excessive pump and system
leakages may occur. At still higher temperatures the
fluid begins to break down. Conversely, at low tem-
peratures, the fluid starts out as extremely viscous
and difficult to pump, system pressure drops may be
excessive and it may not be possible to achieve the
required rate of response from the steam valve relays.
For these reasons, coolers are necessary in all systems
and, in some systems where cold-starting is essential,
heaters may also be required. Coolers are of the cross-
flow, double-pass shell and tube type, using demin-
er alised water as the cooling medium. Temperature
control to 40C is achieved by an electrical controller
and pneumatic actuator. Heaters are of the electrical
immersion type, fitted either in the reservoir or in a
flow-line. A schematic diagram of a typical pumping
system is shown in Fig 2.27.
Systems employing axial-piston variable-swashplate
pumps have similar arrangements for boost pumps,
LP filters, coolers and pressure relief valves, but their
Governing systems
variable-delivery capability makes the use of a spill-type
pressure control valve unnecessary. A cross-section of
a variable-swashplate pump is shown in Fig 2.28. It will
be immediately apparent that this is a much more
complex device than the screw-pump shown in Fig 2.25.
However, since the flow can be made to exactly match
the system requirements, the reservoir, pipework, coolers
and system filters can be scaled down accordingly. From
Fig 2.28 it can be seen that the axial-pistons are forced
to reciprocate in their cylinders by rotation of the pump
barrel at constant speed and the movement of the slippers
against the fixed angle of the swashplate. The piston
displacement and hence the pump output can be varied
by tilting the swashplate. Fixed inlet and outlet ports
supply and deliver the hydraulic fluid. The fluid is
pumped against the system resistance and a pressure
controller senses the outlet pressure and modulates the
swashplate to regulate it to the desired value. Some
pressure oscillation is produced at a frequency equal to
rotation frequency times number of pistons, but this is
damped out by a local accumulator.
1.6.1 Filtration
Filtration is an essential part of any fluid supply system
and the standards required are set by the smallest
clearances in the system usually the servo-valve. The
purpose of the filters is to remove debris from the system.
It is quite normal for debris to be continuously generated
within the system, some from wear processes by the
pumps and other moving components, some introduced
externally via air entering through the reservoir breather
or in the valve relays. Debris will be in the form of small
particles suspended in the fluid and will be irregular in
size, shape and chemical composition. Filters are usual-
ly given 'nominal' and 'absolute' ratings, suggesting that
no particles larger than the absolute rating are passed.
In fact this is not the case. Because of lack of uniformi-
ty in the size of passages in filters, a whole spectrum
of particles will be passed, although the general
characteristics ensure that there is an increasing probabili-
ty that the larger the particle, the more likely it is to
be 'captured' by the filter.
If a sample of fluid from the filter outlet is ex-
amined, its contamination level is described by the
number of particles greater than a given size encountered
in 100 ml of fluid. With a 5 micron absolute filter in
circuit, typical sizes of interest would be 1 micron, 5
microns, 10 microns, 15 microns, 25 microns and 100
microns. The total number of particles greater than each
of these sizes would be recorded and if plotted on a
log/(log)2 plot (as shown in Fig 2.29), would give a
nearly linear form. Using these techniques, various con-
tamination classes can be defined. A number of standards
are in existence; the one gaining some international
recognition is the American NAS 1638 Standard, based
on measurements taken with an electronic particle de-
tector, using a light-blocking principle. Another standard
in widespread use in the UK is one published by a
151
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

SCREW PUMP AND MOTOR ASSEMBLY

AUXILIARY SCREWS

INSERT

MECHANICAL
SEAL ASSEMBLY

SEAL RING

COVER

ADJUSTING
SCREW SPRING
COLLAR VALVE
CONE
MAIN
SCREW

FlG. 2.26 Typical screw pump

152

izl IE
-V\r h
Hxh
i-M-
-
F R F PRE-HEAT PUMP
FlG. 2.27 Fire-resistant fluid pumping system
commercial organisation, Thermal Control Company Ltd
of Brighton, England. This standard is based on extrac-
ting a 100 ml sample of fluid from the system, passing
it through a filter membrane, and then comparing the
sample under a microscope with a series of reference
slides representing different classes.
Because of the different measurement techniques and
ways of defining the 'size' of an irregularly-shaped parti-
cle, the standards lay down different acceptability criteria
(in terms of numbers of particles) for systems incor-
porating fine clearance servo-valves. The system user is
advised to opt for one of the available techniques and
use it on a regular basis. Results taken from a normal
system then provide a reference point for what is abnor-
mal, which therefore requires investigation.
In a system incorporating components with clearances
of 2 microns it would be normal practice to fit 0.5
micron nominal filters in the system to give typically
NAS Class 7 or Thermal Controls Class 3 conditions.
Governing systems
FROM MAIN & BFP TURBINES
TRIPPING SYSTEMS & RELAYS
Differential pressure drops across such filters are normal-
ly alarmed and provision is made for on-line filter
replacement. Prompt maintenance in these circumstances
enables the fluid cleanliness to be maintained and helps
to ensure trouble-free service from the system
components.
As well as particulate contamination, which is readily
visible albeit under a microscope, contamination by
water or chemical means is also possible. The former
is likely to cause an increase in fluid acidity and possible
formation of gels or salts, which cause components to
stick. Chemical contamination can result in severe
electrokinetic erosion of fine clearances, especially if a
source of free chlorine ions is introduced to the system.
For further information on these effects refer to Nelson
and Waterman [3].
The likely effects on turbine-generator operation,
if contamination is allowed to persist, would be high
leakage flows through the hydraulic system even-
153
Turbine plant systems
FRONT
FIG. 2.28 Variable swashplate pump
tually giving a low system pressure and a unit trip.
Those associated with maintaining and operating such
systems should avoid any possible introduction of
water, especially seawater. Chlorinated solvents should
never be used for cleaning reservoirs, pipework or
components. Nevertheless, some water will be present
in the system due to contact of the fluid with air in the
reservoir and in the valve relays and drain lines. To
maintain it at an acceptably low level (<2000 PPM),
a vacuum dehydration unit is normally incorporated in
the FRF pumping system. This usually works on a
separate sub-loop, taking fluid from the reservoir and
then returning the conditioned fluid to the reservoir
(Fig 2.30).
Fluid is pumped from the main reservoir into the
conditioner reservoir, where it is heated to 80C and
then passed through a coalescer unit into a vacuum
chamber where the water is drawn off. The processed
fluid is then often passed through a fuller's earth
filter which further reduces the water content and also
reduces its acidity. A trap filter normally follows the
154
Chapter 2
100 000
0 5 10 15 25 50 100
PARTICLE SIZE urn
FIG. 2.29 Plot of particle size against total number
of particles/100 ml sample
earth filter so that possible escape of the earth due
to accidental rupture of this filter will not affect the
main system.
Fuller's earth filtration is sometimes carried out in
a separate sub-loop supplied from, and returning to,
the main reservoir. Since the phosphate-ester fluid is
delivered in 40 gallon drums by the oil supplier, a
transfer pump is normally provided with each system
to permit the initial filling and topping-up of the main
tank.
The main features of the pumping unit have now
been described. All these features are combined into a
single baseplate-mounted unit which is factory assembl-
ed and shipped to site as a complete package. Pipework
joints are kept to a minimum and are welded wherever
possible. All pipework is fabricated in stainless steel
to avoid long-term problems of corrosion and the
generation of rust particles. A typical packaged unit
 Governing systems

FULLERS EARTH
FILTER

VACUUM RECEIVER AUTOMATIC

C O O L I N G WATER AIR VENT
OUTLET

VACUUM
RECEIVER

FLUID HEATER

TRAP
FILTER

FILTER UNIT

C O N T R O L PANEL

CLEAN FLUID
PUMP

DIRTY FLUID
PUMP DIRTY
FLUID

VACUUM
PUMP

FIG. 2.30 Fire-resistant fluid conditioner

155
Turbine plant systems
is shown in Fig 2.31. The system also includes local
instrumentation and facilities for the connection of
remote instruments and the motor starter unit. Interlocks
are built into the system to shut down a pumping line
in the event of low pump suction or outlet temperature,
and alarms of abnormal conditions are given.
1.7 Boiler feed pump turbine governors
On CEGB 660 MW turbine-generator systems, it is
normal practice to use an auxiliary back-pressure turbine
to drive the main feed pump. The feed pump is required
to maintain the boiler drum level during steam raising
prior to start-up of the main turbine, and also over the
full load range of the main turbine. The precise ar-
FLUID C O N D I T I O N E R-
5-WAY CONTROL VALVE
(EMPTYING CONNECTION)
FIG. 2.31 Fire-resistant fluid packaged unit
156
Chapter 2
rangements for achieving feed flow control are outside
the scope of this chapter, but the part played by the
boiler feed pump turbine (BFPT) is to drive the pump
at a speed such as to maintain a constant pressure
drop across the feed regulating valves which follow the
pump. The feed flow may then be controlled by setting
the feed valve position. This requires a variable-speed
turbine whose speed or steam valve position demand may
be set by the feed control system.
The normal exhaust route for the BFPT is to the
IP/LP crossover pipe of the main turbine, although at
low loads it will be routed through to the condenser,
automatic changeover from one exhaust to the other
being sensed by a load-dependent parameter of the main
turbine usually crossover pressure.
The steam supply to the BFPT may be derived from
one or other of two sources, or from a mixture of
TANK BREATHER
ACCUMULATOR
FLUID SUPPLY
a TO MAIN SET
b TO B.F.P.T
FLUID OUTLET MANIFOLD
MAIN PUMP UNIT
 Steam chests, valves and loop pipes

the two. Normally, when the main turbine is on-load,

the second-stage blading of the BFPT is supplied with
steam from the main turbine HP exhaust via bled-steam
emergency and governing valves. Either one pair, or two ^ BLED
oo STEAM
pairs in parallel, of these valves are fitted. Because of o
u
z 5
1 VALVES

non-availability of steam from the main turbine HP zS

U JH
DL-CO LIVE 1 X
exhaust prior to start-up and when the main turbine is STEAM 1

operating at low loads, the first-stage blading of the ^ VALVE 1

BFPT may be supplied with boiler steam through a single

2 Q
pair of live steam emergency and governing valves. In 5S
the event of non-availability of the bled-steam supply o 5
z oc ^^V^J ^
at full-load on the main turbine, the live steam valves -10 -8
1 1 1 -2 0
-6 -4
will supply sufficient steam to enable full-load to be NOMINAL SPEED LOOP ERROR, %

maintained. 1 1 1 1 1
1C0 80 60 40 20 0
The nominal maximum power rating of such a boiler NET VALVE DEMAND FROM EITHER LOOP, %
feed pump turbine is about 15 MW and the possibility
of a load rejection leading to a potential over speed (a) Live/bled steam valve sequencing
must be considered. The loss of load could occur as a
result of loss of feed pump suction. If this occurred with
the turbine speed and power output close to the full-
load value, an extremely rapid acceleration would result
due to the low rotor inertia. In the unlikely event that
the turbine did overspeed to destruction, the strength ; 100-1
of the casing would contain the disaster and protect
personnel. However, it is normal practice to follow
main turbine practice and fit the BFPT with a three-
IS
channel electronic governor, coupled with separate over-
speed protection.
The turbine governor is a modular arrangement using
many of the same elements applied to the main turbine.
Thus, speed-sensing and on-load testing facilities will 1^ ~~"
60 80 100
be similar in principle. The emergency valves upstream 20
NOMINAL BLED STEAM PRESSURE
of the governing valves provide protection shutdowns AS PERCENTAGE OF MAXIMUM RATED
of the BFPT in the event of failure of more than one
governor channel or in the event of a mechanical trip (b) Bled steam pressure limit sequencing
condition (e.g., loss of lubricating oil) being sensed.
The valve relay systems use similar servo-valves to FIG. 2.32 Valve and pressure sequencing diagrams
those fitted to the main turbine and the following stages for the BFPT
of hydraulic operation are often similar in principle to
those of the main turbine. It has sometimes been possi-
ble to omit the pilot stage associated with the main
until the HP exhaust pressure has risen to the value
turbine valve relays and to drive the power piston direct
at which it can sustain the feed flow demand via the
with the servo-valve. Referring back to Fig 2.24, this
BFPT.
would be equivalent to considering the relay to comprise
These features and others, engineered by techniques
only the servo-valve and primary ram. In all cases, the
similar to those of the main turbine governor, enable
hydraulic fluid is supplied from the main turbine system.
convenient interfaces to be provided for automatic feed
Live and bled-steam governing valves are controlled control systems and automatic run-up.
in parallel, with an offset being applied to the live steam
valves so that they only begin to open when the bled-
steam valves are fully open on a speed loop droop of
about 5%. Any additional speed error, requiring further
steam supply, progressively opens the live steam valves 2 Steam chests, valves and loop pipes
until they are also fully open.
During start-up of the main turbine, the steam is
supplied via the live steam valve. A common means of
ensuring this automatically is to superimpose on the 2.1 Steam chest arrangements and
bled-steam channel a limited maximum opening char- construction
acteristic as a function of bled-steam pressure, as shown Steam is admitted to a turbine from the superheater
in Fig 2.32. This will keep the bled-steam valves closed outlets, via the high pressure steam mains, to the

157
Turbine plant systems
emergency stop valves and the associated governing
valves which are housed in steam chests. In order
to reduce the thermal stresses and hence the risk of
thermal fatigue, these steam chests are of simple shapes
and are manufactured either from closed-die alloy steel
forgings welded together, or from alloy steel castings.
Similar steam chests containing emergency stop valves
and interceptor valves are used in the hot reheat pipes
from the reheater to the intermediate pressure cylinder
of the turbine. These steam chests are invariably
manufactured from alloy steel castings, which are thinner
but larger than the HP steam chests because of the much
lower steam pressure conditions.
The steam chests are usually mounted alongside the
turbine: on 660 MW machines they are either on swing
links or on springs to accommodate movement due to
thermal expansion and flexibility of the HP steam mains.
The steam chests on 500 MW machines were keyed to
the foundations. In some instances, the steam chests are
mounted in the steam mains, and thus are able to move
freely with the steam piping.
On modern large machines, the usual practice is to
have four steam mains together with four emergency stop
valves and four governor valves, two on each side of
the turbine. On some of the early 660 MW nuclear
turbine-generators, however, the two steam mains on
each side join into one large steam chest, so that there
are only two steam chests in total. These steam chests,
one on each side, contain one large emergency stop valve
and one governor valve each. Similar arrangements are
used for the reheat steam chests at the IP cylinder.
On some current 660 MW machines, the steam chest
arrangement is such that there is one steam chest on each
side of the machine, which has an emergency stop valve
at each end and the two governor valves are connected
to the common chamber between the stop valves. A
typical arrangement is shown in Fig 2.33.
Another steam chest arrangement employs the reverse
flow type of governor valve (see Section 2.6 of this
chapter), permitting a more compact arrangement of stop
and governor valves. This requires two steam chests each
side of the machine, which have sometimes been inter-
connected before the emergency stop valve.
2.2 Steam chest materials
As stated in Section 2.1 of this chapter, the chests are
manufactured from alloy steel. On current 660 MW
machines operating at 565C, the material is usually
0.5Cr Mo V steel, and on some recent machines operating
at 538C, the chest material is 2.25Cr steel. However,
on larger units operating at 565C, it may be necessary
to utilise higher-chrome ferritic steels with improved
creep resistance in order to avoid unduly thick chest walls
which would prejudice operational flexibility. Austenitic
steels would provide a greater improvement in creep
resistance but experience with these has shown that
158
Chapter 2
there would be problems of creep ratcheting.
The valves close onto removable-plate type seats,
which can be replaced when worn or damaged. These
seats are secured in place either by means of a screwed
ring or by screws that are locked in place, and sometimes
the seats are additionally prevented from rotating with
radial dowels. A diffuser is generally provided; this is
either integral with the valve seat or machined as part
of the valve chest.
The mating faces of the valves and their seats are faced
with Stellite in order to resist wear, mainly due to erosion
by steam. Such wear is most likely to occur when the
valve is cracked open: a jet of steam is then propelled
at high velocity by the large pressure differential through
the narrow port opening. The Stellite facing also protects
against impact damage when the valves shut normally,
or during frequent high speed test closures. Cushioning
devices in the relay system or slow motion testing can
be used to alleviate this.
The valve spindles are supported and guided by means
of specially treated alloy steel sleeves in the valve covers,
the materials of the spindles and the sleeves being selected
both to avoid excessive oxide build-up between 30 000
h overhauls and to ensure the minimum wear of the
components when subjected to the forces imposed on
the valve from steam, vibration and the operating gear.
The bushes are securely locked in place, the clearance
between spindle and bush being suitable for the operating
conditions of the valves. In order to prevent steam
leakage to atmosphere, there is a gland steam leak-off
sub-atmospheric connection from a chamber between the
spindle and the bush to the turbine gland steam system.
Steam leakage from emergency stop valves is also
prevented by means of a stellite back seat on the back
of the valve head against the lower valve spindle bush.
2.3 Cover seals
On large modern HP valve chests, it is difficult to
provide an adequate bolted joint between the valve
chest and its cover. Current practice on these chests
generally is to utilise pressure-assisted seal joints si-
milar to that shown in Fig 2.34. On reheat steam
chests, bolted flanged joints are used. These joints
usually have gaskets that are either of the Metaflex
type backed up by a metal-to-metal joint face, or they
employ an Inconel ring. All such bolted joints are
designed not to require retightening for at least 30 000
hours of operation.
2.4 Steam strainers
In order to prevent solid particles of foreign matter from
being carried into the turbine by the incoming steam and
causing damage to the blading, each stop valve is
surrounded by a cylindrical strainer which has many
 STEAM I N L E T
FROM BOILER

STEAM CHEST
SUPPORT

FOUNDATION
STEELWORK

FIG. 2.33 Typical steam chest arrangements

159
Steam chests, valves and loop pipes
Turbine plant systems
COVER PLATE
MAIN SEALING
PLATE
STEAM
CHEST
FIG. 2.34 Pressure-assisted seal type valve cover joint
small diameter holes, ranging from 5-2 mm depending
on the manufacturer. Even particles of this size can
cause serious blading damage, it is therefore essential
that a thorough steam blow of all pipework is carried
out before a set is commissioned. The risk of damage
to new plant from debris, pieces of weld metal, etc.,
which may be swept through the pipe, used to be
minimised by fitting extra-fine commissioning strainers
in place of the final strainers. However, because of the
time associated with strainer removal, modern practice
is to rely on the final strainers to trap all debris.
2.5 Stop valves
The purposes of the emergency stop valves are to cut
off the steam supply during periods of shutdown and
to provide prompt interruption of the steam flow in an
emergency trip.
In order to ensure that the valves will close in an
emergency, it is a requirement that they are tested on-
load regularly, at least once a month. During such testing
there is a load reduction, which can be minimised by
a suitable interconnection downstream of the valves. The
on-load testing is carried out in sequence so that only
one valve is tested at a time.
Single-seated unbalanced plug type valves are normally
used, with an internal pilot valve that opens first. The
pilot valve is small so that it may be opened against main
steam pressure. It also provides initial fine control and
reduces the loads required to operate the valve. Normal-
ly, once the machine has run-up to speed, the governor
valves which have been open, close in. It is then possi-
ble to open the main stop valves as the pressures
upstream and downstream of the valve are equalised.
A typical emergency stop valve is shown in Fig 2.35.
On some 500 MW units and on some early 660 MW
machines, flap valves were used for reheat emergency
valves, where the steam pressures were moderate and
160
Chapter 2
the specific volumes (and hence valve diameters) were
large.
2.6 Governor valves
The governor valves provide accurate control of the
steam flow rate entering the turbine, thus controlling the
generator load when the machine is synchronised to the
grid. The present practice for the control of the steam
flow rate during turbine run-up to speed is also to use
the governor valves; however, on earlier 660 MW
machines and also on 500 MW units, run-up is controll-
ed by use of the emergency stop valve pilot-valves, in
conjunction with the governor valves. On 660 MW
machines, the interceptor valves can also be used in a
governing mode, if required, to use the stored energy
in the reheater to provide a quick response to frequency
variations.
The diameters of valve opening are generally cal-
culated to give maximum steam velocities of about 120
m/s for the valves. Valve head designs are such that
they are not subject to steam-induced vibration during
operation.
Figure 2.36 shows a design of governor valve in which
the upstream steam pressure is prevented from acting on
the back of the valve by a fine annular clearance. The
space behind the valve head is usually vented downstream
of the valve by means of holes drilled in the valve head.
A similar design of governor valve is also used for
the reverse flow type of governor valve, see Fig 2.37.
As with the stop valves, it is essential that these valves
close in an emergency; they are therefore similarly on-
load tested.
Figure 2.38 shows the Mushroom' type of governor
valve which has a profiled head to give a more linear
flow/lift relationship. A 'guided flow' type of valve head
has also been developed in order to control the flow
downstream of the seat so as to minimise noise and vibra-
tion, see Fig 2.39.
2.7 Loop pipework
The steam chests are connected to the turbine through
loop pipes. On present machines these are arranged to
be relatively short, in order to reduce the quantity of
entrained steam between the governing valves and the
turbine when the valves are shut. On earlier (500 MW)
machines, where the chests are firmly anchored to the
supporting steelwork or the concrete foundations, the
loop pipes are long and flexible in order to allow the
turbine and the pipes to expand freely without undue
forces/moments on the turbine cylinder.
All loop pipe joints with the steam chests are welded,
as are all other loop pipe joints, except where dis-
mantling flanges (see below) are provided. The loop
pipes enter the cylinders, preferably radially, at the
 Steam chests, valves and loop pipes

OPERATING LEVER LINK PIN

FULCRUM PIN CONNECTING ARMS

LEVER BRACKET

VALVE SPRING

VALVE COLUMN LINK PIN

SPRING PLATE
HALF COUPLING
SPHERICAL WASHERS

COVER PLATE

TOP RUSH
BUSH RETAINING
PLATE

CAP NUT
STEAM LEAK-OFF *

LAGGING SHIELD

RING N U T

GASKET STEAM C H E S T
COVER

PRESSURE TAPPING - f r

LOWER S P I N D L E BUSH

BOTTOM BUSH

WOVE SPACE

STEAM CHEST

STEAM STRAINER

* SHOWN OUT OF POSITION

FIG. 2.35 Typical emergency stop valve

161
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

VALVE HEAD
LOCKING RING-
WROUGHT
VALVE SEAT
STELLITE BUSH

PISTON RINGS

RETAINING DOWEL

DOWEL FOR
.VALVE SEAT

- TOP BUSH

.DOWEL

^VALVE GUIDE

VALVE STEAM CHEST

CENTRE BUSH

_SEGMENTAL RING

^SPIRAL WOUND GASKET

1ST STAGE SPINDLE

LEAK-OFF

_VALVE CHEST COVER

PRESSURE TAPPING ,

2ND STAGE SPINDLE

VALVE SPINDLE . LEAK-OFF

.RETAINING RING

HEAT SHIELD .
_TOP HALF COUPLING

BOTTOM BUSH
-BOTTOM HALF COUPLING

SPRING CARRIER- .SPRING LOCATING PEG

VALVE COLUMN
SPACER RING
LINK PIN
SPHERICAL WASHERS
SPRING (INNER)

FORK END SPRING (OUTER)

. BELLOWS

v SPRING LOCATING RING

CONNECTING ROD
, GUARD PLATE
FORK END

FIG. 2.36 Governor valve

162

VALVE SEAT SEAT PISTON RING
RETAINING DOWEL SEAL
BALANCE
HOLE
FIG. 2.37 'Reverse flow' type governor valve
SPINDLE LEAK-OFF
SPINDLE LEAK-OFF
PROFILED HEAD
FlG. 2.38 'Mushroom' type governor valve
top and bottom of the cylinders. On many current
machines, the loop pipes from each side combine to form
one inlet into each half of the cylinder by means of a
tee-piece connection. The loop pipes into the top half
cylinder are provided with dismantling flanges for
maintenance purposes, used when the cylinder is opened
up. These flanges have a gasket-type joint that has a
design life of 30 000 h between replacements.
It is important that adequate provision for drainage
Steam chests, valves and loop pipes
SPINDLE
LEAK-OFF
PROFILED HEAD
FIG. 2.39 'Guided flow' type governor valve
of the loop pipes is made, to ensure that there is
no risk of water entering the turbine during start-up.
Where the pipes or the tee-pieces enter the double-
shell cylinder, provision is made on the pipe connecting
to the cylinder for a thermal sleeve which secures the
pipe to the outer cylinder. The loop pipe passes to the
inner cylinder and the expansion between the pipe and
cylinder is allowed for by a sliding joint on the outside
of the pipe, using either stacked continuous rings or split
piston rings. A more detailed description of this type
of joint is given in Chapter 1, Section 3.
2.8 Crossover pipework
The steam from the intermediate pressure cylinder passes
to the low pressure cylinders through large diameter
IP/LP crossover pipes, which have to accommodate the
thermal expansion between cylinders by a combination
of various designs of bellows which allow either bending
or axial movement. The bellows arrangements either
incorporate hinge links or have tie rods in order to
transmit the pressure forces in the pipe, thus protecting
the bellows convolutions from the tendency to open out.
Any bellows units at the horizontal ends of the crossover
pipes are usually of the balanced type, incorporating tie
rods. A typical arrangement of this piping which includes
both types of bellows is shown in Fig 2.40.
On some designs of 500 MW machine, these pipes
are run along the sides or underneath the machine.
163
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

PRESSURE BALANCE
BELLOWS UNITS

TIED BELLOWS UNITS

REAR

PRESSURE BALANCE
BELLOWS UNITS #^- LP INLET

FORCED COOLING LP2 CYLINDER

OUTLETS

FRONT LP1 CYLINDER

IP CYLINDER
IP EXHAUSTS TIED BELLOWS UNIT

FIG. 2.40 IP/LP crossover pipework

Some early 660 MW machines with pannier condensers Excessive temperature differentials.
used both crossover pipes and cross-under pipes. Similar
bellows arrangements were used to accommodate thermal Excessive eccentricity.
expansion.
If the plant is manned by responsible operating staff on
a continuous basis, the last four items can be monitored
by supervisory equipment having preset alarm levels. This
3 Turbine protective devices allows the operator freedom to manoeuvre the operating
conditions to reduce the dangerous condition. If unable
to do this, the operator must trip the plant manually.
The other dangers have more immediate effects on
3.1 Possible hazards the plant and are generally detected by special trip gear
Abnormal operating conditions, including those where which releases the protection system hydraulic pressure,
the turbine and its systems are not working as designed, and thus closes all the steam valves and disconnects
will cause damage to the plant and possibly to person- the generator.
nel if allowed to persist. The dangers likely to be The above list only includes those dangers which
encountered are: are special to the turbine. Other hazards specific to
the boiler, generator, transformers and high voltage
Over speeding. connections may also initiate a turbine-generator trip.
The system described here can be tripped by signals
Lubricating oil failure. from these devices, which are described in the relevant
High turbine exhaust pressure (low condenser volume of this series. The arrangements to trip the
vacuum). field switches and the high and low voltage circuit-
breakers are described in detail in Volume D.
Governor failure. Overspeed would have serious consequences for
both plant and personnel, therefore the protective
Water ingress to blading. arrangements have been designed to eliminate any
Thrust bearing failure. possibility of a dangerous overspeed.
The turbine governing system provides the first line
Excessive vibration. of defence against overspeed and the second line of
164

defence is provided by separate overspeed trips. The
turbine cannot overspeed when the generator is connected
and in synchronism with the electrical power system
network. The turbine is at risk during run-up and also
when a disconnection occurs on-load. Since disconnec-
tion can occur as a result of another trip function,
e.g., loss of lubricating oil, it is desirable to reduce
the potential for overspeed by co-ordinating the trip-
ping of the circuit-breaker and the closure of the steam
valves. An overspeed will only occur if the steam passing
through the turbine exceeds that required to match the
load. Thus, if possible, tripping of the turbine-generator
should first close the turbine steam valves. When the
steam flow has reduced nearly to the no-load value, the
generator may be disconnected from the power system
network without risk of overspeed. This is known as a
Category B trip and is particularly important in the
case of water-ingress trips or a manual trip following
such an incident. If the event caused distortion of the
steam valves and they failed to close, simultaneous
disconnection of the generator would promptly lead
to destructive overspeed. However, if the generator
maintains its connection, the unit can be safety shut down
by closing the boiler stop valves. All tripping conditions
where this sequence of events is desirable are made
Category B trips. These include governor failure and
lubricating oil failure as well as overspeed, water-ingress
trips and the operator's emergency stop button.
Other tripping functions, such as turbine high exhaust-
pressure trips and certain electrical trips, require im-
mediate generator disconnection. As these trips are
unlikely to have a cause common with any condition
which is likely to lead to jamming of the turbine steam
valves, this can be done without any significant degrada-
tion to the overspeed integrity of the unit. These are
referred to as Category A trips.
The high exhaust-pressure trip is, like the overspeed
trip, the last line of defence against an abnormal
operating condition. The danger is that if the exhaust
pressure is excessive, the last-stage LP turbine blading
will become overheated and damaged. Since the prime
cause of poor exhaust-pressure is likely to be loss of
CW flow, it is usual practice to provide high exhaust
pressure unloading gear as part of the governing system
in an effort to reduce turbine load and avoid tripping.
LP exhaust temperature sprays are often provided as
another stage of protection, coming into operation when
a high temperature is sensed or when the turbine load
falls below a predetermined value. Note that there is a
greater potential for heating the blading at very low loads
as there is no steady flow through the turbine and recir-
culation can occur. The final line of defence is provided
by bursting diaphragms fitted to the LP turbine casing.
These are normally set to operate at slightly above
atmospheric pressure.
Although a continuous supply of lubricating oil is
practically ensured by separate AC and standby DC
pumps, there is always the possibility of a fractured
Turbine protective devices
pipe. The turbine is then tripped on low lubricating-oil
pressure.
In the event of a complete failure of the turbine gover-
ning system, i.e., failure of more than one channel or
a failure which renders the governor operative, the gover-
nor is designed to send trip-initiating signals to the protec-
tion scheme.
Water ingress to the turbine can occur due to malfunc-
tion of boiler or feed controls, especially during a change
in load. In this case, wet steam or even slugs of water
could be introduced through the HP steam line. The
degree of hazard and the type of protection required
depends on the boiler type and steam conditions at the
inlet to the turbine. When a drum boiler is used to supply
superheated steam, turbine protection may not be
necessary, providing loss of boiler firing is adequately
detected and alarmed so that the operator can take the
necessary corrective action. In the case of a once-through
boiler supplying superheated steam, it is necessary to trip
the turbine on low steam temperature before saturated
steam conditions reach the turbine. The danger is that,
if not tripped, severe distortion could occur, causing
seizure of the turbine steam valves or fracture of the
turbine blading. Once-through boilers supplying dry
saturated steam represent less of a hazard due to chill-
ing. However, the sudden ingress of wet steam could
result in severe thrust loadings on the turbine and
blading, so the plant must be designed to accept this or
be protected against it. Water ingress may also occur
from feedheating plant via back-flow to the tapping
points on the main turbine. The arrangements to protect
against this are discussed in Chapter 3 on feedheating
plant.
3.2 Protection scheme
The trip-initiating devices as described in the previous
paragraph will be of two types:
Devices where an electrical changeover contact
operates.
Devices capable of direct tripping of the hydraulic
fluid system.
The result of a trip initiation will be to close the turbine
steam valves and trip the generator circuit-breaker,
having regard to the division into Categories A and B.
The tripping system includes redundancy, so that the
failure of any one element in the system does not prevent
tripping, and is also designed to avoid spurious tripping
as far as possible. Figure 2.41 shows schematically the
main functions of the hydraulic tripping system much
simplified. The interfaces with the electrical tripping
system and the stop and governor valve relays are also
shown. The diagram does not show the redundancy
associated with the electrical tripping system, which is
described later in this section.
165
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

FIELD
LOSS OF SPEED GOVERNOR TRIP BOILER LVCB
SWITCHES
AND OTHER AND
ELECTRICAL TRIPS AUXILIARIES ELECTRICAL HP
PROTECTION STOP
VALVE
CATEGORY A A A CATEGORY B
CATEGORY A AND B TRIPS TRIPS TRIPS

BJI
-o o VALVE
TRIP
TRIP RELAY FLUID ,I, LOV
LOW FORWARD SOLENOID
TURBINE
PRESSURE
TRIP PLUNGER
SWITCHES
[pyi POWER RELAYS
POV
SOLENOID PROTECTION FLUID

CM -J VALVE RELAY

o c l FRONT
EMERGENCY
oocf TRIP VALVE H P GOVERNOR i

KM
BLOCKED VALVE J
. IF FRONTH
DRAIN [TESTED VALVE
TRIP
BLOCKED SOLENOID-
CN o o o o |
n=a
IF REAR-H

Cza I iL TESTED
lo o ol REAR VALVE RELAY
MANUAL EMERGENCY
TRIP o o d TRIP VALVE

(1 5
TEST TEST
FRONT REAR CONTROL FLUID

ORIFICE
PLATES

INTERLOCK UNIT
FROM FRF I II
SUPPLY UNIT I L
OTHER STOP AND
^GOVERNOR
_LL ' VALVE RELAYS

NOTES:
1. SHOWN IN THE NORMAL RUNNING UNTRIPPED CONDITION
2. ISOLATING AND RESET FACILITIES NOT SHOWN

FIG. 2.41 Hydraulic trip unit simplified block diagram

The heart of the unit comprises two sets of emergen-
cy trip valves and trip plungers, each associated with a
set of overspeed-trip bolts mounted in the main turbine
shaft. Fluid at high pressure is supplied to the emergen-
cy trip valves so that if either is caused to trip, i.e., move
to the left, protection fluid is connected to drain via pipe
A or pipe B and closure of all the turbine steam valves
results. Control fluid pressure is maintained to avoid
excess fluid consumption from the FRF supply unit.
The emergency trip valves are operated by spring-
loaded trip plungers. When in normal operation, the
spring is held compressed by a spigot held in place by
the Y-shaped trip arm and latch. Initiation of the
overspeed trip, the manual trip or the solenoid trip causes
the spring-loaded latch to be released. High pressure
protection fluid in the chamber at the left-hand end of
the emergency trip valve is thus released to drain and
causes them to move to the tripped condition. It should
be noted that when the interlock unit is in its normal
mid-position, operation of any one overspeed trip will
cause both emergency trip valves to move to the tripped
condition.
The trip plungers and latches must be reset by ad-
166
ditional hydraulic units before the subsequent turbine
run-up. For clarity, these have not been shown on the
diagram.
To exercise the system and ensure that any faults in
the tripping system are identified and rectified without
delay, regular on-load testing is recommended. To test
the front emergency trip valve, the interlock unit is
shifted so that the left-hand ends of the trip cylinders
are isolated from each other. The same operator action
also blocks port A on the front emergency trip valves.
While in this condition, any solenoid, manual or over-
speed trip acting on the front trip valve will cause the
emergency trip valve to move to the tripped position.
Due to the isolation, protection fluid pressure is not lost
and the unit will run undisturbed throughout the test.
A genuine trip occurring during the test period will be
initiated by the rear trip valve and will result in the unit
tripping in the normal way.
The detailed implementation of the hydraulic tripp-
ing system by each turbine manufacturer will vary. GEC
Turbine Generators, mounts the complete unit in the
front pedestal, with a short direct connection to the
overspeed trip units. In the case of NEI Parsons, the

overspeed trip, latch lever and trip plunger are in the
front pedestal of necessity. However, all the other units
including the emergency trip valves, test interlock,
isolating and reset facilities are implemented by means
of proprietary components mounted on a large manifold
block outside the turbine casing.
3.3 Electrically-signalled trips
The electrical tripping scheme is also shown in outline
on Fig 2.41. Any electrical trip function is signalled
to the front and rear trip solenoids via duplicated
relay contact systems. These relays are segregated into
Category A and Category B trips. Separate contact sets
on the same relays trip the circuit-breakers directly in
the case of the Category A trips and via low forward-
power relays in the case of Category B. To enable
the mechanically-signalled trips, e.g., the overspeed
trip, to signal opening of the circuit-breakers, loss of
protection fluid pressure is sensed by sets of pressure
switches that provide further inputs to initiate Category
B trips via the low forward-power relays. The pressure
switches may also be used to trip the boiler and auxiliary
devices, e.g., bled-steam non-return valves, dependent
on the application.
The low forward-power relays use power sensing via
voltage and current transformers to determine when the
power generated is less than about 1%. This ensures that
the steam valves are very nearly closed and that an
overspeed cannot result when the circuit-breakers are
opened, even if no further steam valve closure occurs.
The above general principles may be implemented in
different ways with either out of 2' or '2 out of 3'
redundancy. Although the hydraulic tripping system
previously described is a out of 2' system, it will be
seen that compatibility with a three-channel electrical
system is still possible. Each of the two systems is
now described in detail.
The redundancy of the out of 2' system is more
complex than a simple interpretation of this title suggests.
Additional transducers are incorporated in each of the
two channels so that at least two transducers per channel,
or four transducers in total, are employed. Series-
connection of the two trip-initiating contacts in each
channel permits any single transducer to fail without
causing a turbine trip. However, no single failure of an
electrical component will prevent a genuine trip from
occurring. Identification of faulty components is picked
up either by supervision circuits or by routine on-load
testing of the trip-initiating transducers of the 'front'
and 'rear' systems in turn. Figure 2.42 shows a simplified
trip circuit for one Category A trip, one Category B trip
and the operator's emergency pushbuttons. The 'front'
and 'rear' circuits are completely independent being
powered by two different DC battery supplies. It is
necessary to energise the turbine trip solenoid SOL to
initiate a turbine trip via the emergency trip valve (circuit
2). As a back-up, circuit 3 shows a duplicate set of
Turbine protective devices
contacts operating the auxiliary relay OP. Individual
sets of contacts in this relay then energise the solenoid
dump valves of each steam valve relay, these being of
Type 2.
Circuit 1 shows a typical Category A tripping function,
high LP turbine exhaust pressure, sensed by pressure
switches PS6 and 7. These are shown in the normal
running position; when there is a trip condition, PS6
closes and energises flag relay AXR1.1. Providing PS7
also closes, TR3 is energised through contacts AXR1.1
and AXR1.2. If the 'front' system is being tested, the
test switch will be in the Tl position and, instead of a
trip initiation, lamp LP1 will illuminate when PS6 and
PS7 close. Test facilities, interlocked with the test switch,
enable atmospheric pressure to be supplied to pressure
switches PS6 and PS7, thus comprehensively testing the
functioning of all components through to the lamp.
Circuit 4 is very similar, in this case PS1 and PS2
provide the Category B low relay fluid pressure trip
shown in Fig 2.41. Auxiliary relay TPR2.1 is used to
provide other interlocks as well as trips. One contact,
TPR2.1 is connected in parallel with other Category B
trip contacts to energise trip relay TR7. In turn, contacts
on this relay, which are not shown, initiate circuit-breaker
tripping via the low forward-power relay.
The out of 2' tripping concept is provided by the
duplication in the rear channel circuit, where complete-
ly independent sets of transducers initiate tripping.
Because of the configuration of the turbine hydraulic
tripping system, a trip occurs as soon as any one of the
turbine trip solenoids is energised.
The examples chosen to illustrate typical Category A
and B trips have each used two pressure switches in each
channel. For other tripping functions some other form
of redundancy may be appropriate. Thus, in some
applications, high LP exhaust temperature is used for
tripping, the sensing being carried out in each flow of
each exhaust. For a six-exhaust machine, 12 transducers
would be used, six in each channel combined in three
pairs to provide immunity from spurious tripping.
Figure 2.43 shows the second method of implemen-
ting the turbine-generator electrical tripping scheme using
a '2 out of 3' majority voting system. Using this techni-
que, it is virtually impossible for any single component
or transducer failure to cause a spurious trip. Likewise,
a single failure will not prevent a trip from occurring.
Auxiliary contacts, not shown in the figure, give the
operator an alarm if there is a failure and inhibits on-
load testing until the fault is rectified.
The circuit is very simple, with the main functional
blocks being triplicated or duplicated as necessary. The
transducers are connected in three similar auxiliary tripp-
ing circuits. In auxiliary tripping circuit 1, PS7 provides
a typical Category A tripping function such as high LP
turbine exhaust pressure. It operates auxiliary relay RL7
through a flag relay. The equivalent auxiliary relays
in channels 2 and 3 are relays RL8 and RL9. On the
right-hand side of the diagram there are four circuits
each using a set of contacts from relays RL7, RL8
167
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

FRONT CHANNEL REAR CHANNEL

DC SUPPLY DC SUPPLY

PS6 A AXR1. PS8 / ^ A X R 1.13

-o o- -o o-
PS7 PS9 AAXR 1.14
^ y ^ A X R ^
-o o- -o o-
TRIP T1 T2
N N
CIRCUIT 1 AXR 1.1 AXR 1.2 I I AXR 1.13 AXR 1.14 I I
o oo o ' ^f Oo I U n , CATEGORY A
TR AY o oo o-
I ' ^W^H. j^5^ 1
L MJ ^ f
: Q\A/iTru
TEST SWITCH
v
*' I
I 4-CHKSH
TEST SWITCH

TURBINE TRIP
TR3 SOLENOID
-o o-
LOCAL

TRIP EMERGENCY STOP SIMILAR TO FRONT CHANNEL

CIRCUIT 2 REMOTE TRIP CIRCUITS 2, 3 & 4
PUSHBUTTONS
-EL
-o o-
TR7
-o o-
NOT SHOWN:
LATCH RELAYS WITH RESET COILS
CUT-THROAT CONTACTS
TR3 AUXILIARY RELAY ARMING INTERLOCKS
-o o- SUPERVISORY CIRCUITS
LOCAL TRANSDUCER TEST FACILITIES

TRIP .EMERGENCY STOP

CIRCUIT 3 REMOTE
PUSH BUTTONS

-o o-
TR7
-o o-

PS1 AXR 2.1

-o o-
PS2 AXR 2.2
-o o-
T1 T2

P
M
N
AXR 2.1 AXR 2.2 i I
fcO OO Of~0 AUXILIARY
TRIP RELAY

TPR2.1
TRIP TO OTHER
CIRCUIT 4 CATEGORY B
TRIPS
-o
TPR2.1
-o o-
ii!<H=zHgH
TEST SWITCH

CATEGORY B
(LOCAL) TRIP RELAY TR7

(REMOTE) EMERGENCY STOP

PUSHBUTTONS

o o

FIG. 2.42 Simplified trip circuit employing out of T redundancy, with additional redundancy of transducers

168
 Turbine protective devices

FLAG
DC+ RELAY CATEGORY A
PS7 A TRIP RELAY
RL7

LOW FLUID PRESSURE

INTERLOCK
CATEGORY B
PS1 RL11A TRIP RELAY
AUXILIARY TRIP
CIRCUIT 1 <5 rWr^ RL1

-^ 1
OTHER
-rYs\ CATEGORY B
TRIPS

FLAG
DC+ RELAY CATEGORY A DC-
PS8 TRIP RELAY
-o o- _y^W-
RL8
RL18

CATEGORY B
PS2 RL12
L12 A TRIP RELAY
AUXILIARY TRIP
CIRCUIT 2 -o o-

-ryfo1 OTHER
CATEGORY B
TRIPS
""/^T

FLAG
RELAY CATEGORY A
PS9 A TRIP RELAY
o ryr^ RL9

loi CATEGORY B
TRIP RELAY
PS3 RL13 A
AUXILIARY TRIP
CIRCUIT 3 -o o-

-o o- OTHER
CATEGORY B

-o o- _ry\1 TRIPS

NOT SHOWN:
LATCH RELAYS WITH RESET COILS
CUT-THROAT CONTACTS
ARMING INTERLOCKS
SUPERVISION CIRCUITS
TRANSDUCER TEST FACILITIES

FIG. 2.43 Simplified trip circuit employing '2 out of 3' redundancy

169
Turbine plant systems
and RL9 connected in a '2 out of 3' voting fashion.
The first two sets operate the front and rear turbine
trip solenoids, while the second two sets operate trip
relays TR3 and TR4 to give a direct trip of the circuit-
breaker.
A feature of this system is that on-load testing can
be carried out on each transducer in turn and circuit
operation checked right through to the operation of the
turbine trip solenoid. Thus, if the front solenoid is
hydraulically isolated and test switch contacts TF are
closed, transducer PS7 can be vented to atmosphere so
that it gives contact closure, energising RL7 and the front
turbine trip solenoid.
Actual operation of this can be indicated to the
operator via a relay fluid pressure switch monitoring the
protection fluid pressure at an appropriate point on the
front emergency trip valve. During testing, the rear
turbine trip solenoids provide protection in the event of
a genuine trip. Similar test facilities are provided for most
of the transducers, the test inputs being applied by a
solenoid valve adjacent to each transducer. This enables
all on-load testing to be carried out from the trip gear
cubicles, with a full set of indications to the tester so
that faults can readily be traced and rectified.
The Category B circuit is very similar to that describ-
ed for Category A, Here the tripping contacts from all
the tripping parameters are connected in parallel. Thus
several similar sets in channel 1 are in parallel with PS1
and RL11 and they all operate relay RL1, which is one
of the auxiliary tripping relays forming the '2 out of 3'
contact sets to operate the turbine trip solenoids and the
Category B tripping relays TR7 and TR8.
3.4 Overspeed trip
The overspeed trip is the final protection against catas-
trophic failure of the turbine following a load rejection,
causing the unit to become disconnected from the power
system. Additionally, an overspeed may be caused by
a governor failure on an unsynchronised turbine causing
an excessive steam demand. An excess approaching 100%
would cause a rapid acceleration of over 10% speed per
second. In documented cases where this has occurred,
the centrifugal stress limits of the rotating parts have
been exceeded and a major rupture has taken place with
components penetrating the casing. Speeds as high as
180% have been recorded.
The manufacturer normally carries out a works
overspeed proof test at 120%, well below the design limit
at which failure could occur. The setpoint of the
overspeed trip is such that this speed would never be
exceeded even at the maximum acceleration rate of the
turbine. Because of the delay time associated with the
mechanisms, the finite response time of the valve relays
and the stored energy in the form of steam and water
within the turbine, it is logical to split the 20% range
of available' overspeed equally between the governor and
the overspeed trip. The stop valves (operated by the
170
Chapter 2
overspeed trip) and the governing valves will therefore
have similar requirements for their maximum closure
rates. The overspeed trip is set in the range of 110-111 %
speed. This recognises normal governor action over a
1% speed range.
Overspeed is detected by means of a pair of spring-
loaded trip bolts mounted in an extension to the tur-
bine shaft at the HP end of the machine. A typical
arrangement is shown in Fig 2.44. One trip bolt as-
sembly is used for each trip channel and each assembly
is provided with independent on-load test facilities. The
bolt has its centre of gravity a short distance from the
axis of rotation and, at low speeds, is held retracted by
a spring. At 10% overspeed, the out of balance force
overcomes the spring force, causing the bolt to extend
beyond the shaft where it trips the static trip lever and
releases the latch to trip the turbine. Adjustment to
the tripping speed is carried out when the turbine is
stationary and access to the adjusting plug is possible.
The overspeed trip can be tested without actually
overspeeding or taking the set off-load. This is done by
selecting either the 'front' or 'rear' system for testing,
thus automatically isolating the associated emergency
trip valve. An interlocked movement of the trip test
lever and trip test valve then injects a supply of lu-
bricating oil under pressure into the rotating turbine
shaft, through porting which directs it to the over-
speed bolt under test. This then flies out and trips its
emergency trip valve via the lever and trip plunger.
Following release of the test pressure, these items are
reset and the second bolt selected for test.
3.5 Mechanically-operated trips
Included under this heading are any trips which may
be implemented by means of a direct mechanical or
hydraulic action onto the latching trip lever.
The low lubricating-oil pressure trip is sometimes
implemented in this manner (Fig 2.45). Lubricating oil
under pressure is supplied to a single-acting spring-loaded
trip cylinder. The oil is supplied via a deadweight
accumulator common to front and rear channels. This
smooths out fluctuations in oil pressure and, in the event
of a sudden loss of oil pressure, will maintain the pressure
to the trip cylinder for several seconds, thus allowing
possible recovery by starting of the emergency pumps.
Similarly, a direct high exhaust-pressure trip is often
implemented using the same spring-loaded trip cylinder
as shown in the upper part of Fig 2.45. For the front
tripping system, there are two sets of detectors labelled
1 and 2. Lubricating oil is supplied to the detectors via
an orifice plate. The downstream pressure is controlled
by a leak-off valve, actuated by a bellows unit. The top
half of the bellows is evacuated and sealed at a reference
pressure close to zero mbar absolute. The lower half of
the bellows is connected to the condenser. The leak-off
valve is normally fully seated, since the force supplied
by spring A exceeds that exerted by the condenser
 Turbine protective devices

SEAL HOUSING

END PLATE
LOCKING PIN
* RINGS
STOP SCREW

H.R TURBINE SHAFT

STOP RING

OIL TO
BOLT V
OIL TO
BOLTX

FIG. 2.44 Overspeed governor

pressure. As the condenser pressure rises, a point is
reached where the spring force is counter-balanced
and a further pressure increase causes the leak-off valve
to unseat. As lubricating oil pressure is lost within the
vacuum trip unit, plunger B is moved downwards by
spring force and the pressure in the short length of
pipe C is lost. If detector 2 also trips, lubricating oil
supplying the front trip cylinder is connected to drain,
thus releasing the trip latch. A similar pair of exhaust
pressure detectors operate into the trip cylinder of
the rear system. On-load testing is enabled by a me-
chanical interlock on the trip test lever, so that when
the front protection system is isolated, its two asso-
ciated exhaust pressure detectors can be tested in turn
by slowly raising the pressure by a needle valve admit-
ting atmospheric air. This permits resetting of the trip
point if desired.
3.6 Operator tripping facilities
It is normal practice to provide some direct mechanical
means of tripping the turbine from the front pedestal.
Originally, this was an essential safeguard for personnel
171
Turbine plant systems
DETECTOR 1
SPRING A -
FiG. 2.45 Mechanically-operated trips (front tripping system only)
when carrying out overspeed tests either on-load
oil-injection tests or off-load tests actually overspeed-
ing the machine. This form of trip is still retained, even
where complete remote testing can be carried out, as it
provides an independent and very direct means of
shutting down the turbine-generator, should a plant
attendant observe local conditions which are hazardous
to men or the machine. For the same reason an
electrically-signalled pushbutton trip is provided near
the generator-end of the machine.
A remote emergency stop pushbutton is also pro-
vided in the control room, where the operator has
172
Chapter 2
DETECTOR 2
various instruments to guide him. Typically, the operator
may decide to trip the machine in the event of per-
sistent high vibration. This pushbutton is also the
normal means of shutting down a turbine from a low
load.
4 Turbine instrumentation
A large modern turbine-generator comprises a num-
ber of cylinders coupled together to form a rotating
shaft line, Chapter 1 has described this arrangement

in detail. The nature and complexity of this arrange-
ment requires information to be presented to the op-
ator clearly and concisely. Associated turbine systems,
described in this chapter, need to be controlled and any
abnormal conditions drawn to the operator's attention.
Particular requirements for instrumentation are dealt
with in the appropriate subsection. Specific transducer
types and techniques of measurement are described
in Volume F, Chapter 4. The purpose of this section
is to describe, in broad terms, the different categories
of instrumentation that are supplied and the part they
play in plant operation.
These categories are:
Supervisory instrumentation.
Efficiency instrumentation.
Auxiliary system instrumentation.
Condition monitoring instrumentation.
Instrumentation associated with protection and
control equipment.
Instrumentation to provide post-incident records.
4.1 Classification of instrumentation
4.1.1 Supervisory instrumentation
These are instruments required on a continuous basis
to determine the present conditions and trends of the
main rotating and stationary components, (a) to ensure
safe operation within the defined limits and (b), to
give advance warning of deterioration or change in the
main turbine-generator behaviour, which may require
either maintenance attention or a temporary restriction
in the operating role.
The parameters measured are:
Rotor axial position In conjunction with cylinder
expansion measurements, this enables the relative
axial movement to be measured so that adequate
clearance margins are maintained under all conditions
of operation. Typically this measurement is provided
on each cylinder of the machine.
Cylinder expansions In addition to its use in deter-
mining clearance margins between the rotor and
cylinders, differential measurement systems are pro-
vided to monitor the expansion and movement of
cylinders relative to each other and their support struc-
tures. Measurements are provided on each cylinder
of the machine.
Bearing pedestal vibrations These are measured at
each bearing to continuously monitor the dynamic
behaviour of the machine.
Turbine instrumentation
Shaft eccentricity The peak-to-peak radial excursion
of the rotor relative to the non-rotating parts is
measured on each rotor to monitor qualitative changes
in the behaviour of the rotor which may indicate
abnormal or unsafe conditions.
Shaft speed A single measurement of shaft speed is
required, independent of the turbine governor, for
operator reference, particularly during turbine run-up.
Steam valve positions An analogue measurement
of the position of each steam valve is useful to
the operator for general reference, to check the
capability for carrying more load or for assistance
in fault finding.
Metal temperature measurements These provide a
knowledge of the thermal state of the turbine during
both transient and steady state operation. Measuring
points are located in the walls of the HP and intercep-
tor steam valve chests, and in the HP and IP cylinders.
Thrust bearing wear This measurement ensures that
thrust pads wear is maintained within safe design
limits.
All of these parameters are displayed to the operator
either on continuous, direct-reading instruments or on
a VDU format associated with a computer-based data
processing system. If a VDU display is used, it is se-
lectable for continuous access and scanned at intervals
of less than 10 s to ensure that the operator is kept
informed of the current value. Certain parameters, such
as steam valve positions and speed, can change substan-
tially in a fraction of a second. It is essential that the
operator has available a true value of the present reading,
therefore direct reading is always employed.
Because of their close association with the running
machine, generally using transducers mounted in a
severe environment, highly specialised and thoroughly
proven equipment is essential. This aspect is described
in Volume F. The processing equipment is cubicle-
mounted and includes, where necessary, alarm outputs
so that the operator's attention can rapidly be drawn
to parameter excursions requiring corrective action.
Where computer processing is involved, the whole
scheme is subject to careful review to ensure that
if the computer fails, the operator still has sufficient
information to continue running at a steady load or
to permit safe shutdown.
All of the turbine supervisory parameters are used
to provide post-incident records. Some are also used
in the control equipment for turbine run-up.
4.1.2 Efficiency instrumentation
These are instruments required to determine or infer
the operating efficiency of the plant, both for short
term monitoring and the detection of long term trends.
173
Turbine plant systems
The temperatures and pressures of steam and water
are measured to confirm that the plant components are
operating efficiently and in the intended manner. For
example, measurement of the steam and water condi-
tions at the inlet and outlet of a feedwater heater enables
an operator to confirm its satisfactory operation.
Unsatisfactory operation is unlikely to prejudice the
continued running of the plant but does affect its ef-
ficiency. This category of instrumentation therefore
draws attention to maintenance activities which are
efficiency-related.
Alarms are derived from some parameters in this
category, for example, steam temperatures upstream of
the HP stop valves. These alarms are less critical than
those derived from supervisory instrumentation and
therefore the alarm processing may be carried out
exclusively in the data processing computer. Steam
temperatures upstream of the turbine HP stop valves are
used to provide data for the long term history.
Some of the parameters in the efficiency instrumen-
tation category are used for the heat rate test instrumen-
tation identified in the condition monitoring category.
The requirement for accurate, calibrated instruments for
a heat rate test often precludes the use of the same
transducers as those used for efficiency instrumentation.
4.1.3 Auxiliary system instrumentation
These instruments confirm the satisfactory operation
of plant auxiliary systems. The description of these
systems forms the content of this section and more
systems are described in Chapters 3 to 6. All these
systems require instrumentation for local operation or
fault finding. Wherever their operation is essential
to the main turbine-generator unit, facilities for re-
mote alarms and indications in the control room are
necessary.
4.1.4 Condition monitoring instrumentation
This defined list of instruments is used on a periodic
basis to confirm the absence of long term trends which
might lead to unplanned outages and to define acti-
vities for future outages. To this extent, some of the
instrumentation in this category is of a diagnostic
nature.
The defined subcategories are:
Heat rate test intrumentation.
Machine level instrumentation.
Shaft vibration instrumentation.
The purpose and scope of each of these subcategories
is described below.
Heat rate test instrumentation
This comprises all the equipment necessary to conduct
a thermal performance test on the plant as described
174
Chapter 2
in British Standard 752. Since many of the transducers
have to be precalibrated, UK practice requires that the
plant is built with provision for fitting the instruments
when a test is required. Thus the manufacturer supplies
pockets for insertion of thermocouples and pressure
tapping points up to and including the primary isolating
valve. Where possible, steam and condensate flows are
measured by differential pressure devices and so the
provision made on the plant as-built can again be confin-
ed to fixed orifices with suitable tapping points. The main
condensate flow measurement is one of the most critical.
Provision is generally made to insert the calibrated orifice
plates in sections of condensate pipework parallel to the
main path. When tests are to be performed, the main
path is isolated and all the flow passes through the orifice
plates. Provision is also made for the connection of a
transmission-type dynamometer to measure the power
supplied by the boiler feed pump turbine (if fitted).
In some plants, a more limited range of parameters
is measured on a permanent basis to provide a routine
on-line efficiency monitoring scheme, usually combined
with boiler plant. Such schemes inevitably provide
less-accurate information than would be obtained from
plant acceptance tests, using recently calibrated trans-
ducers. The value of on-line monitoring is that it enables
trends to be identified and appropriate maintenance work
scheduled. Where alternative plant operating strategies
are possible, for example, selection of a standby feed
pump instead of a faulty duty pump, then the operator
can take measures to improve the efficiency of the plant
on-line. The scheme is implemented by a series of
algorithms processed by a dedicated computing system
and is capable of displaying trends in overall performance
given by changes in heat rate, as well as the performance
of individual components.
Machine level instrumentation
This comprises equipment for automatically measuring
and recording changes in the relative levels of the turbine-
generator bearing pedestals. Primarily used for fault
diagnosis, this equipment is sometimes supplied built-in
by the turbine manufacturer. An alternative approach
is to provide facings and connection points on the
pedestals so that portable equipment can be used to make
the checks during maintenance outages.
Shaft vibration instrumentation
The scope of the measuring points required for this
is more complex than the provision made for turbine
supervisory purposes. At each bearing, two transducers
measure vibration in the same plane but displaced at
90 to each other. This facilitates the recording of shaft
vibration signatures on run-down and also orbit plots
may be taken on-load so that a complete picture of
changes in shaft dynamics can be formulated by an expert
or an expert computing system. Such an analysis can
lead to improvements in the prediction of maintenance
routines.

4.1.5 Instrumentation associated with protection
and control equipment
This comprises instrumentation used in conjunction
with a control loop, either locally or for the main plant
control systems. The turbine governing system (de-
scribed in Section 1 of this chapter) is an example of
the latter, whilst any local control loops not covered
by Auxiliary Systems form part of the former. These
local controls are used to operate plant prior to a unit
start-up or following maintenance, where operator action
from the control room is not necessary. Also, some plant
requires controls which may not be immediately con-
nected with the minute-by-minute operation of the unit.
Further local controls are sometimes needed to permit
a detailed fault analysis to be carried out following
identification of a problem in the central control room.
4.1.6 Instrumentation to provide post-incident
records
The detectors required to provide these records are
derived from other categories of instrumentation, mainly
from the supervisory instrumentation. These records
provide critical plant data for designated periods be-
fore and after an incident to enable the cause to be
investigated. The recording is initiated by a unit or
plant trip (for example, the trip of a feed pump), or
directly by the operator on demand. These records are
produced by data processing computers and, since con-
tinuous scanning of all the input parameters is necessary,
some compromises have to be made in the scanning
speed. Thus, assuming a minimum scanning interval
of 3 s and depending on their relative positions in the
scanning cycle, a parameter might respond up to 3 s
before or 3 s after the recording shows the trip to have
operated. In specifying the requirements of the data
logging system, the turbine plant designer considers these
limitations to provide a compromise which is both cost
effective and valuable to operators.
5 Turbine foundations
The turbine-generator foundations consist of the support
structure, the sub-foundation and the subsoil; they
perform the following functions:
Support the static load of the turbine-generator and
associated pipe loads, and transmit these forces to
the subsoil.
Restrain the plant from undue movement due to
dynamic forces resulting from the load torque,
unbalance forces, electrical faults, etc., by trans-
mitting and absorbing the associated energy.
Maintain the alignment of the plant under all op-
erating conditions.
Turbine foundations
Accommodate the thermal expansion of the structure
and static parts of the plant under all operating
conditions.
Raise the plant above the turbine house floor to
provide access for electrical connections and pipe-
work. Bottom connection of the main steam pipe-
work is particularly desirable to avoid dismantling
pipework during maintenance and to prevent the
pipework draining into the turbine. The height of
the turbine above the basement floor level is partly
determined by the need to accommodate the con-
denser and condenser neck, when an under slung
condenser is used, and partly by consideration of
condensate drainage requirements. The bled-steam
piping should drain away from the turbine and the
drains from LP heaters must be returned to the
condenser. For this to be achieved with gravity
drainage requires a certain minimum height differ-
ence between turbine and condenser hot well.
For main turbine-generator plant, these require-
ments have been satisfied by either reinforced concrete
or steel support structures, which are described in
more detail in later sections.
It is also necessary to monitor the movement of
the foundations throughout the life of the station.
Settlement of the whole foundation in service is
not very serious, provided that it is not large enough
to affect electrical and steam connections, but dif-
ferential movement between bearing supports must
be avoided if the alignment of the plant is to be
maintained within reasonable limits. Multi-limb mano-
metric level measuring systems are therefore installed
on the bearing supports to monitor relative level
changes. A schematic diagram of such a system is
shown in Fig 2.46.
'Slave' units are fitted to each bearing support, with
a master reference unit at one point and the whole
system is filled with water. A uniform level is thus
established by the water surface and movement of
the bearing support relative to the fixed water level
can be detected by suitable sensors fitted on each
slave unit. Sensors using micrometer adjustment of
an electrical contact probe, and floats with LVDT
position measurement have been used in the past,
but both systems have disadvantages. Present day
systems use an ultrasonic sensor fitted in the base
of each slave unit which measures the position of
the water surface by sound reflection technique.
Accuracy of measurement is typically 0.05 mm, with
a minimum measurement range of 2.5 mm about
nominal level.
Cooling water is circulated around jackets on each
slave unit to eliminate errors due to manometer water
temperature variations. Air pressure variations are
nullified by connecting the air spaces of each slave
unit together in an 'air balance box' (not shown in
figure). The balance box is then vented to atmos-
phere at a single point.
175
Turbine plant systems
SLAVE UNITS
;y
^
DATA
EXCITATION UNIT PROCESSING
SYSTEM
DISPLAY
FIG. 2.46 Schematic diagram of a turbine manometric level indication and measuring equipment
To allow any relationship between bearing support
level changes and foundation structure temperatures
to be studied, temperature sensors are buried in the
foundations during construction or attached during
erection.
5.1 Tuning
The foundations need to combine rigidity, to avoid
excessive movement, and flexibility, to prevent excessive
forces being present at the bearings. Dangerous re-
sonances at all speeds must be avoided and the natural
frequencies of the foundation as a whole must not be
close to running speed.
Two methods of avoiding resonant conditions and
unacceptable vibrations are possible:
Overtuned or high-tuned, the natural frequency of
vibration of the foundation structure is above the
running speed of the machine and away from any
harmonics of this speed. This is referred to as a
stiff foundation.
Undertuned or low-tuned, the natural frequency of
vibration of all or some of the foundation structure
is below the operating speed of the machine. This is
sometimes referred to as a flexible foundation.
In designing turbine-generator foundations it is therefore
necessary to consider 'tuning' the foundations and there
are two aspects to this:
176
Chapter 2
MASTER UNIT
LEVEL
CONTROLLER
SLAVE
UNITS
Analysis during the design process and before con-
struction to establish design values of natural frequen-
cy (and harmonics of that frequency) well removed
from running frequency and its harmonics.
Incorporation within the support structure of a means
for adjusting the natural frequency after erection and
commissioning to remove or control unwanted
resonances and forced vibrations.
Analysis methods used at the design stage model the
plant and its foundations mathematically as a series
of masses, beams and springs as shown in Fig 2.47.
Because of the complexity of the model and the num-
ber of possible modes and frequencies of vibration,
computer programs are used to assess the forces and
deflections in the structure in response to a variety of
static, transient and oscillatory forces. The design studies
also consider the response of the foundation to the
effects of shaft misalignment, out-of-balance forces, and
load and electrical fault torques.
The subsoil elasticity is important at some sites but
the effects vary with subsoil type and foundation type.
These can sometimes be ignored.
Rigidity is achieved by establishing the mass of the
support structure and sub-foundation at about ten times
the mass of the rotating shafts. With flexible support
structures, the foundation mass can sometimes be re-
duced as the elasticity of support reduces the dynamic
forces transmitted to the sub-foundation and subsoil.
In calculating the loads on the structure, account
must be taken of pipework loads (both hot and cold)

FIG. 2.47 Representation of a turbine-generator and its
foundation used for analysis
In practice, the complete turbine and support structure are
represented by a full three-dimensional assembly of masses,
beams and springs. The effect of the subsoil is not signifi-
cant in some circumstances and can then be ignored.
and the effects of condenser weight, condenser water
weight and vacuum forces within the condenser and LP
turbine. When underslung, the condenser itself is usual-
ly spring-supported, so only a proportion of the weight
is taken by the support structure. All the condenser
weight is taken by the sub-foundation.
In this way, design variations can be assessed to reach
the best compromises of foundation size, weight, ease
of construction and erection, and the balance between
deflection amplitudes and transfer of forces.
For high-tuned foundations, natural frequencies above
60 Hz would be expected for vibration in a vertical di-
rection. For low-tuned steel foundations, natural fre-
quencies of 12-18 Hz in the vertical direction and
1.5-3 Hz for transverse vibrations are possible. With
spring foundations, the vertical natural frequency can
be reduced even further.
If, despite careful analysis at the design stage,
resonance or excessive movement is experienced in the
foundation, it becomes necessary to tune the structure
on-site. Two basic methods are available for this:
Adding mass to columns or panels at selected locations
to reduce vibration amplitude.
Adding (or removing) structural strength to (from)
the foundation structure to change its stiffness and
move the natural frequency away from a plant ex-
citation frequency.
Both methods have been used, separately or in com-
bination, on occasions, although post-commissioning
tuning is generally not necessary.
Turbine foundations
5.2 Concrete foundations
The traditional foundation used in the CEGB for
turbine-generator units up to 500 MW was reinforced
concrete. For small units, the support structure was a
rigid monolithic block on a substantial sub-foundation,
with openings to accommodate plant and pipework.
This type of foundation was invariably high-tuned and
movement at the bearings was restricted at the expense
of high bearing forces. The dynamic energy associated
with machine vibration was transmitted through the
support structure and sub-foundation and absorbed
by these structures and the subsoil.
As unit size increased, the problems of designing a
high-tuned foundation with adequate access for pipes,
connections and ancillary plant became more severe, and
the larger units now in service with concrete support
structures generally use a low-tuned design. Examples
of low-tuned reinforced concrete support structures are
shown in Figs 2.48 and 2.49. The structure is generally
in the form of a series of portal frames, linked with
horizontal beams at the top to form the platform on
which the turbine and generator are mounted. The struc-
ture is designed to limit the differential settlement of
bearing supports to about 0.5 mm, although for bearings
close together differential movement of half this value
is more appropriate.
When designing a concrete foundation, margins on
calculated natural frequency have to be allowed because
of the wide range of values of Young's modulus for
concrete which can be met in practice. Concrete also
shrinks during curing and this can continue for a long
time after construction. Most of the shrinkage occurs
during the first six months, so turbine-generator erection
on the support structure is normally programmed to
occur nine months after construction. Further shrinkage
continues to a lesser extent for some time and minor
changes to machine alignment may be necessary for up
to four years. Concrete also creeps under stress and this
continues throughout the life of the support structure.
In fact creep is one of the mechanisms by which the
stresses resulting from shrinkage are relieved. Special
concrete mixes have been developed for minimum
shrinkage to alleviate this problem but these are some-
times difficult to pour and compact.
Thermal expansion of concrete is significant and,
together with its poor thermal conductivity, can give rise
to alignment changes between hot and cold conditions
due to differential expansion. Thermal shielding of parts
of the concrete support structure is therefore employed
to reduce these effects and one UK power station has
been fitted with cooling pipes embedded in the concrete
to control temperatures directly.
As concrete is a site-prepared material and its struc-
tural properties are likely to be variable (within limits)
between sites, the risk of resonance or excessive vibra-
tion might be expected to be greater than with other
types of support structure. This has not been the case
in practice, and post-construction tuning of reinforced
concrete support structures is rarely necessary. If tun-
177
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

FIG. 2.48 Reinforced concrete support structure for a 500 MW turbine-generator with underslung condenser
This is a low-tuned design.

FIG. 2.49 Concrete support structure for a 500 MW turbine-generator with side-mounted condensers integral
with the LP cylinders
The HP end of the structure is similar to that of Fig 2.48, but the structure is lower and is not required to provide LP
cylinder support. The mass of concrete used is about 60% that of the structure in Fig 2.48. This is also
a low-tuned design.

178

ing is necessary, it is much easier if specific provision
is made for this in the original design.
Methods of achieving this, reported from outside the
UK include:
Incorporation of redundant members in the support
structure which can be removed later if it is found
necessary to reduce the stiffness of the structure.
Incorporation of attachment points for the later
addition of structural members to increase stiffness.
Constructing the supporting columns in a pocket in
the sub-foundation. The free column length can then
be later reduced by filling the gap between column
and sub-foundation with additional concrete.
As unit size increases, the mass of the support structure
necessary to provide a sufficiently rigid foundation for
the plant and to limit bearing deflections increases.
Access for pipes and ancillary plant is also restricted
so, despite the economic advantages of concrete in many
situations, some 500 MW and all larger CEGB turbine-
generators are mounted on steel support structures.
5.3 Steel foundations
The use of a welded steel support structure for the
turbine-generator has several advantages:
A steel support structure is lighter than one of
reinforced concrete, reducing the static load on the
sub-foundation.
Steel is a uniform material with accurately known and
dependable properties, giving greater accuracy in
analysis.
Offsite fabrication is possible, independent of the
weather, and site erection time is reduced. A site
erection programme time of three months would be
typical for this type of support structure.
Plant erection can be done immediately the support
structure is complete, as it is not necessary to wait
for curing or shrinkage. This has obvious advantages
for the construction programme.
A steel support structure gives improved access for
pipework and generator connections.
Steel support structures are fabricated as a 'table
top' of cellular construction supported from the sub-
foundation on box construction columns. The 'table
top' is designed to provide support to the bearing
pedestals, turbine cylinders, generator and exciter.
Examples of steel support structures are shown in
Figs 2.50 and 2.51.
Turbine foundations
A steel support structure is more flexible than the
equivalent reinforced concrete structure and is always
low-tuned. The flexibility of the support columns isolates
the dynamic forces produced by the rotating shafts from
the sub-foundation to some degree and may allow a
reduction in sub-foundation mass. This isolation also
helps the causes of unusual vibration behaviour of
the plant to be determined as the effects are more lo-
calised than with stiffer support structures. Any attach-
ments necessary on the support columns are strictly
controlled to ensure that the structure characteristics
and integrity are maintained.
With a steel foundation, the responsibility for de-
signing and supplying the support structure usually rests
with the turbine-generator contractor, rather than with
the civil engineering contractor. This is generally regarded
as an advantage, as the same contractor is responsible
both for the plant which generates the dynamic forces
and the structure which must respond to, and partially
absorb them. Shrinkage is not a problem with a steel
structure and working support structure temperatures are
below those liable to give creep in the steel. The use of
good-quality weldable steel is very important to accom-
modate the static and dynamic loads, and the steel must
have good impact properties. Steel to BS4360 grade C
is typical of the types used. Thorough non-destructive
testing (NDT) is used on a random check basis for all
welds, with particular emphasis on critical and site welds,
to ensure freedom from defects.
The thermal expansion coefficient of steel is less
than that of concrete and, together with the good
thermal conductivity, reduces problems of differential
thermal expansion upsetting shaft alignment in the
vertical direction. In the axial and transverse direc-
tions, the thermal expansion characteristics of the
support structure are almost the same as those of the
static parts of the plant which it supports: this ex-
pansion is readily accommodated by flexing of the
support columns. Attachment of bearing pedestals to
the support structure is quite simple for there is no
need to use grouted-in fixing plates, as on a concrete
structure.
The design analysis includes for the effects of ro-
tating out-of-balance loads and considers the fatigue
conditions at welded joints to ensure the long term
integrity of the structure.
The accuracy of analysis possible with a steel struc-
ture gives confidence in the performance of the struc-
ture in service and post-commissioning problems have
only rarely been experienced. If problems do occur, the
structure can be 'tuned' more easily than a reinforced
concrete structure by three methods:
Adding steel struts to the structure.
Adding weight external to the columns.
Adding weight inside the sections of a box construc-
tion column.
179
Turbine plant systems
No. 2 L.P. TURBINE
LOCATION
No. 1 L.P. TURBINE
LOCATION
H.P.TURBINE
LOCATION
BEAM SUPPORT
FIG. 2.50 Steel support structure for a 660 MW turbine-generator with two LP cylinders and an underslung condenser
Differential settlement can also be corrected by jacking-
up each of the affected columns and inserting packing
between the column base and the sub-foundation.
5.4 Spring foundations
As the natural frequency of a low-tuned foundation
support structure decreases, the isolation between the
support structure and the sub-foundation increases,
and the sub-foundation is called upon to absorb less
of the energy resulting from dynamic and transient
forces generated in the shaft line and static sections
of the plant.
The closest practical approach to complete dynamic
isolation results from mounting the turbine-generator
plant on springs and this approach has been used
successfully overseas. In the UK, condensers of the
underslung type have been spring-mounted, as have
smaller items of plant, but spring mounting has not yet
been used for main turbine-generators.
Established overseas practice uses springs of the
helical-coil or plate type supporting a reinforced con-
crete deck on which the turbine-generator is mounted.
180
Chapter 2
EXCITER LOCATION
GENERATOR LOCATION
I.P. STEAM CHEST
SUPPORT
H.P. STEAM CHEST
SUPPORT
COLUMNS
Springs mounted in rows on structural concrete walls
or in groups at the top of support columns have been
used and viscous dampers are sometimes employed in
conjunction with the springs. Natural frequencies of
about 3 Hz for movement in the vertical direction are
claimed for these systems. A hydraulic locking system
is used to pre-load the springs to a set deflection for
construction and plant erection purposes. The same
locking system can be used to allow the insertion of
packers, above a spring or spring-group, to correct for
foundation column settlement: this also allows springs
to be changed after erection for others having a different
springrate, if it is necessary to change the characteristics
of any part of the spring support system.
Such low natural frequencies are accompanied by
the possibility of greater plant deflection under tran-
sient conditions. Under generator load rejection or
short-circuit conditions, torsional rocking of the plant
can impose vertical movements of 1.5 mm at the
springs, so pipe and electrical connections must be
designed to accommodate this.
Because the sub-foundation is well isolated from
dynamic loads, it is possible to reduce the mass of the
sub-foundation towards that necessary to support the

FIG. 2.51 Steel support structure for a 500 MW turbine-generator with three LP cylinders and pannier condensers
The condenser support columns are not shown.
static load only, or even to dispense with a mass
concrete sub-foundation and install individual foun-
dations for each support column. The precise design,
of course, depends on subsoil conditions at the par-
ticular site.
The spring support, concrete deck and support
columns are no cheaper than other support structure
types: the economic advantage claimed for spring
foundations lies in the possible reduction in mass of the
sub-foundation. Cost reductions of 25% are claimed in
favourable circumstances.
5.5 Sub-foundation
Apart from any special designs associated with spring
foundations, the sub-foundation must be a massive
and rigid concrete base designed to transmit and dis-
tribute the static and dynamic loads of the support
structure and plant above it to the subsoil. Rigidity is
necessary to limit differential settlement of the bases
of the support columns to a value acceptable to the
turbine-generator, and the sub-foundation mass is es-
tablished from design analysis to limit plant vibration.
For the sub-foundation of a modern turbine-generator
installed on a CEGB station, the mass is typically
1.3 times the combined mass of the plant and struc-
ture above it.
Lubrication systems
The thickness of the sub-foundation should not be
less than one tenth of its length. The need for piling is
determined by the nature of the subsoil at a particular
site. Discontinuity between the sub-foundation, the
basement floor of the station and the foundations of
other plant is attempted to prevent transmission of vibra-
tions to other plant and the building structure.
6 Lubrication systems
6.1 Lubrication requirements and typical
arrangements
Forced lubrication of the turbine bearings is essential
in order to prevent damage due to wear or excessive
white metal bearing temperature. Before starting to
turn the main rotating elements, it is necessary to lift
the rotors clear of the bearing surface: the jacking oil
system used to achieve this is described later in Section
6.9 of this chapter.
The purposes of the forced lubrication of the main
bearings are:
(a) To provide a hydrodynamic oil wedge between
the bearing surface and the journal bearing of
sufficient thickness so that the particles of debris
181
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

normally present in the oil will not damage the
bearing surfaces.
(b) To provide a flow of cooling fluid sufficient to
maintain the bearing white metal temperature be-
low 110C, dissipating the heat at the bearing
due to:
Thermal conduction.
Friction between the journal, oil film and white
metal.
Turbulence with the oil itself.
The majority of the oil flow is needed to cool the
bearing. Because of the problems of accurately mea-
suring the white metal temperature at the point of
maximum hydrodynamic pressure in the oil wedge,
experience has shown that limiting the oil temperature
leaving a bearing to 71C, gives satisfactory bearing
life.
On older units, the lubricating oil system was
integrated with the turbine control and protection oil
system, with the lubricating oil being supplied through
a pressure control valve. A typical arrangement is shown
on Fig 2.52.
On modern units, the control system (see Section 1.6
of this chapter) normally requires a fire-resistant fluid
(FRF) system with a pressure between 70 and 175 bar.
The lubricating oil system on these units (Fig 2.53)
is provided using a directly-driven centrifugal pump
delivering oil at around 11 bar. The oil from the pump
passes through an oil turbine which drops the oil
pressure to around 3 bar; the oil turbine drives a
booster pump which supplies oil from the main oil
tank to the centrifugal oil pump suction. This arrange-

MAIN OIL PRESSURE FEED

MAIN OIL DRAINS

JACKING OIL

JACKING OIL DRAINS

MAKE-UP OIL

rH
OIL
PURIFICATION AUXILIARY OIL FEED
SYSTEM

GEAR CASE BRGS.

Nos.11-15
.16

HIGH PRESSURE
OIL PUMP

OIL COOLERS OIL SERVICING TANK

AC AC DC
AUXILIARY TURNING EMERGENCY
OIL PUMP GEAR LUBRICATION
OIL PUMP OIL PUMP

FIG. 2.52 Lubricating and relay oil system for older turbine-generator plant

182
 Lubrication systems

I MAIN I I L -J I
FEED
PUMP

AC TURBINE
LUBRICATING BOOSTER
OIL PUMP OIL PUMP
JACKING OIL
LUBRICATING OIL COMPARTMENT OF MAIN OIL RESERVOIR PRIMING PUMP
MAIN OIL SUPPLY
JACKING OIL SUPPLY
DRAIN OIL
PRESSURE OIL

FIG. 2.53 Lubricating oil system for modern turbine-generator plant

ment allows the oil tank location to be optimised with
regard to oil drainage under gravity, whilst meeting the
centrifugal pump suction-head requirements. To protect
the system against overpressurisation, a connection is
taken from the bearing oil supply line to a relief valve
mounted on the oil tank.
The directly-driven main oil pump provides an
extremely secure source of lubricating oil under normal
running conditions. For normal start-up and shutdown,
an AC auxiliary oil pump provides the lubricating oil
supply. For emergency shutdown, when the AC supplies
are not available or the AC pump fails to start when
required, a DC auxiliary oil pump is provided. Auto-
matic sequential starting of these pumps is arranged
upon falling lubricating oil pressure to ensure that the
unit can be brought to a standstill without damage to
the bearings, and to ensure that the bearings do not
overheat due to conducted heat.
Lubricating oil is also used for the generator hydrogen
seals and the supply is taken from the 70-170 bar oil
pressure manifold. On some modern units, a separate
seal-oil system (see Chapter 6, Section 5) is provided to
prevent hydrogen transfer to the main oil system; on
these units, the supply from the main lubricating oil
system is used as a back-up.
On modern units, the lubricating oil system supplies:
Each journal bearing on the turbine/generator/exciter
rotating line.
The main thrust/surge bearing.
The generator hydrogen seals, either as the sole supply
or as a back-up system.
The bearings on the turbine-driven boiler feed pump,
where this plant is provided.
Oil filters and strainers, oil cooler, tank vents and
oil purifier connections are provided on the lubricat-
ing oil system. Details of these features are described
below.
183
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

The unit lubricating oil tank is connected to the
station clean and dirty oil tanks, and also to the oil
purification system, with the pipework and pump
necessary to permit the transfer of oil:
From the station clean-oil tank to the unit oil tank.*
From the station used-oil tank to the unit oil tank.*
To drain the whole of the oil inventory from the
unit oil system into the unit oil tank, and from the
unit oil tank into the station used-oil tank.
From a road oil-tanker into the station clean-oil
tank.
From the station used-oil tank into a road oil-tanker.
Through the oil purifier to process either the oil
in the unit tank or the oil in the station clean-oil
tank.
Through a portable unit oil purifier to process
the oil in either the unit tank or the station clean-oil
tank.
* These transfers are made using the oil purification
unit.
A schematic arrangement of the systems used is shown
in Fig 2.54.
6.2 Oil pumps
Details of the various oil pumps used are described
in the paragraphs that follow.
6.2.1 Main lubricating oil pump
For security of supply the main lubricating oil pump is
driven directly from the main rotating line. On older
units, this was a gear-driven positive displacement gear
pump. On modern units, the large volume of oil required
(around 100 litres/s) enables a centrifugal pump to be
used economically; a typical example is shown in Fig
2.55.
The pump is not self-priming and requires a suction
oil pressure of around 3-4 bar.
6.2.2 Turbine-driven oil booster pump
In order to ensure the security of lubricating oil sup-
ply, oil from the main oil pump discharge is passed
through an oil turbine. The oil turbine is mounted
on top of the oil tank and drives a submerged cen-

FROM
OTHER
UNITS

> OTHER
UNITS
- LUBRICATING OIL

BYPASS

MISCELLANEOUS

DRAINS

VENT

^ \ NON RETURN VALVE

?
RELIEF VALVE

FIG. 2.54 Lubricating oil transfer and conditioning system

184
 Lubrication systems

VAPOUR BLEED IMPELLER VAPOUR BLEED INLET VOLUTE JOURNAL BEARING

TUBE TUBES / O I L INLET

THRUST BEARING
OIL DISCHARGE

JOURNAL BEARING

LOCKING PLATE

SHAFT THRUST
SHOULDER

TOP HALF
NECK RING

VENTILATION HOLE
TO EXPANSION
COUPLING

COUPLING FLANGE
TURBINE ELECTRICAL TO DRIVE SHAFT
TURNING GEAR END

THRUST BEARING
OIL INLET

BOTTOM HALF
NECK RING PUMP SHAFT

BOTTOM HALF
WEAR RINGS
JOURNAL BEARING
OIL OUTLET

TEST PRESSURE
GAUGE CONNECTION

OIL INLET FLANGE

OIL DISCHARGE
FLANGE

FlG. 2.55 Main lubricating oil pump

trifugal pump. This pump delivers the oil to the main
pump suction. A typical example is shown on Fig
2.56.
6.2.3 AC and DC motor-driven auxiliary oil
pumps
The AC and DC auxiliary oil pumps which supply oil
to bearings under start-up and normal shutdown, or
under emergency shutdown respectively, are centri-
fugal pumps with a submerged suction. They are also
suspended from the tank top and their arrangement
is very similar to Fig 2.56, but with an AC or DC
motor replacing the oil turbine. The AC pump delivers
oil to the lubricating oil pipework feeding the oil filters
and coolers at around 3 bar, and primes the main oil
pump. The DC pump feeds either the same pipework
system as the AC pump, or the pipework which feeds
oil directly to the bearings at around 1.5 bar. Each pump
has a capacity of around 70-120 litres/s.
6.2.4 Jacking-oil pumps and priming pumps
The jacking oil pumps deliver oil at around 300 bar
to the individual bearings. The pumps used are motor-
driven positive displacement and either multi-plunger
185
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

GUIDE RING WEAR RING LOCKNUT TURBINE RUNNER

WEAR RING

TURBINE CASING

WEAR RING

DISCHARGE PIPE
TURBINE TOP
CHAMBER

VAPOUR BLEED
JOURNAL BEARING

HIGH PRESSURE
SHAFT
MEASUREMENT
TAKE-OFF

PEDESTAL
VENTURI

LOW PRESSURE THRUST & JOURNAL

MEASUREMENT BEARING
TAKE-OFF

PUMP COVER

VAPOUR BLEED
WEAR RING

IMPELLER

DISCHARGE BEND
PUMP BODY

WEAR RING

BLEED PIPE STRAINER

FIG. 2.56 Turbine-driven oil booster pump

pumps or two-shaft gear pumps, see Figs 2.57 and
2.58.
The arrangement utilises either one gear pump per
bearing or one motor/pump unit for either one or
two bearings. The pumps require a positive suction
pressure. The multi-plunger pumps are fed from the
lubricating oil manifold and the gear pumps have
a motor-driven positive displacement two-shaft gear
pump.
On some designs the turning gear is provided with
a separate jacking oil pump. This pump is a motor-
driven, positive displacement, two-shaft gear pump;

186
 Lubrication systems

PUMP BODY

OIL INLET

SEALING RING

ECCENTRIC
SHAFT

INLET VALVE

INLET PORT

SHAFT THRUST
BEARING
OUTLET PLUG

PISTON SPRING
OUTLET PORT

OUTLET VALVE
ASSEMBLY

STEEL BALL

FIG. 2.57 Multi-plunger jacking oil pump

the discharge pressure is the same as for the other Pump duty Type Drive
jacking oil pumps. Purifier/oil conditioner Gear Electric motor
oil
6.2.5 Other pumps Purifier/oil conditioner Electric motor
Various other pumps are used on the lubricating oil water
system and oil transfer systems as follows:

Pump duty Type Drive

Oil tank water/oil Centrifugal Electric motor 6.3 Oil tanks
vapour extraction On modern units, the main oil tank has a capacity of
Oil tank hydrogen/
around 75 m3 for the lubricating oil system oil inven-
Centrifugal Electric motor
tory, with a normal working level volume of 50 m3:
oil vapour extraction
a typical arrangement is shown on Fig 2.59. The tank
Clean and used Gear or Electric motor, is designed with the oil return and the pump suction
oil transfer diaphragm or air separated by baffle plates, to assist in de-aeration and
187
Turbine plant systems
END COVER
BODY
STRAIGHT
/CONNECTOR
ELBOW
CONNECTOR
FIG. 2.58 Gear type jacking oil/priming pump
settlement and also to prevent the formation of stag-
nant pockets of oil. The quantity of oil in the tank
and the internal design of the tank provide around
seven minutes oil transit time from return to suction,
with the normal time limits being between five to
ten minutes.
The trend on modern systems is to provide a self-
contained section of the overall oil tank for the hy-
drogen seal-oil system, the objective being to eliminate
the risk of hydrogen gas passing into the main lubri-
cating oil system. Where a self-contained system is
used, a back-up supply of oil to the hydrogen seals
is provided. Where the lubricating oil system provides
the hydrogen gas-side seal-oil, special precautions are
taken to ensure that any entrained hydrogen is released
and vented to atmosphere. A separate seal-oil loop
detraining chamber is used to ensure that all hydrogen
is removed before the oil is mixed with the main oil
system.
Coarse-mesh strainers are provided on all oil returns
to the tank to assist de-aeration and to catch any large
foreign material. Problems have arisen in the past with
corrosion at the air/oil interface in the main oil tank
due to the presence of water/water vapour in the oil.
The main oil tank is now fabricated either in stainless
steel or mild steel with a special phenolic paint protec-
tion against corrosion.
On the top of the oil tank, in addition to the sus-
pended oil pumps and the bearing oil pressure relief
188
Chapter 2
O-RING
DRIVEN GEAR
WOODRUFF KEY
COMPOUND BUSH
BACKING WASHER
MOUNTING
FLANGE
OIL SEAL
valves, two vapour extraction pumps are also mounted.
One to remove water and oil vapour from the tank and
the other to extract hydrogen and oil vapour from the
detraining tank.
6.4 Piping
Pressure oil piping for both jacking oil systems and
lubricating oil systems on modern units is subject to
special design precautions against oil leakage and fire
risk. The oil piping is sized so that the oil velocity is
between 1-5 m/s. Oil piping from the pump discharge
is contained within an enclosure/duct and the pipe-
runs between pipe joints are as long as is possible.
All pipe joints are of Class 1 welded construction.
At the exit from the ducted area, the pressure oil pipe
is contained within a protective pipe, so that any oil
leakage would be contained and would be detected at
'tell-tale' drains. Pipe material up to the filters is mild
steel; on some designs, the pipe-runs after the filters
are in stainless steel to minimise the risk of corrosion
products damaging the bearings. Automatic air venting
of the pipework system from its highest points to the
oil tank is provided where the air is not vented through
the bearings. Oil filters are also provided with air vents
to the oil tank; these ensure that any air accumulation,
either in service or as a result of servicing or inspection,
is vented to the oil tank.
 Lubrication systems

A.C. MOTOR-DRIVEN A.C. MOTOR -DRIVEN

LUBRICATING OIL PUMP SEAL OIL PUMP
D.C. LUBRICATING OIL
PUMP DISCHARGE DETRAINING COMPARTMENT
NON-RETURN VALVE D.C. LUBRICATING OIL
PUMP DISCHARGE - * OIL FLOW
ISOLATING VALVE ^ VAPOUR
BOOSTER PUMP
DISCHARGE TO MAIN D.C. MOTOR DRIVEN SEAL
OIL PUMP OIL PUMP

A.C. LUBRICATING OIL PUMP

DISCHARGE NON-RETURN VALVE
A.C. LUBRICATING OIL PUMP
ISOLATING VALVE
DISCHARGE TO ATMOSPHERE
BOOSTER PUMP TURBINE BEARING OIL SUPPLY
INLET FROM MAIN OIL PUMP MAIN SET
LUBRICATING OIL -BOILER FEED PUMP
BOOSTER PUMP TURBINE TURBINE OIL SUPPLY
DISCHARGE ISOLATING
VALVE MAIN OIL RETURN

LUBRICATING OIL
BOOSTER PUMP TURBINE DUPLEX HYDROGEN
DISCHARGE ISOLATING DETRAINING TANK
VALVE
OIL STRAINER RELIEF VALVE
OIL DRIVEN BOOSTER
PUMP TURBINE
DETRAINING TANK DRAIN
OIL SUPPLY TO COOLERS

OIL TURBINE DRIVEN

BOOSTER PUMP
FILTER CHANGE-OVER VALVE
OIL STRAINER
TANK MAIN COMPARTMENT
VAPOUR EXTRACTION FAN
GAS DETRAINING COMPARTMENT
VAPOUR EXTRACTION FAN DUPLEX FILTER

SUPPLY TO PURIFIER
RETURN FROM PURIFIER AND TRANSFER SYSTEM
DETRAINING COMPARTMENT VENT
GENERATOR BEARING
GENERATOR BEARING DRAIN No. 10 BEARING FROM OIL COOLER DRAIN PIPE VENT
TO FILTER

FIG. 2.59 Main oil tank general arrangement

6.5 Oil coolers dissipation requirements are around 2 MW per cooler.

The function of the oil coolers is to ensure that the oil
temperature leaving the bearings is below the permitted
limit by removing the heat absorbed by the oil within
the pumps and the bearings. Redundant coolers are
provided in order to enable repairs and tube cleaning
to be carried out whilst the unit is on-load. Normally,
three 50% duty coolers are provided, but two 100% units
are sometimes used.
The oil coolers are mounted vertically with a two-pass
water flow through the tubes and a single-pass oil flow
through a series of baffles, to ensure even cooling. The
cooler shells are of mild steel and modern practice
is for the tubes to be made of titanium. The tube
nest has a fixed and a floating tubeplate to contain
thermal expansion. The coolers are provided with re-
movable end plates so that cleaning can be carried
out without dismantling the water pipes. The heat
On some designs, the oil coolers have the main
lubricating oil filters integral with the cooler shell. A
typical example of an oil cooler, which also shows the
integral oil filters, is shown on Fig 2.60.
Arrangements are made for automatic by-pass of
the oil coolers upon excessive pressure drop across the
coolers. Automatic control of the oil outlet temperature
is provided.
6.6 Oil strainers and filters
The oil strainers are coarse wire-mesh basket type
assemblies which are designed to catch large foreign
material from the oil drains into the main oil tank,
thus ensuring that material reaching the centrifugal
pump suction will not cause pump damage. They can

189
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

C.W. INLET

BOSS FOR
THERMO POCKET WATERBOX AIR
RELEASE CONNECTIONS
BOSS FOR
DISTANCE
THERMOMETER
C.W.
C.W. OUTLET COOLER BODY AIR
RELEASE CONNECTIONS
WATERBOX COVER

INLET/OUTLET
WATERBOX
JJ
TUBENEST
ii u m ii, BAFFLE PLATES
TOP TUBEPLATE [pi! !!
OIL OUTLET < m u utt
(Bin urn ii l!
BOSS FOR DISTANCE'
THERMOMETER II mu in!
BAFFLE PLATES

FILTER CHAMBER TUBES

COOLER BODY ACCESS COVERS (Ni

BOSS FOR
BOSS FOR DISTANCE THERMO POCKET
THERMOMETER
FILTER CHAMBER

OIL INLET
FILTER CHAMBER AIR
RELEASE CONNECTION

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE WATER DRAIN

GAUGE CONNECTIONS

RETURN WATERBOX
FLOW DIAGRAM

FILTER ELEMENTS
BOTTOM TUBEPLATE

FIG. 2.60 Oil cooler with integral filter

be lifted out of the tank to remove and inspect any
debris collected.
Two main systems of filtration of the lubricating
oil are used:
(a) Cartridge filters fitted into the oil cooler casing
which are designed to filter 13 litres/s of hot oil
per cartridge, to a nominal particle size of 10
microns. Each cooler can have up to four dispos-
able cartridges giving a total filtration capacity of
around 52 litres/s, with two coolers required for
100% duty.
(b) Duplex filters fitted after the oil coolers. These
can be either multiple disposable filters, with facilities
for on-load replacement, or a duplex plate filter
which can be cleaned on-load. The plate-type filter
consists of two compartments, each with five filter
assemblies. Each assembly consists of a series of
plates and spacers, which give the required degree
of filtration of 75 micron. Each compartment
normally passes 50% of the oil; facilities exist to
pass 100% flow through one compartment in order
to allow replacement, maintenance or inspection
190
of one compartment whilst the unit is on-load.
Facilities are provided to enable a filter to be
primed and pressurised after service, before put-
ting a filter compartment back into service. The filter
normally provides a capacity of around 106 litres/s
under a pressure drop of 0.3 bar with both com-
partments in service. Normal filter cleaning is
carried out automatically when a rising pressure
differential reaches 0.45 bar across the filter. Ro-
tation of each plate filter assembly then occurs
against a scraper bar; the debris off each filter falls
into a sump at the bottom of the filter housing and
is cleaned out on a regular basis. A typical arrange-
ment of a plate-type filter is shown on Fig 2.61.
Where a plate-type filter is used in the main oil supply
to the bearings, additional filtration is required for
the oil supply to:
The main thrust and surge bearings.
The shaft turning gear, jacking oil pump, gearing
and clutch.
The main oil pump, thrust bearing and cooling sprays.
 Lubrication systems

MFD 227 GEARBOX

CHAIN DRIVE

PLATE WHEEL

PLATE WHEEL

CHAIN DRIVE

NAMEPLATE

JUNCTION BOX
3-WAV CHANGEOVER VALVE

DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE GAUGE

5-WAY MANIFOLD VALVE

DEMOUNTABLE STOP
FILTER PACK

DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE SWITCH

DRAIN CONNECTION

CLEANING DOOR

PRESSURE EQUALISING VALVE

VALVE POSITION POINTER

FIG. 2.61 Plate type oil filter

The oil for these duties is taken from the filtered oil
supply to the bearings and passed through a duplex
plate-type filter system similar to that described above
and shown on Fig 2.61. This additional filter has only
four plate filter assemblies in each compartment and
has only manual filter cleaning. The filter provides
a capacity of 16 litres/s under a pressure drop of
0.2 bar with both compartments in service.
housing and the cold lubricating oil, which results in
condensate being dispersed through the oil. The oil
also collects wear particles, oxides, soluble acids and
sludge. These need to be removed from the oil to
ensure its long life and efficient lubrication. There
are two main systems used on continuous by-pass duty
whilst the unit is in operation, and an oil regeneration
system is also used in the station oil system. The on-line
systems are described in the sections which follow.

6.7.1 Centrifugal separation systems

6.7 Oil purifiers and coalescers
The main source of contamination of lubricating oil
is the leakage of steam from the rotor gland seals.
This steam condenses upon contact with the bearing
This type of system has been used for many years but
requires careful adjustment for maximum efficiency,
as well as considerable maintenance. A schematic ar-
rangement of the system is shown on Fig 2.62.
191
192
WATER
INLET WATER INLET
Turbine plant systems

ANT I-FLOOD
LIMIT SWITCH

K
=IXM WASTE WATER TANK SLUDGE TANK
::::<:: CLEAN OIL
ANTI-FLOOD TANK

FIG. 2.62 Oil purifying system

Chapter 2

The principle of operation is that if a mixture of
solids and fluids is centrifuged, they settle out radially
according to their specific gravities. Dirty oil is deli-
vered from the main oil tank into the purifier and
is heated through a regenerative heater/cooler to the
optimum temperature for centrifugal separation, around
75C. The oil is delivered into the separator bowl and
separates into its various densities under centrifugal
force. A series of inverted cones collect the lighter oil
(see Fig 2.63), and deliver it to the clean oil outlet. The
water and acids are discharged through the outer drain:
the solids accumulate in the bowl and are discharged
at regular intervals. The clean hot oil is pumped through
the regenerative heater/cooler, heating the incoming oil
and is then returned to the main oil tank. The oil flow
rate through the purifier is 10% of the oil inventory
per hour.
6.7.2 Static oil purifiers/coalescers
An alternative system which is now coming into use
is the static purifier, which is shown diagrammatically
on Fig 2.64.
FIG. 2.63 Oil purifier bowl operation
Lubrication systems
Oil is taken from the main oil tank at a rate of 17%
of the oil inventory per hour. The oil initially passes
through a series arrangement of fine-mesh sloping
screens. The water coalesces on the screens in water
droplets which run down to the bottom of each screen
and are led to drain. The oil then passes through a series
of polyolefinic bags which filter out the particulate
matter. Finally, the oil is pumped through a 5 micron
pressure filter and delivered back into the main oil tank.
The oil passes through the purifier at its operating
temperature and because it is not heated the risk of
bacterial/fungal growth may be greater (see Section
6.8 of this chapter).
Provision is made for the regeneration of used oil
within the station oil transfer system. Oil for regen-
eration is taken from the unit oil tank or the station
dirty-oil tank at around 1.1m3 per hour and processed
in the plant shown schematically on Fig 2.65.
The oil is heated to 54.4C and is then sprayed into
a chamber with a vacuum maintained at 913 mbar
below atmospheric. Under these conditions the water
boils off, is removed by the vacuum pump and con-
densed. The dry oil is then pumped out of the vacuum
chamber and through a filter. The filter comprises a
pack of nylon-backed filter papers clamped between
perforated steel plates, and filters the oil to 10 microns.
From the filter, the oil is taken into the clean oil tank
prior to being pumped back into the unit oil tank after
it has been cleaned.
6.8 Oils and greases
6.8.1 Oils
The oils used in steam turbines must provide clean,
stable and efficient lubrication whilst exposed to the
severe operational conditions. They are also required
to be efficient at absorbing the heat generated in the
bearing. These conditions require the use of oils in-
corporating additives, particularly for the inhibition
of corrosion and oxidation.
The basic turbine lubricating oils are to British
Standard 489: 1983; CEGB Standard 207001 covers
lubricants for use by the CEGB and Table 2.1 is an
extract which covers turbine lubricating oils. The spe-
cific grade used on the modern 3000 r/min tandem
turbine-generator is TO-32.
Additives are now used to inhibit oxidation, corro-
sion and foaming. An oxidation inhibitor is added to
stabilise the oil against oxidation and to passivate the
metals which act catalytically to increase oxidation. These
inhibitors maintain a low neutralisation value (acidity)
of an oil over many years of service. A rust inhibitor
in the oil protects carbon-steel surfaces from rusting
when in contact with water or moist air entrained within
the oil circulating system.
193
Turbine plant systems
OIL/WATER BLEED
OIL
INLET '
PRECIPITATOR
CHAMBER
FIG. 2.64 Static oil purifier
Detergent additives are used to inhibit high tem-
perature oxidation, the formation of low temperature
sludge and the deposition of contaminants.
Viscosity index improvers reduce the fall in viscosity
with temperature rise. Pour-point depressents have
the opposite effect and reduce the temperature at which
the oil becomes immobile.
Anti-foaming agents are added to suppress the ten-
dency of aerated oil to foam and assist in the release
of air from the oil.
The acidity (total) of new oils is normally within the
range 0.02 to 0.10 mg of KOH/g, or slightly higher in
additive-conditioned new oil. In service, oils tend to
oxidise to organic acids and this is accompanied by an
increase in total acidity. The acidity level of the oil
is therefore a useful guide to the condition of the oil
and the need for purification or conditioning.
Water ingress into the turbine oil is the most com-
mon problem with oil systems. The presence of excess
water in oil, particularly if stationary for any length
of time, may result in bacterial and fungal contamina-
tion of the oil systems. This can reveal itself as a
yellow/black stringy grease-like material. This growth
can take place in sediment in oil tanks or other plant
items. It can be particularly difficult to clear from
tube nests. The basic precautions are:
To ensure that the water content of the oil in
operation is kept low by regular use of the oil puri-
fier; the water content should not exceed 0.05%.
To remove sludge deposits from the oil system
plant-sumps on a regular basis.
If bacterial/fungal growth becomes a problem, the
addition of the correct biocide to the oil will kill the
bacterial/fungal growth.
194
Chapter 2
TO
MAIN OIL
TANK
PRESSURE
FILTER
RECIRCULATING
PUMP
POLISHING
FILTER
CHAMBER
6.8.2 Greases
Although the products of many manufacturers are
utilised, there are three basic greases used for turbine
plant:
Silicone-based grease containing molybdenum
disulphide. This has a working range of - 50C to
300C.
Mineral oil with Bent one filler; this grease has a
slightly lower temperature limit of 260C.
Lithium-based grease. These greases are used for a
wide range of lubricating duties including ball and
roller bearings. The requirements for the testing of
this type of grease are laid down in CEGB Standard
No. 207001.
The first two greases listed are for the lubrication of
high temperature sliding surfaces, such as turbine
palms and steam valve pivots.
6.9 Jacking oil systems
When a turbine-generator shaft is rotating very slowly,
the normal lubricating oil supply cannot ensure that
a hydrodynamic oil wedge will be maintained. Also,
additional lubrication measures are required to prevent
bearing damage and to minimise breakaway torque
when starting a turbine-generator from standstill. In both
circumstances the jacking oil system provides high
pressure oil to the base of the bearing and floats the
rotors on a film of oil. Until the turbine shaft speed
is capable of sustaining an adequate bearing oil wedge
(above 200 r/min), the jacking oil system and the nor-
mal lubricating oil system are run in parallel.
 Lubrication systems

SPRAY PIPE
HIGH LEVEL CUT OFF SWITCH

2 CONTROL
THERMOSTATS HEATER DRUM LAGGING FILTER

1 MASTER
THERMOSTAT

RELIEF

AIR RELEASE

ACCESS DOOR
TO FILTER

SILENCER DRAIN

HEATER
DRAIN

DIRTY OIL (WITH WATER)

DIRTY OIL (WATER FREE)

CLEAN OIL

DRAIN

VACUUM

FIG. 2.65 Oil regeneration plant flow diagram

195
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

TABLE 2.1
Turbine lubricating oil requirements

Type prefix TO TO TO TO
ISO VG grade designation (BS4231) 32 46 68 100

Viscosity, kinematic at 40C, mm /s (cSt) min 28.8 41.4 61.2 90

max 35.2 50.6 74.8 110
Viscosity index min 70 70 70 70
Flashpoint, closed, C, Pensky-Martens min 168 168 168 168
Pour point, C max -6 -6 -6 -6
Total acidity, mg KOH/g max 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Copper corrosion, classification (3 hours at 100C) max 2 2 2 2
Rust-preventing characteristics rusting rusting rusting rusting
absent absent absent absent
Demulsification number, s max 300 300 360 360
Foaming tendency:
Foam, ml, at 24C max 450 450 600 600
at 93.5C max 50 50 100 100
at 24C after test at 93.5C max 450 450 600 600
Foam stability after 300 s
Foam, ml, at 24C max Nil Nil 100 100
at 93.5C max Nil Nil 25 25
at 24C after test at 93.5C max Nil Nil 100 100
Air release properties, minutes to 0.2% air content at 50C 5 6 7 10
Oxidation characteristics:
Total oxidation products (TOP) with sludge limited to
40% of the determined TOP
No catalyst, % max 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Solid copper catalyst, % duration of tests 164 hours max 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Soluble metal catalysts, 7o max 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

The oil pressure used to lift the rotors is around
300 bar and with the use of mineral oil in close prox-
imity to high temperature components, this represents
a fire hazard unless special precautions are taken.
Older units used a single pump with long pipelines
to feed each bearing and with this arrangement oil
leakage does occur. On modern units, the high pres-
sure pumps are mounted in or on the bearing pedestals
(see Fig 2.66). Details of the pumps used are given
in Section 6.2 of this chapter. A pressure relief valve
is fitted in the discharge line from each pump in order
to prevent over pressurisation and overload damage.
Jacking oil is also provided to the turning gear journal
bearings during start-up and shutdown.
The pipework systems use Class 1 welded pipe joints
and all the high pressure pipework is contained within
the pedestal. Figure 2.67 shows the arrangement used
for the turning-gear jacking oil pump, but is typical of
these installations.
6.10 Greasing systems
Various components require greasing in operation to
ensure smooth linear or rotational movement between
components; oil lubrication is not appropriate. These
196
components include:
Turbine pedestals/baseplates.
Steam valve gear pivots.
Previously, attempts were made to provide automa-
tic greasing systems, using a motor-driven multi-
piston pump with long pipelines conveying the grease
to the various components. Unfortunately, separation
and hardening of the grease constituents in the pipe-
lines resulted in frequent blockages and inadequate
lubrication.
Modern plant uses bearings consisting of a sintered-
bronze matrix, impregnated with PTFE, on a steel
backing strip. These bearings are now used under the
main pedestals and are provided with manual greasing
points. The greasing channels are provided with suffi-
cient area so that the total grease pressure can over-
come the deadweight and allow the grease to spread
over the bearing surfaces. Grease leakage 'tell tales'
are provided so that the effectiveness of the greasing
operation can be checked. In order to prevent the ingress
of grit and foreign matter, the pedestals are provided
with dust shields.
Examples of the greasing points provided on the
main steam valve gear pivots are shown on Fig 2.68.
 / J.O.P. & E.T.G
PREVENT START & TRIP
I PRE
FROM LUBRICATING
OIL SUPPLY AFTER : z^> TO Nos. 11 AND 12 BRGS.
MAIN STRAINERS AND MAIN OIL PUMP BRGS.
' PREVENT START- LOW SUCTION PRESSURE
SAFETY TRIP - FALLING SUCTION PRESSURE APPLIED TO ALL JACKING OIL PUMPS
. AUTO START - SPEED BELOW 30r/min
FROM LUBRICATING fD
OIL SUPPLY AFTER
THRUST BEARING
STRAINER

L
yiR ox
TO TURNING G E A R l j
BEARINGS,SPRAYS I !
& MAIN PUMP !
BEARINGS f * \ ^
JACKING
OIL
PUMP G

P I L OT
EXCITER

v
RETURN TO
MAIN OIL TANK JACKING OIL
LUBRICATING OIL
LUBRICATING AND JACKING OIL RETURN
DRAIN
INSTRUMENT SIGNAL
Fl FLOW INDICATOR
(ZZZl SCROLL BLEED VALVE

FIG. 2.66 Jacking oil system

Lubrication systems

197
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

PEDESTAL CASING FULCRUM PIN LINK PIN
FULCRUM PIN
PRESSURE GAUGE

DRIVE MOTOR

LINK PIN
LINK PIN
OUTPUT TO TURNING
GEAR BEARINGS

MOUNTING PLATE
LANTERN RING

SWINGING LINK
TO PRESSURE SWITCH

JACKING OIL PUMP / PRESSURE RELIEF TO DRAINS

LINK PIN
PUMP INLET LINK PIN

FIG. 2.67 Shaft turning gear, jacking oil pump

HP VALVES

FULCRUM PIN FULCRUM PIN

7 Gland sealing system LINK PIN

7.1 Function and system layout LINK PIN

Glands and seals are used on turbines to prevent or

reduce the leakage of steam or air between rotating LINK PIN

and stationary components that have a pressure

difference across them, for example, where the turbine
shaft is extended through the cylinder endwalls to
the atmosphere. When the cylinder pressure is higher
than atmospheric, there will be a general steam leakage
outwards: if the cylinder contains steam below atmos- LINK PIN

pheric pressure, the tendency is for air to leak inwards LINK PIN

and the sealing system is designed to prevent the air

from entering the cylinder and the condenser.
As most of the steam leakage from glands does not
pass through the turbine stages, a loss of power output
is involved and every effort is made to reduce this
power loss by an efficient arrangement of seals and
glands.
In the more recent larger steam-turbines, the labyrinth
gland is in general use, although the carbon ring gland
and the water seal gland may be found in older tur-
bines. The labyrinth gland acts as a restrictor to both
steam and air leakage.
7.1.1 Labyrinth glands
The labyrinth gland has superseded the carbon ring
gland on large steam turbines because it can withstand
higher steam conditions. The labyrinth gland consists
of a ring with a series of machined fins that form a
number of fine annular restrictions, every restriction
being followed by an expansion chamber. A simple form
of labyrinth seal is shown in Fig 2.69 (a).
As steam enters the restriction, the velocity in-
creases and kinetic energy is developed at the expense
198
IP VALVES
FIG. 2.68 Main and reheat steam valves location
of grease points
of pressure energy; ideally, when the steam enters the
expansion chamber, the kinetic energy is converted
by turbulence into heat with no recovery of pressure
energy. In practice, as the steam is throttled at suc-
cessive restrictions at approximately constant enthalpy
the pressure is progressively reduced.
To ensure that the maximum kinetic energy is con-
verted in the expansion chambers, the finned ring and
the shaft are usually stepped as shown in Fig 2.69 (b).
This type of gland can only be used where the axial
differential expansions between the rotor and casing
are small. Stepped labyrinth glands may have an alter-
native arrangement with two or more large diameter
fins as shown in Fig 2.69 (c). This arrangement is able
to accept a larger change in relative axial dimensions
since, under all conditions, at least two of the three
fins per pitch form effective restrictions.

(a) Plain labyrinth
(b) Stepped labyrinth
(c) Double stepped labyrinth
(d) Vernier labyrinth
FIG. 2.69 Plain, stepped and vernier labyrinth glands
Gland sealing system
This principle can be extended to a greater number
of large diameter fins, but the number of effective
restrictions per unit of axial length becomes progres-
sively less and it becomes preferable to adopt a simpler
form of seal, such as those shown in Fig 2.69 (a), where
the larger number of restrictions compensate for the
decreased efficiency compared with the stepped gland.
Another design of gland that is independent of
differential expansion is the vernier gland shown in
Fig 2.69 (d). Both the shaft and seal ring are finned,
the pitch of the fins being slightly different on the
two seal components. This has the advantage that some
of the fins will always be directly opposite, providing
a greater restriction.
Figure 2.70 (a) shows a form of labyrinth gland with
axial as well as radial fins which increases the number
of restrictions in a given length of gland.
The tip thickness of labyrinth glands is made as
thin as practicable so that if an accidental rub occurs
between the shaft and the gland, the fins will rub away
with little heating of the shaft. A heavy rub would
quickly generate so much heat that the shaft would
bend and become unbalanced.
(a) Axial radial labyrinth
(b) Spring-back labyrinth
FIG. 2.70 Axial radial and spring-back labyrinth glands
199
Turbine plant systems
The radial clearance and diameter of the labyrinth
gland is made as small as possible, since the leakage
flow through the gland is directly proportional to the
leakage area. In practice, the minimum radial clear-
ance adopted is approximately 0.5 mm. To minimise
the effects of a 'rub' with close-clearance glands,
the gland rings are often spring-loaded as shown in
Fig 2.70 (b). The gland rings are usually made up of
four or more segments.
The flow through a labyrinth gland is a function of
the initial pressure and temperature, the final pressure
and the clearance area under the restrictions. As the
mass flow through a series of restrictions is constant,
the velocity of the steam through the successive throt-
tlings must increase as the steam is expanding; the
velocity through the final restriction cannot exceed
the sonic velocity. The pressure ratio across the last
restriction is then equal to the critical value and if
the back pressure is further reduced, no increase in
mass flow will occur. Thus for a gland with a given
number of restrictions, there is an associated pressure
ratio that produces the maximum leakage through
the gland.
The gland sealing system is designed to supply
steam to seal the turbine shaft glands at all operating
conditions and to extract leak-off steam from the
glands.
7.1.2 System layout
A typical gland sealing system is shown in Fig. 2.71.
In order to accommodate the range of temperatures
experienced throughout the turbine, the system is us-
ually divided into two parts: one part supplies steam
to the HP and IP turbine glands and the other to the
LP turbine glands.
Two modes of operation are used: one employs
a supply of steam at superheater outlet conditions,
which is referred to as 'live steam' and is used during
start-up, shutdown and low load operation. In the
other mode, steam leaked off from the HP and IP
turbine is employed to seal the LP glands when the
turbine is operating on-load. The use of H P / I P glands
leak-off steam produces a useful thermal gain over
the permanent use of live steam. The changeover from
one source of sealing steam to the other is entirely
automatic.
To ensure that the steam is supplied to the glands
at a suitable temperature, it is cooled by desuper-
heaters. An HP desuperheater regulates the tempera-
ture of the steam of the H P / I P glands and an LP
desuperheater regulates the temperature of the steam
to the LP glands. Some systems also employ a third
desuperheater to cool the steam which is bled to an
LP heater during on-load operation.
In order to reduce the loss of energy in external
glands at the ends of the HP and IP cylinders, and
to promote a gradual temperature gradient along a
shaft, it is usual to divide such glands into sections,
200
Chapter 2
leading steam back to an appropriate stage in the
turbine or to a feedheater after each section. As a
result, heat is returned to the cycle.
The arrangement of the final glands section for an
HP cylinder is shown in Fig 2.72 (a).
The HP leak-off belt is usually connected to the
IP/LP crossover pipes and the pressure is thereby
maintained at the IP exhaust pressure. The pressure at
the packing/leak-off point is usually stabilised slightly
above atmospheric by the pressure control system.
The steam bled from this leak-off is normally used to
seal the glands of the LP cylinders; the LP cylinder
gland arrangement is shown in Fig 2.72 (b). The out-
flowing steam prevents the ingress of air into the
cylinder and condenser. The final belt in all of the
glands is connected to the gland steam condenser,
which maintains the pressure at the belts slightly below
atmospheric. This prevents steam leaking into
the turbine hall by maintaining an inward flow of air
through the outboard gland section.
At low loads, live steam enters the system through
a motorised isolating valve and a pressure reducing
valve to the HP desuperheater. Here the steam is cooled
to a temperature suitable for the H P / I P glands. It
then passes through a motorised isolating valve to the
H P / I P glands or, via a separate motorised valve, to the
LP desuperheater which further cools the steam to a
temprature suitable for the LP glands.
At higher loads, when the H P / I P glands are self-
sealing, excess steam from these glands flows to the
LP desuperheater and is used to seal the LP glands.
The steam flowing from the H P / I P glands tends to
increase the pressure in the system. This is sensed by the
control system (see below) which closes the pressure
reducing valve in the live steam supply line. If more steam
is available from the H P / I P glands than is required
to seal the LP glands, the control system opens the
dump valve which allows the excess steam to pass to
an appropriate LP heater.
To prevent any foreign matter from entering the
turbine shaft glands, two strainers are provided, one
for the H P / L P system and the other for the LP sys-
tem, with each strainer positioned after the appropriate
desuperheater.
7.2 Temperature and pressure control
7.2.1 Temperature control
The temperature of the steam supplied to the glands
is controlled by two desuperheaters; one for the H P / I P
system and the other for the LP system. The waterspray
type of desuperheater is generally used although the
tube and shell type of heat exchanger may be in use
on some smaller units. A typical desuperheater is shown
in Fig 2.73.
 Gland sealing system

LIVE
STEAM SUPPLY

TEMPERATURE
SIGNAL

' I

STEAM
CONDENSATE AND AIR
OUT

AIR TO CONDENSATE

>
ATMOSPHERE IN

AIR BLOWER GLAND

CONDENSER

TO
CLEAN
DRAIN

FlG. 2.71 Typical gland sealing system

The two types of desuperheater are basically similar
and each consists of a cylindrical steel body, provided
with a steam outlet branch, which has a cover incor-
porating a steam inlet branch with a nozzle bolted
to it.
In operation, the steam enters the desuperheater
through the nozzle plate to form a high velocity jet.
The water being injected through the nozzle is en-
trained by this steam jet, atomised and evaporated,
thus desuperheating the steam before it is discharged
via the outlet branch.
An electronic or pneumatic controller is provided
for each of the H P / I P and LP sealing lines which, via
a temperature transmitter, senses the line temperature
and transmits electric signals to the controller mounted
near to the desuperheater nozzle.

201
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

AIR

HP LEAK-OFF
STEAM
PACKING/LEAK-OFF
i Q BLOWER

STEAM

GLAND
CONDENSER

(a) HP final glands

LP CYLINDER
STEAM AND AIR TO
GLAND CONDENSER

(b) LP glands

FIG. 2.72 Final gland arrangements

The desuperheaters require cooling water which
is supplied from the reserve feedwater tank through
a motorised isolating valve. The water supply is then
controlled by regulating valves. Each valve is ad-
justed by a controller on receipt of a signal from a
sensor in the appropriate desuperheater outlet. Any
increase or decrease in temperature at the desuper-
202
heater is compensated by the automatic opening or
closing of the valve to admit the amount of water
necessary to maintain the correct outlet steam tem-
perature.
The steam temperatures are indicated in the con-
trol room and locally; high and low temperature
alarms are included to indicate a fault condition.
 Gland sealing system

COVER PLATE

DISTANCE PIECE
NOZZLE
STEAM CHAMBER
NOZZLE PLATE

STEAM
INLET

STEAM
' OUTLET

BAFFLE TUBE

SKIRT

BOTTOM DOOR

EROSION PLATE DRAIN

FIG. 2.73 Gland steam desuperheater

There are drain connections on the desuperheaters
which allow drainage to pass to the clean drains tank
via an isolating valve, a strainer and a drain trap.
7.2.2 Pressure control
During start-up and shutdown, when live steam is
used, the pressure at the glands is controlled by the
pressure reducing valve in the live steam supply line.
As load increases, the steam flow to the HP/IP
glands progressively reduces and eventually reverses,
as leak-off steam becomes available. Consequently,
the rise in pressure at the glands causes the live steam
pressure regulating valve to close progressively, thus
maintaining a constant supply pressure at the glands
and eventually closing completely. The LP glands are
now sealed by steam leaking from the HP and IP
glands, and the pressure at the glands is controlled by
a leak-off valve which dumps steam to an LP heater.
203
Turbine plant systems
This arrangement ensures that only one regulat-
ing valve is in control at any one time and that the
changeover from live steam to leak-off steam is fully
automatic.
The steam pressure in the sealing line is indicated
in the control room and locally; a fault condition is
indicated by low pressure alarms.
7.3 Gland steam condenser
The function of the gland steam condenser is to main-
tain a sub-atmospheric pressure at the outermost leak-
off belt of the glands and thereby prevent the leakage
of steam from the glands into the turbine hall, where
it would condense on the walls and plant.
The condenser is vented to the atmosphere via a
blower. The small vacuum created by the blower is
sufficient to draw air into the glands where it mixes
with steam leaking from the cylinder; the air is se-
parated in the gland condenser and passed back to the
atmosphere via the vent fans. The steam is condensed
and the condensate passes to the main condenser. A
typical gland steam condenser is shown in Fig 2.74.
The condenser typically consists of a steel shell
closed by a dished-end waterbox cover incorporating a
tubeplate into which are expanded U-tubes. Cooling
water, provided by local river water or seawater, is
WATER
WATER
VACUUM
CONNECTION
TO DRAIN
FIG. 2.74 Gland steam condenser
204
Chapter 2
circulated through the U-tubes to condense the steam.
When the gland steam condenser is out of service,
steam is prevented from escaping into the turbine hall
by operating the vent fans.
8 Flange heating system
8.1 Function and system layout
The cylinder casings of the turbine each consist of
top and bottom halves; the top halves may be lifted
clear for inspection and maintenance. The two halves
of each casing are bolted together at the horizontal
flange (see Fig 2.75).
During turbine starting, the relatively thin walls of
the HP and IP casings tend to heat up more rapidly
than the large masses of metal in the horizontal joint
flanges. The function of the flange heating system is
to provide steam heating (at appropriate conditions)
to the HP and IP outer cylinder flanges, thereby re-
ducing the difference in temperature between each of
the cylinder casings and their associated flanges and
bolts. This prevents excessive thermal stressing and
cylinder distortions.
There are two flange heating systems, one supplying
the HP and the other supplying the IP. Although they
are completely separate systems, both are similar in
function and layout and a typical flange heating system
is shown in Fig 2.76.
The flanges on the HP cylinder are supplied with
steam from after the HP governing valves and the
IP flanges are supplied with steam from after the IP
governing valves.
Each cylinder flange heating supply line is provided
with an isolating valve, a preset regulating valve or
orifice and a permanent drain controlled by an orifice
FLANGE
FlG. 2.75 Turbine half-casings joined at horizontal flanges

STEAM SUPPLY
TO FLANGES
STEAM DISCHARGE
FROM FLANGES
DRAINS
CONTROL SIGNAL
STRAIGHT BORE ORIFICE
DIRT TRAP
TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
FIG. 2.76 Typical HP and IP turbine flange heating system
plate. The drain incorporates a dirt trap which pre-
vents a blockage of the hole in the orifice plate. Each
supply line separates into two, feeding the right-hand
flange and the left-hand flange.
Between adjacent flange bolt holes, there are al-
ternate top and bottom cross-drillings which provide
passages enabling the hot steam to flow freely through
the flange. This is shown diagrammatically in Fig 2.77.
The heating steam enters and leaves the flanges at
several points by way of drillings from the flange outer
surface into the bolt holes, the inlets and exits being
suitably spaced to give even heating throughout the
flanges. The annular spaces between the bolts and
holes are swept throughout their length by the hot
steam, thus preventing the accumulation of water in
the recesses.
Steam leaves each flange from outlet pipes which
converge into one pipe, fitted with a flow regulating
orifice.
Subsequently, the combined flows from each side
of the turbine are joined and led either to a suitable
feed water heater or to a drains receiver.
8.2 Control
The HP and IP flange heating systems are brought
into operation by the remote manual opening, from
the central control room, of the motorised isolating
Flange heating system
CONDENSER
FLASH
BOX
valves. Each cylinder flange heating system then op-
erates automatically and no further action should be
required until the system is shut down by reclosing the
motorised isolating valves. The system may be shut
down when a load of 40% or more has been reached
or, alternatively, when the cylinder barrel and flanges
are heated to about 250C.
The flow of steam is controlled by preset regulat-
ing valves and orifices. These valves, in each cylinder
supply line, are sized in conjunction with their corre-
sponding flange outlet orifice plates to give maximum
pressure in the flanges. This pressure is approximately
equal to the pressures on the inner surface of the re-
spective outer cylinder under full-load conditions. As
each cylinder flange heating supply is taken from after
the governing valves, any change in the cylinder inlet
steam pressure has a corresponding effect on both
flange and cylinder steam pressures. As a result, rapid
heating due to condensation heating is maintained at
the same relative levels, thus enabling the difference
in temperature between the casing and the flange to
be maintained within acceptable limits.
Suitable steam distribution is achieved using bal-
ancing orifices installed and set during commissioning.
Once the correct orifice size has been determined, it
remains unaltered.
With the system as described above, the flange
heating steam temperature is always higher than that
of the steam within the cylinder casing. In some de-
205
Turbine plant systems
TOP OUTER CASING
STEAM OUTLET
FIG. 2.77 Steam flow through flanges
signs, however, the steam supply is taken from inside
the relevant casing and hence its temperature is always
equal to that of the steam within the casing.
9 LP exhaust spray cooling system
9.1 Function and system layout
During the low-load running of a turbine-generator
unit, the volume of steam flowing through the last row
of the LP turbine blades is reduced considerably and
the smooth aerodynamic flow of steam through these
blades is lost. The LP exhaust steam is recirculated
and, as a result, energy is transferred from the blades
to the steam, resulting in a significant temperature rise
of the circulating steam. In addition, if the condenser
back pressure is high, a smaller volume of steam will
flow through the system, causing a significant worsen-
ing of the situation.
The excessive temperature rise caused by these ef-
fects can result in an undesirable restriction on the
length of time that the turbine can run with no load,
and possible uneven heating of the exhaust casings
leading to serious distortion and adverse effects on
turbine alignment.
The LP spray cooling system is provided to ensure
that exhaust temperatures under these conditions are
maintained within defined limits, thereby minimising
206
Chapter 2
STEAM OUTLET
the possibility of excessive casing distortion. This is
done by spraying cooling water into the exhaust space,
whenever necessary, downstream of the exhaust guide
vanes. The exhaust steam is cooled and then recir-
culated to cool the casing. A typical LP exhaust cooling
system is shown in Fig 2.78.
During normal running of the turbine, the conden-
sate extraction pump supplies the spraywater to the
system. The condensate supply, before reaching the
spray nozzles in each end of the LP turbine cylinder
exhaust, normally passes through a manual isolating
valve, a pressure reducing valve, a strainer to remove
dirt particles, a flow indicating switch (measuring water
flow to sprays) and a pneumatic flow control valve,
with manual inlet and outlet isolating valves. A pres-
sure switch is usually fitted across the strainer to mea-
sure any difference in pressure, thus indicating whether
blocking has occurred. A by-pass, with a manual iso-
lating valve, is usually provided round the spray control
valve and its associated isolating valves.
An emergency spraywater pump driven from a DC
protected power supply will cut in automatically in
the event of a failure of the normal spraywater sup-
ply. The emergency pump draws its water from an
auxiliary water tank and discharges into the spray-
water line upstream of the strainer. The emergency
supply line normally contains a manual isolating valve,
an emergency spraywater pump and a self-activated
isolating valve.
Each LP turbine exhaust flow incorporates a split
ring of spray nozzles, the ring being located outboard

DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE SWITCH
FROM CONDENSATE
EXTRACTION PUMP
FROM AN AUXILIARY
WATER TANK
EMERGENCY SPRAY
WATER PUMP
FIG. 2.78 LP exhaust spray cooling system
of the exhaust guide vanes. Initially, a number of these
nozzles may be blanked off, to be used as additional
spray nozzles if extra spraywater is found to be ne-
cessary during the subsequent running of the turbine.
The arrangement of the spraywater nozzles is shown
in Fig 2.79.
Each nozzle is designed to provide a spray of atomis-
ed particles which will evaporate quickly, thus promoting
rapid cooling of the exhaust steam.
Suitable safety measures are built into the system to
correctly maintain spraywater supplies so that an effec-
tive atomised spray is available when required. This is
normally achieved by installing an automatic valve in
the supply system to ensure that the spraywater flow is
above a set minimum level. This valve is arranged to
open or close rapidly near this minimum set point. The
minimum flow requirement may result in a slow cycle
of valve opening and closing during low load, but this
is acceptable.
A temperature detector is located in the path of the
exhaust steam downstream of the spray nozzles to
provide the signal for the automatic start and control
of the spraywater quantity.
9.2 Control
An automatic temperature control system is fitted to
LP exhaust spray cooling system
TEMPERATURE
CONTROLLER
H
SPRAY
I CONTROL VALVE
V,
L J
MANUAL
BYPASS
keep the LP exhaust steam temperature within accep-
table operational limits during no-load or light load
operation. A temperature detector, incorporating
thermocouples, is situated in one exhaust flow of each
LP cylinder and this measures the exhaust temperature.
In operation, a signal is passed to the temperature
controller, via an amplitude selector (this ensures that
the LP exhaust with the highest temperature is selected),
which operates the spraywater control valve.
When any individual sensing element detects a pre-
set low exhaust steam temperature, the controller will
open the spray control valve to pass a minimum quan-
tity of water. Further increases in temperature will
allow proportionally-greater quantities of water, rising
to a maximum water flow at a preset high exhaust
steam temperature.
The temperature detectors can have an inherent
time lag and, under certain circumstances, an overriding
control is necessary to produce a two-minute burst of
spraywater at maximum flow.
In the event of the condensate extraction pumps
failing, the emergency spraywater pump is brought
into operation automatically, provided that the turbine
gland steam isolating valve is open. This condition is
detected by a limit switch situated on the isolating
valve. Loss of supply from the extraction pumps is
indicated by a pressure switch located on the supply
line from the pumps, which is able to detect low water
207
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

NOZZLE ADAPTOR

EXHAUST COVER

SPRAY WATER FEED

TO OTHER EXHAUST END EXHAUST BOTTOM
SPRAY WATER FEED FROM
EXTRACTION PUMP DISCHARGE 11

FIG. 2.79 Arrangement of spraywater nozzles

208

pressure. The emergency pump continues to run until
stopped by the operator.
Should the automatic system fail, a manually-operated
by-pass is provided round the spray control valve to
enable the operator to maintain the spraywater supply
to LP exhausts. This valve is normally closed.
The pressure reducing valve in the line from the
condensate pumps is set during initial commissioning
of the system to give the required pressure at the
spray valve inlet (while it is open). Once set, it should
not require any further adjustment.
The emergency pump discharge isolating valve is
activated by the upstream pressure and is arranged so
that it remains closed against the static head of the
feedwater tank, but opens when subjected to the emer-
gency pump discharge head. This feature automatically
prevents the condensate storage tank draining via the
sprays during shutdown.
If the steam temperature in any of the exhausts reaches
a predetermined level, an alarm is given. If the exhaust
temperature exceeds this level or the load falls below a
certain value, a turbine trip will be initiated. These levels
are determined by the turbine manufacturers.
10 Drains systems
10.1 Function and system layout
During the start-up period of a turbine, the steam
coming into contact with cooler metals results in the
formation of condensate within the turbine cylinders,
the steam piping and the valve chests. This condensate
must be removed before the turbine can be run-up fully,
to prevent a loss of efficiency and possible damage to
the turbine. Condensation occurs mostly during a cold
start, but also forms during normal operation when a
change in load or steam conditions results in a dif-
ference between steam and metal temperatures. The
drains system provides an outlet for the condensate,
whilst minimising leakage of steam from the turbine
processes. A typical drains system is shown diagram-
matically in Fig 2.80.
Each drain line is taken from the lowest point of
the associated pipe system, where condensate is likely
to collect, and the clean drains are led into the drains
receivers where the water is eventually routed to the
condenser.
To prevent loose pipe-scale and other foreign matter
from blocking the drains, each drain is provided with
a dirt trap. Dirty water drains are led to the station
drains. Drains are classified as being either start-up or
continuous.
10.1.1 Start-up drains
Drain lines are provided to dispose of the condensate
Drains systems
which collects during start-up. The drains may incor-
porate master and martyr valves in series. The master
valve, located upstream, is normally open, but can
be closed manually when isolation is required. The
martyr valve is motorised and, during normal operat-
ing conditions, provides adequate control for the
start-up drains. In some systems, the martyr valves are
replaced by an orifice plate and the master valve is
closed either automatically or manually when the
machine is on load. On other systems, steam traps are
used in place of the martyr valves, but these are
not favoured in high pressure areas.
10.1.2 Continuous drains
In regimes such as the LP cylinder, where the steam
is wet during normal operation, drain lines are ne-
cessary to provide continuous drainage. Such lines
have orifice plates to restrict the flow. In places where
there is likely to be a large collection of condensate
during start-up, the line incorporates a valved by-pass
in addition to the orifice.
All clean drain lines lead to the drains receivers,
located near the condenser. On entering this vessel
some of the drains water flashes into steam which
is vented to the main condenser. Sometimes the vents
are fitted with desuperheating sprays. The coolant for
the spray is supplied by the condensate extraction
pump and a temperature sensor regulates the amount
of water supplied to the sprays.
The remaining condensate drains to the bottom of
the condenser. On some units, pumps are required to
lift the condensate from the drains receiver to the
condenser. A sight glass gives local indication of the
level in the drains vessel.
10.2 Control
The flow of drains water in those drains which are
normally closed during operation of the plant, is usu-
ally controlled by the master and martyr valves. At
start-up, the master valve opens first followed by the
martyr valve. In this way, possible deterioration of
the valve seals from throttling the drains water is con-
fined to the martyr valve. The master valve is then always
able to provide tight isolation.
Each drain line is provided with a pressure gauge
(calibrated to show saturation temperature) at the drain
source and a temperature gauge. At a temperature of
approximately 30C above the saturation temperature
corresponding to the line pressure, it is reasonable to
assume that only dry steam will be passing through
the drains and the motorised martyr valves can be
closed. Alternatively, the valve can be closed automa-
tically from a load or temperature signal. The master
and martyr valves are usually opened after shutdown
or there may be provision for automatic opening when
the load falls below a value of say 10%.
209
Turbine plant systems
HP STEAM
HP STEAM CHEST CHEST
(LH)
CONDENSER
TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
CONDENSATE
SUPPLY
FIG. 2.80 Typical turbine HP drains system
When the drain valves are shut during on-load op-
eration, a column of water will collect in the drain
line above the valve due to cooling of the stagnant steam
in the pipe. If a turbine trip is initiated or rapid unloading
occurs, the pressure in the turbine decreases and this
water tends to reflux into the plant: this could cause
unacceptable chilling of the plant components or pipes.
To minimise this refluxing, the martyr valves are
sometimes replaced by an orifice plate which provides
a permanent opening for the condensate to escape. The
small diameter of the orifice allows an adequate flow
of water but limits steam flow.
In other cases, the valves are opened automatically
on reducing load or steam traps are used in place
of the martyr valves. The steam trap is designed to
allow water to escape, but not steam. There are various
types of trap such as ball float, inverted-bucket and
thermostatic traps. The traps are similar in operation
and construction, although detailed differences are
needed to meet the various operating conditions.
As an example, the thermostatic trap consists of
a forged-steel body with a removable cover. Inlet
and outlet ports are divided by a vertical wall. A
ball valve situated on the downstream side of the
210
Chapter 2
IP STEAM
CHEST IP STEAM CHEST
(RH)
CONDENSER
TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
valve seat is activated by a bimetallic element which,
on a rise in temperature, deflects against the line
pressure and closes the valve. The force of the ball
valve increases in relation to the steam temperature
and pressure.
The trap usually discharges water after a certain
amount has collected. The trap then closes and is
ready for refilling. However, some traps are able to
differentiate between steam and condensate by sensors
which can detect a temperature drop in the conden-
sate. These traps are set so that only condensate, air
or wet steam will pass through to the drains vessel.
As soon as steam at saturation temperature (or above)
enters the trap, the ball valve is held tightly on its
seat, thus preventing the escape of live steam to the
drains vessel. The controlling temperature can be
constant, or can be varied depending on conditions in
the steam system.
Most steam trap installations incorporate a by-pass,
so that the traps can be isolated for inspection and
maintenance. This by-pass permits the blowdown of
debris or contaminated condensate during commis-
sioning or subsequent run-ups, and prevents undue
contamination of the trap strainer.
 By-pass systems

11 By-pass systems
IDEAL ADIABATIC FLOW
WITH FRICTION
11.1 Configuration
By-pass systems provide facilities to redirect steam from
entry to the turbine. There are several reasons why
this may be needed and they differ, depending upon
whether the plant is fossil-fired or nuclear. The one
common reason (and possibly the most important) is
when there is a large loss of turbine load. For a more
detailed discussion of the reasons for by-pass systems
refer to Chapter 1.
Though nuclear and fossil-fired by-pass systems
differ somewhat in design, their fundamental modes
of operation are similar. They both redirect steam from
the turbine inlet and pass it to the condenser via a series
of isolating valves, pressure control valves and dump
tubes.
CONVENTIONAL
SINGLE ORIFICE
VALVE
11.1.1 Pressure control valves
These valves are designed to greatly reduce the pressure
of the hot steam so that its conditions correspond
better to those inside the condenser.
The simplest way of creating a large pressure drop
across a valve is by the conversion of heat energy to
velocity (kinetic energy) by passing the steam through
a small orifice. Downstream from the orifice, tur- FIG. 2.81 Pressure control valve characteristics
bulence accompanied by shock waves reconverts the
velocity into heat energy. The change in energy for a
conventional single-orifice valve is shown in Fig 2.81.
Although this is a satisfactory means of creating a
pressure drop, the shock waves created produce a large
amount of undesirable throttling noise. Consequently,
valves have been developed that produce the same
pressure drop but with considerably less noise, Fig 2.82
shows a typical example. In such a valve, the reduc-
tion in pressure is obtained through the principle of
'adiabatic flow with friction'. Steam is passed through
a number of restrictions called a disc stack. The stack
provides a complicated flow path which results in the
dissipation of energy through a high loss of head rather
than through Shockwaves (Fig 2.81). The flow area
inside the stack is gradually increased towards the DISC STACK
downstream end. This helps maintain an almost con- AND TRIM ASSEMBLY

stant steam velocity over the expansion caused by the

pressure drop. Generally, these valves are capable of
going from fully-closed to fully-open within three FlG. 2.82 Pressure control valve
seconds and from fully-open to fully-closed in five
seconds.

Isolating valves are not required to create a large

11.1.2 Isolating valves
These valves are usually situated either side of a
pressure control valve for two reasons. First, to en-
sure the total isolation of the control valve if it
requires maintenance whilst the turbine is running;
second, to provide a back-up should the control valve
fail.
pressure drop and their design is simpler than that of
the pressure control valve. A typical isolating valve is
shown in Fig 2.83. The valve is a parallel-slide type,
so called because it does not rely on a wedge action.
Instead, the discs slide over the seat faces when the
valve is being opened or closed, resulting in a minimum
pressure drop.

211
Turbine plant systems
DISC SPRING
FlG. 2.83 Typical isolating valve
The isolating valve downstream from the pressure
control valve has a back-seating arrangement on the
spindle to prevent the ingress of air to the condenser
under normal running conditions.
11.1.3 Dump tube
The dump tube is the final section of a by-pass system,
where the steam is passed into the condenser at the
correct pressure and temperature. Figure 2.84 shows
an example.
Steam enters at the narrow section after leaving the
pressure control valve. It passes through a number of
plates (five or six) each containing a number of orifices.
These plates further reduce the steam pressure and
212
Chapter 2
the tube section diverges here to accommodate the
associated expansion of the steam. The steam then
enters a spray-water section where it is desuperheated.
Several water-jet entry ports circumscribe this section
through which spray water is injected. The spray water
is taken from the condensate extraction pump discharge
and enters the dump tube via its own set of isolation
and control valves. The steam at the reduced pressure
and temperature leaves the dump tube through a sec-
tion known as the dispenser.
11.2 By-pass systems for nuclear plant
A by-pass system is important in a nuclear plant for
the following reasons:
Sudden large load rejection can be accepted without
incurring a reactor trip or actuation of the steam
generator safety valves. (The reactor control system
will accommodate either a sudden load rejection of
10% of full-load or a gradual rejection of 5% per
minute. Load rejection beyond these figures results
in the need for system by-pass.)
Stored energy and residual heat can be removed
following a turbine or reactor trip. This will bring
the plant to no-load conditions without the actua-
tion of the steam generator safety valves.
The plant can be maintained at hot standby con-
ditions.
Manually-controlled cooldown of the plant can be
achieved to the point when the Residual heat removal
system' can be operated.
Figure 2.85 shows the arrangement of the by-pass
system for a nuclear plant.
The by-pass consists of a steam line that begins
at the main steam manifold and has three pairs of
lines branching off it to the three condenser shells
via the isolation/control/isolation valve arrangement
and the dump tubes. For each pair of lines, one line
is designated 'Bank and is used in a modulating mode
so that the required conditions can be regulated. The
other line is designated 'Bank 2' and is either open or
closed.
There is another bank on a separate line from the
manifold (not shown in Fig 2.85) which exhausts di-
rectly to atmosphere. This 'Bank 3' is used when there
is a large loss in load or a reactor trip. Once steam
temperature has reduced sufficiently (usually after a few
minutes), the 'Bank 3' valves are closed.
The by-pass pressure control valves may be operated
either pneumatically or hydraulically; but a pneu-
matically-controlled system will be discussed here.
When load is rejected, a load rejection controller
opens all the by-pass valves (Banks 1, 2 and 3) se-

ORIFICE PLATES
^..^3
7SSS S /T
STEAM
ENTRY '
DESUPERHEATER
INLET PORTS
1
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
FIG. 2.84 Dump tube
quentially in about three seconds. The controller re-
ceives a signal obtained from the difference between
the actual and the programmed reactor-coolant tem-
perature. The controller subsequently closes the valves
when load is regained.
The plant trip controller opens a proportion of the
pressure control valve when the reactor trips and
subsequently reduces the opening to suit the reactor decay
heat generation. The controller receives a signal ob-
tained from the difference between the actual pri-
mary average temperature and the no-load primary
temperature.
The steam header controller operates the first valve
bank of pressure control valves in two different modes
of operation, depending upon whether the plant is
required to be on hot standby or cooldown. In the first
mode, the <Bank valves are modulated to maintain
a constant steam header pressure. This enables the
plant to be automatically maintained at the hot shut-
down condition. It is also used to maintain steady
conditions while the turbine-generator is being syn-
chronised. In the second mode, the operator controls the
signal to the valve directly. This permits the operator
to open the 'Bank valves progressively to cool the
plant down.
Each of the spraywater control valves opens to
deliver a preset minimum flow whenever its associated
steam by-pass control valve is not closed. Thereafter
the spraywater flow is arranged to be directly pro-
portional to the steam pressure measured in the dump
tube, after the control valve downstream isolating
valve and before the first orifice plate. As the flow
through the dump tube is critical, the spraywater
flow is proportional to the steam flow.
In the event of a loss in electrical power or air
By-pass systems
STEAM EXHAUSTS
~5 M I I I I I I I I I I/JCT
(
I J
V\
U
V ^ " " " T-r-r-rH-rr- TTTI I I I I I I I I I I
supply, the pressure control valves will fail-closed. The
spraywater control valves, however, remain fixed in
their last held position and control is regained by using
remote manual operation. The pressure control valves
will also fail closed when the condenser pressure is too
high. The by-pass system carries alarms to warn of low
spraywater pressure and high dump tube steam
temperature.
11.3 By-pass systems for fossil-fired plant
The importance of system by-pass in fossil-fired plant
is as follows:
After large load decreases, the turbine can still run
at the much reduced load while the boiler conditions
can be maintained. This permits rapid restarting when
load is restored.
The required steam conditions can be established
when initially starting the boiler.
Steam flow is provided through the reheater circuit
during start-up but before steam is admitted to the
turbine.
The by-pass scheme comprises two systems an HP
system and an LP system. A schematic representation
of the HP system can be seen in Fig 2.86.
The HP steam is taken from each of the main
steam lines after the main steam stop valves. The steam
passes into the cold reheat inlet via four pressure
control valves and their associated isolating valves.
The correct temperature to the cold reheat is achieved
213
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

SIDE VIEW

TURBINE EXHAUST HOOD STEAM

BUSMAIN

I1 i i <j>
ISOLATING
VALVE
J LU
DRAIN I

DRAINS ^
(Ml ^-DRAINS
M ^DRAINS-^^
BANK 1 BANK 2 BANK 1 BANK 2
BANK 1 BANK 2

CONDENSER 1 CONDENSER 2 CONDENSER 3

END VIEW

FIG. 2.85 By-pass configuration for a nuclear plant

214

MAIN STEAM
FROM BOILER
COLD REHEAT
TO BOILER
FIG. 2.86 HP by-pass system for fossil-fired plant
through the employment of desuperheater spray water.
The spraywater supply to the pressure control valve is
taken from the main feed pumps and has its own set
of pressure control and isolating valves. The presence
of warming piping and drains in Fig 2.86 will be dis-
cussed later in this section.
During start-up the pressure control valves are
opened manually until the valves are more than 10%
open, at which point the system is controlled auto-
matically. When the boiler steam pressure reaches a
specified value, the by-pass system automatically keeps
the boiler at that value. In the event of a turbine trip,
a signal is sent to the control valves to open rapidly.
Alternatively, in order to protect the cold reheat piping
system, the pressure control valves can be ordered to
close rapidly under the following conditions:
When the spraywater pressure is low.
If any spraywater valve fails to open within three
seconds of its associated pressure control valve.
If the steam entering the cold reheat pipes is at too
high a temperature.
If the pressure in the cold reheat system is too high.
By-pass systems
MAIN STEAM
FROM BOILER
COLD REHEAT
TO BOILER
BYPASS PIPING
WARMING PIPING
If condenser pressure is too high.
Unlike the nuclear by-pass system, the pressure control
valves will fail locked in their last-held position if
there is a loss in electrical power. The spraywater
pressure control valves also fail locked in their last-
held position.
The LP by-pass system consists of four lines taken
from the four hot reheat pipes (upstream of the IP
turbine control valves). These four lines are then con-
verged into two. The steam in each line flows through
an isolating valve, a pressure control valve and then
into the condenser dump tube. The LP by-pass system,
therefore, is very similar to the by-pass system on a
nuclear plant: it behaves in the same way as the HP
system, the pressure control valves opening or closing
under exactly the same circumstances.
11.4 Problems with by-pass systems
The presence of by-pass systems, as has been seen,
can greatly benefit the plant. Their addition, however,
does result in a few problems such as noise, water
ingress and thermal shock.
215
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

11.4.1 Noise on the control valves that exit to atmosphere (Bank 3

It was discussed earlier how large pressure drops across
valves induce considerable noise. Figure 2.87 shows
how the proportion of energy loss converted to noise
(acoustic efficiency) increases with the size in pressure
drop. This effect is reduced dramatically by using valves
that employ adiabatic flow with friction, as discussed
earlier. Noise can be reduced further by increasing the
thickness of the downstream piping and covering it
with acoustic insulation. Figure 2.88 shows the ratios
of pipe thickness to pipe length used to create further
noise attenuation. Even more attenuation is achieved
10-
on nuclear plant) by including a silencer.
11.4.2 Water ingress
With the pressure control valves shut, a large build-up
of condensation will occur in the steam lines. If this
condensation were allowed to remain, water would be
passed through the system when the valves are opened,
resulting in damage to the valves and condenser. To
avoid this build-up, drains are located at strategic posi-
tions, for example, in the busmain and upstream of
each control valve shown in Fig 2.85. Drains are also
present on the HP system of the fossil-fired plant shown
in Fig 2.86 to prevent ingress of water from the
spray water system.

3
5x10
11.4.3 Thermal shock
c, = 0.6 The drain lines at the upstream section of the control
\
\ valves serve a dual function. As well as maintaining the
C, = 1.0 pipework free from water, they also maintain the valve
c,= 0.7 bodies at a temperature which will avoid any large ther-
\ mal shock to the valves when the by-pass comes into
10 3 - Iff/ / operation.
9- /
8- /,
7- IIi ^ C, = ( .9
6-
5x 10 4 -
1
mi /7/ 11.4.4 Leakage flows
An almost inevitable problem with by-pass systems, as

1
with most steam systems, is leakage flows. Leaks from
4-

3- H valves reduce the efficiency of the plant, so valves are

\ :0.8 designed to be as secure from leaks as possible. During
the life of the plant, leaks are likely to occur, but are
kept in check with regular maintenance. Taking all these
considerations into account ensures a safe, efficient
[/ and reliable system which provides flexibility between
I/ the boiler/reactor and turbine conditions.
5x 10"5
3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20

P1/P2
12 Operational flexibility

12.1 Typical operational regimes

FIG. 2.87 Acoustical efficiency characteristics
Power station output, and therefore generation, needs
to be regulated constantly to match consumer demands.
Economics demand that the base load should be pro-
FLOW
vided by the most efficient plant, which mainly includes
nuclear and large-capacity coalfield-sited coal-fired sta-
tions. More expensive, or less efficient, generating plant
(small-capacity coal and oil-burning stations) are
therefore needed to vary output to match demand. The
^= iA -> plant that is required to run intermittently to match
demand operates what is known as a two-shift regime,
10 D, so called because of the requirement to run during the
two daytime shifts but to shut down during the night
shift. Such plant may also be called upon to shut down
over the weekend. It is now common for 500 MW and
FIG. 2.88 Ideal pipe dimensions 660 MW machines to carry out two-shifting operations
216

in addition to load-following cycles. This requirement
for improved flexibility has resulted in all 500 MW and
660 MW turbine-generator units on the UK system
being designed to be capable of operating a two-shifting
regime, in addition to the requirement for high effi-
ciency base-load operation during early life. Typical
operational requirements for modern high merit tur-
bine plant are shown in Table 2.2.
TABLE 2.2
Typical operational requirements
Description Definition Required cycles
Hot starts Approx 6 hours shutdown
(Two-shifting) with run-up to full-load 5000
in 30 minutes
Warm starts 24-72 hours shutdown 1000
Cold starts Starts following > 120 hours 200
prolonged shutdown
Load-following Changes of load in 50-100% 4000
load range. Assuming
minimum of 3 hours between
cycles.
12.1.1 Base load
Under normal conditions, all high merit plant would be
expected to operate in a base load regime. This involves
long periods of continuous operation, with infrequent
'down times' to facilitate statutory testing, inspection
and overhaul/maintenance periods. Base load units
do not normally accumulate a high number of hot or
warm start cycles or load-following cycles. Figure 2.89
shows typical run-up curves for a cold start on a
660 MW turbine-generator. In this particular example,
full-load is achieved after nearly six hours, excluding
the time taken to achieve satisfactory steam conditions
at the turbine stop valves. This long run-up time is
not only to limit differential expansion rates and rotor
eccentricities, but also to limit thermal stresses within
the turbine.
12.1.2 Two-shifting
One of the most important factors when considering
two-shifting operation is to keep the turbine tempera-
tures as high as possible during shutdown. This means
that the machine needs to be deloaded as rapidly as
possible. Figure 2.90 shows typical shutdown curves
for a 660 MW turbine-generator, in which the machine
is shut down within 20 minutes, with the last 50%
of load being shed in approximately 2 minutes. Main-
taining the turbine temperatures in such a way ensures
a faster run-up and reduces thermal cycling of the
turbine components. When starting, it is important to
ensure that the steam inlet temperature is matched to
the metal temperatures to avoid cooling the turbine
Operational flexibility
unnecessarily. Steam conditions at the stop valves
should allow for the temperature drop due to throt-
tling at steam admission to the turbine (see Section
1.3 of this chapter). It is particularly important when
carrying out hot starts, that the rate of run-up to
speed and initial block loading is sufficient to prevent
a reduction in turbine temperature. The range of tem-
perature cycling should be controlled as far as possible
to minimise the risk of thermal fatigue.
Figures 2.91 and 2.92 show typical run-up curves
for a warm start (after a weekend shutdown) and a
hot start (after an overnight shutdown) respectively.
The rapid loading shown during the hot start indicates
the importance of maintaining a steady rate of rise
of temperature. Run-up procedures must be adhered
to in order to minimise cyclic thermal stresses in the
turbine and thus prevent thermal fatigue problems
during the life of the turbine.
12.1.3 Load cycling
The amount of load cycling that a turbine is expected
to carry out (i.e., defined as cycling between 50%
and 100% load) needs to be controlled. In addition
to specifying the number of load-following cycles
required during the life of the plant, the time taken
to carry out load changes should be such as to mini-
mise cyclic thermal stress. This means avoiding rapid
cooling or heating of the turbine when inlet steam
throttling is applied or removed to achieve the desired
load change.
12.2 Influence on machine design
The need for flexibility has brought with it inherent
problems which have needed to be redressed at the
design stage of the turbine, with the knowledge of
future operational requirements. The main problem
is the effect of thermal cycling with respect to thermal
fatigue damage. The flexible mode of operation in-
volves some degree of temperature cycling of com-
ponents, leading to strain cycling of material in the
critical regions. The damaging cumulative effects of
thermal cycling (i.e., stress-strain cycling) must be
assessed over the turbine life to ensure that sufficient
margin exists in the design for the effects of steady state
creep.
Figure 2.93 shows a typical stress-strain cycle as
experienced by the surface of a large HP rotor. The
cycle shows the effects of two-shifting using a typical
'warm' start where the temperature gradients cause
thermal strain. On heating with steam at 565C, the
surface attempts to expand but is compressed by
restraint from the underlying material. This compres-
sion, represented by line A-B in the figure, may cause
the surface to go into compressive yield, represented
by line B-C, in areas of high stress concentration.
Subsequent heating and expansion of the underlying
material then causes tensile stressing of the surface
217
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

400

o
2
<

700 -i

3000

O 1500-

480

FlG. 2.89 Typical 660 MW turbine-generator run-up curves for a cold start from 15C metal temperature

218
 Operational flexibility

STOP VALVE

100-1

0-1-

o
<
o
200

TIME, min

FIG. 2.90 Typical 660 MW turbine-generator shutdown curves

219
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

170 --

150 H

3 450-^

50 H

3000-r

Q 1500 H

TIME, min

FlG. 2.91 Typical 660 MW turbine-generator run-up curves for a warm start

220
 Operational flexibility

o
5<H

0 -L

3000-p

E
Q 1500

TIME, min

FIG. 2.92 Typical 660 MW turbine-generator run-up curves for a hot start

221
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

eration has influenced the design of turbines in several

areas.

il
STRESS,tf
i

A
12.2.1 Turbine cylinders
450C
Probably the most significant change in turbine design
has been the adoption of multishell cylinders. The
565 C
advantage of this type of construction is that pressure

f\
1i
difference and temperature gradients across each shell
is reduced compared with single-shell construction. It is
STRESS
RELAXATION
now normal practice in one form or another, in high
temperature machines, for HP and most IP cylinders,
and is usual for most LP cylinders. Low pressure
'
/1
1 \ E

cylinders sometimes have a larger temperature range

f
56 5 C

from inlet to exhaust than any other cylinder, and the

STRAIN X
B a component and thus thermal stress. The use of
I '1
c Jf
_ 1 _
1^ " 1 "
1 "
SHUTDOWN 565-450 C
STEADY RUNNING 565 C
START-UP 450-565 C
FiG. 2.93 Typical stress-strain loop for two-shifting a
large, high temperature rotor
as full power is attained (line C-D). Stress relaxation
(line D-E) can then occur at the maximum operating
temperature, during which elastic strain is converted
to creep strain and may cause microstructural damage.
Shutdown causes a drop in temperature at the surface,
the thermal contraction being constrained by under-
lying material, resulting in further tensile stressing.
However, this straining takes place outside the creep
range of CrMoV steels used in rotor construction. Details
of rotor materials and their properties with reference
to creep resistance are given in Chapter 1. The stress-
strain cycle of Fig 2.93 is similar to that experienced
by the inner surface of a high temperature casing
under severe starting transients.
The magnitude of thermal stresses produced during
two-shifting or cycling, depends on the amount of tem-
perature change imposed in a given time in relation to
the sizes of components involved; for example, casing
thickness or rotor diameter. Stress concentrations in
casings and rotors must be reduced to a practical
minimum by the avoidance of rapid changes of section
and by proper fillet radii. The need for flexible op-
inner casing may itself be of double-shell construction
to reduce thermal stresses and distortion. As ratings
have increased, component size has increased and with
it the problem of transient temperature gradients within
multishell cylinders has allowed temperature distribution
and gradients to be controlled, thus minimising cyclic
thermal stresses. In addition, this design allows the heavy
flanges which were necessary on single-shell designs to
be reduced in size. In some cases, the use of one-piece
shells, with no horizontal split, obviates the need for
flanges, thus removing the problem of axial thermal
stresses due to uneven heating of flanges and cylinder
walls. The use of flange heating has also contributed to
matching the rate-of-rise of temperature of the flanges
and cylinders more closely.
The adoption of multishell casings and the separation
of steam chests from the turbine cylinder, has allowed
simplification of the geometry of each component. This
means that the design has fewer changes in section and
more attention is paid to radii to avoid high stresses in
areas where a change in section is unavoidable. Figure
2.94 shows a triple-shell HP cylinder with an unsplit
intermediate sleeve. To further reduce temperature
gradients, particularly in the first stage of the HP
turbine, pure throttling of the governor valves has been
adopted for load control. Although this type of control
reduces efficiency at part-load, this can be tolerated in
two-shifting operation, where the machine tends to be
operating at rated load or is shut down. The practice
of using nozzle control to maintain part-load efficiency
has the disadvantage of reduced efficiency at full-load
and leads to temperature gradients because of the
circumferential non-uniformity of steam admission.
This reduces the rate at which load can be changed
without inducing thermal stresses. Rapid starting and
loading, which are essential requirements for modern
machines, are therefore achieved more securely with
throttle control.
During run-ups and rapid loading, the turbine is
most at risk from a 'rub' between stationary and rotating
components. Apart from localised damage at the area
of contact, the resulting heat generated by the 'rub'
can cause a bend in the rotor shaft. Continuous asym-

222

OUTER CASING
UNSPLIT SLEEVE CASING
INNER CASING
FIG. 2.94 Triple-shell HP cylinder of a 660 MW turbine with unsplit intermediate sleeve
metrical rubbing, which bends the rotor even more,
can cause so much heating that the heated area of the
rotor, expanding and constrained by the surrounding
unheated material, yields in compression. As a result,
when it is allowed to cool, local tension is applied
leading to a permanent bend. Such 'rubs' are usually
caused by distortion of gland seal positions from their
normal concentric location due to rapid thermal cycl-
ing. The adoption of spring-back gland seals allows
retraction of the seal should contact with the rotor
occur. This limits the damage caused by a rub and
reduces the risk of a shaft bend.
Cylinder expansion and contraction during run-up
and run-down, requires that cylinder/pedestal sliding
surfaces are well maintained, to prevent unnecessary
external forces on the cylinders due to sticking.
12.2.2 Turbine rotors
Rotor design is influenced by the often conflicting
Operational flexibility
requirements of steady and cyclic operation. One
example of this is the rotor bore size. A large rotor
bore, often with a diameter of half the external dia-
meter, gives improved performance for transient or
cyclic operation, as the temperature gradients and
thus thermal fatigue is reduced. However, large dia-
meter bores cause an increase in the hoop stress which
will accelerate creep at steady load. In large modern
machines, the requirement to reduce the hoop stress
dictates that the bore diameter should be kept to a
practical minimum. The main requirement for rotors
is to reduce thermal fatigue by ensuring that all stress-
concentrating features are controlled so as to mini-
mise the stress levels.
A fracture mechanics approach is adopted to assess
the growth of any initial inherent forging defects. The
repeated application of stress during cycling could cause
the defect to propagate to the stage where fast fracture
of the forging would occur. With knowledge of the
operational requirements of the turbine and assuming
223
Turbine plant systems
that the largest undetectable defect is initially present,
the criticality of that defect can be assessed.
12.2.3 Stress monitors
The life of the turbine-generator is based on its op-
erational requirements and the assumption that a
particular stress level related to each start is reached,
but not exceeded. During runs-up it is beneficial that
thermal stress levels within critical components, e.g.,
HP and IP rotors, are monitored so that the maximum
allowable thermal stress levels are not exceeded. This
should ensure that thermal fatigue damage will not
occur in the operational life of the turbine. This moni-
toring requirement brought about the development of
stress monitors or life expenditure monitors, as they
are sometimes called.
The monitoring is achieved by the use of tempera-
ture probes with a central core which simulates the
critical section of the rotor. Figure 2.95 shows a typi-
STEAM FLOW
FIG. 2.95 Replaceable rotor simulating probe for
monitoring thermal stresses in HP and IP rotors
224
Chapter 2
cal probe arrangement. One end of the core is in
contact with the main steam flow and the other end is
insulated. Because it cannot be in contact with the
rotor it is situated to measure the temperature of
the steam as admitted to the rotor. For correct simu-
lation, the probes are positioned so that during natural
cooling, the probe and critical areas of the rotor cool
at the same rate. This means that steam/metal tem-
perature mismatch is the same for both probe and rotor.
This data is then fed into a computer, where detailed
stress analysis is carried out to evaluate the thermal
stress within critical areas of the rotor.
12.3 Forced-air cooling
The purpose of forced-air cooling of the main turbine
is to allow the machine to be taken off barring in the
shortest possible time, thus enabling maintenance work
to be carried out as soon as possible after unloading
the unit. Forced-air cooling greatly reduces outage
times; typically, with the use of forced-air cooling, a
machine can be removed from barring within about
20-25 h of coming off-load. This compares with times
of 90-120 h when employing natural cooling.
12.3.1 Cooling of turbine
For this technique to be employed, the turbine is
designed to be suitable for injection of cooling air into
the HP and IP cylinders via special injection points
located around the cylinders. Diffusers are normally
provided at the injection points to ensure that un-
acceptable local chilling of the cylinder or other com-
ponents does not occur. To prevent the rotor cooling
faster than the casing, which would cause unacceptable
positive differential expansion, cooling is achieved by
injecting the air into the interspace between the inner
and outer casings. This ensures that the rate at which
the casing cools is higher than that of the rotor, thus
allowing better control of the differential expansion.
A typical forced-air cooling system for a 660 MW
generator is shown in the diagrammatic arrangement
of Fig 2.96. This shows the direction of air flow for the
HP and IP turbines. Air entering between the outer
cylinder and the inner sleeve of the HP turbine flows
in both directions to the cold reheat pipes and reheater,
exhausting to atmosphere via the reheater dump valves.
Air from the IP turbine exhausts via vents from the
IP/LP crossover pipes. The heated air must be dis-
charged in such a way as to present no hazard to either
personnel or to other plant.
During cooling, it is essential that close attention
is paid to HP and IP turbine rotor eccentricities; HP,
IP and LP differential expansions; HP and IP metal
temperatures and the barring motor current, which
could give indication of contact between rotating and
stationary components. The air flow must be controlled
 Operational flexibility

8 RADIAL INLETS

;Ln/\iii
ON OUTER CASING

n
, 4 RADIAL INLETS
ON OUTER CASING

HP TURBINE IP TURBINE

T
\ k
V
s
^ff
DOUBLE ISOLATION
LOCKING VALVES
V-MAIN IP
AIR FLOW VENTS
FROM IP/LP
CROSSOVER PIPES
MAIN HP AIR FLOW
VENTS FROM
REHEATER
DUMP VALVE

SECONDARY HP AIR
TO ATMOSPHERE TO ATMOSPHERE
FLOW VENTS FROM SECONDARY IP AIR FLOW
MAIN STEAM PIPE VENTS FROM IP
DRAINS LOOP PIPE DRAINS

/~ ~\
DOUBLE ISOLATION
LOCKING VALVE

1 m .
<> 1 i\ 1
1 11
<> 1
4

DRAIN V <\LVES ^
NORM/\LLY ]
CLOS ED M

CONTROL VALVES

FORCED AIR
TO OTHER UNITS

AIR INLET

FlG. 2.96 Forced-air cooling system for a 660 MW turbine-generator

225
Turbine plant systems
to give a cooling rate which allows eccentricities and
differential expansions to be maintained within the
manufacturer's specified limits.
12.3.2 Cooling system
The cooling air is provided by a system consisting of
oil-free compressers or blowers, distribution and ex-
haust pipework, supports, valves and control gear, and
filters or air conditioning plant. The system shown in
Fig 2.96 employs a single multistage compresser. It is
normal to install sufficient capacity to meet the cooling
requirements of one turbine only, with pipework pro-
vided to enable cooling air to be supplied to any of
the units in the station.
It is important that the air supply is filtered to ensure
the removal of small particles and also that it is free
of any corrosive gases, such as sulphur dioxide and
chlorides, as emitted from the stack of fossil-fuelled
stations. Moisture separators should also be installed,
along with suitable pipework drains to ensure that the
air supply is dry.
Figure 2.96 also shows locking double-isolating valves
and removable flexible connections which are used to
ensure that the forced-air cooling system is fully isolated
from the turbine when not in use.
13 Wet steam turbine plant
13.1 Influence of steam on components
The steam produced by a modern light-water reactor,
such as a PWR or BWR, is of poor thermodynamic
quality. The pressure is typically in the range of 65-70
bar and since the steam is around 3% wet, the tem-
perature corresponds to saturation conditions. It there-
fore follows that the steam mass flow per unit of
generation is about 80% higher than in fossil-fired or
AGR power stations.
The very modest steam conditions at the turbine
stop valves results in a very large volumetric flow.
The turbines consist of one high pressure and two or
three low pressure cylinders, with the steam exhausted
from the HP cylinder being dried and reheated in
external moisture separators and reheaters before be-
ing readmitted to the LP cylinders. A typical turbine
arrangement is shown in Fig 2.97. Unlike high tem-
perature reheat turbines for fossil-fuelled power stations,
where reheat pressure affects boiler design and is
therefore not a free choice of the turbine designer, the
reheat pressure in turbines for light-water reactors is
chosen by the turbine builder to suit the turbine and
moisture separator/reheater design, performance and
economics. Due to the very large mass flow of steam,
it is not necessary to select a low reheat pressure
in order to preserve an adequately high volumetric
226
Chapter 2
flow at the entry to the LP cylinders, and thereby an
adequately high efficiency of blading. Higher reheat
pressures help to minimise the size of the moisture
separator/reheater, and the mean diameter and length
of the HP cylinder exhaust blading.
The inlet steam conditions also dictate the scantlings
of the HP stop and governor valves, which are very
similar in arrangement, size and thickness to reheat
valves on a conventional unit. A typical back-to-back
arrangement is shown in Fig 2.98. Because the low
temperature (about 280C) and pressure do not dictate
a material with high temperature strength and, since the
steam at inlet is insufficiently wet to cause erosion,
a low carbon steel is used for the valve chest. The
loop pipes supplying steam from the chests to the
HP cylinder may also be made from carbon steel for
the same reason. The loop pipes are generally arranged
to be as short as possible to limit the quantity of
steam which might overspeed the machine in the event
of load rejection.
The HP turbines of large wet steam machines are
usually of double-flow design, similar in appearance
to the IP turbines of conventional units. As many as
seven stages of moving blades in each flow are carried
by a rotor which, in the UK, is normally of a monobloc
construction. Diaphragms or fixed reaction blading
are supported by carrier rings bolted to the outer casing
at the horizontal joint as in conventional machines.
This effectively forms a double-shell construction and
permits moderate casing thickness, flange and bolt sizes
to be employed.
For impulse blading and an adopted rotational speed
of 3000 r/min, the bladed wheel diameters tend to be
relatively small and, with the high specific steam con-
sumption, the blade lengths become relatively large.
The double-flow arrangement serves to keep the blade
lengths, and hence the blade stresses, to conservative
values.
Care must be taken in the design of the HP casing
to eliminate crevices and pockets where water may
collect, otherwise, during sudden load reduction, pools
of standing water could flash-off and overspeed the
turbine.
It is normal practice to pack the shaft end glands
with live steam which has been throttled and has
therefore acquired a small amount of superheat. This
also removes the possibility of erosion damage to the
rotor and other components in an area of high mois-
ture content at the end of the HP expansion.
The steam leaves the HP turbine with a wetness
of between 10% and 15% dependent upon the se-
lected crossover pressure. If the steam were then passed
directly into the LP cylinder without any form of
mechanical drying or reheat, the terminal wetness at
condenser pressure would exceed 20%. This would cause
unacceptable LP moving blade erosion, particularly in
the last stages, and turbine efficiency would be im-
paired. Reheating is therefore always employed in
saturated steam cycles.
 LP2 TURBINE LP3 TURBINE

HP TURBINE

THRUST BEARING

LOW TUNED FOUNDATION BLOCK

MAIN EXCITER

(a) Elevation (b) Plan MOISTURE SEPARATOR AND REHEATER

Wet steam turbine plant

227
FIG. 2.97 Typical turbine arrangement for a pressurised water reactor installation
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

HP GOVERNOR VALVE

rrr

CONTROL GEAR CONTROL GEAR

FROM TO HP TURBINE
STEAM GENERATOR

FIG. 2.98 Back-to-back arrangement of HP stop and governor valves

In order to avoid the complication of additional

large penetrations into the reactor, steam is passed
from the HP exhaust to moisture separators in the
turbine hall where the wet steam is dried mechanically
before entering a reheater, also situated in the turbine
hall. Here the steam is superheated by the use of live
steam which results in a performance improvement of
about 1.5%. The thermal efficiency can be increased
by a further 0.3-0.5% by two-stage superheating, i.e.,
by using bled-steam from the HP turbine as heating
steam in the first stage and live steam in the second
stage. The efficiency improvement gained by bled-
steam reheating has to be balanced against the in-
creased capital cost, and is dependent on the cross-
over pressure, bled-steam pressure and the reheater
terminal temperature differences. The bled-steam re- FiG. 2.99 Butterfly type low pressure interceptor valve
heater improves the cycle efficiency by reducing the
steam demand of the live steam section, but it also
incurs an additional pressure drop of the reheated
steam through the tube bundle and requires additional shedding to zero load, the interceptor valves close
drainage facilities. Despite these factors, bled-steam rapidly, preventing the steam present in the separator
reheating is becoming increasingly economically viable and reheater, together with any water which might
and is normally offered on present wet steam machines. evaporate off hot walls and pipework, from overspeed-
Because of the large volumetric flow at LP cylinder ing the turbine to unacceptable limits. The valves are
inlet, the interceptor valves tend to be very large. designed so that steam forces assist closure as soon as
This precludes the use of normal plug valves; instead, a small degree of rotation is imparted. The valves are
butterfly valves similar to that shown in Fig 2.99 are fitted with bearings which are capable of operating at
normally used for this application. Since there are no relatively high temperatures and have shock absorbing
right angle bends and no restriction to the flow, they characteristics.
have the advantage of providing very low pressure The thermodynamically optimum choice of the cross-
drop in the normal operating fully-open position. over pressure between HP and LP cylinders, and the
Butterfly valves are used for both stop and governing universal application of steam reheat, result in inlet
valves, the two valves being arranged in a single chest conditions to the LP cylinders which are closely sim-
welded into each hot reheat pipe. ilar to those encountered in a high temperature re-
The valves may be used in a reheat governing mode, heat fossil-fuelled cycle. As a result, LP cylinders
as in conventional machines, but in the event of load- for water-cooled reactors are subjected throughout
228

all their stages to steam pressures and temperatures
virtually identical to those for fossil-fuelled stations.
It is therefore possible and desirable to use LP cyl-
inders of identical design to those used in turbines for
fossil-fuelled stations. However, exhaust volume flow
is 60-70% greater than for a fossil-fired unit of the
same rating. If, therefore, exhaust losses are to be
kept to a minimum, either the exhaust annulus of each
LP turbine must be increased or the number of LP
turbines must be increased.
In the USA, half-speed machines have been adopted
for use with large output light-water reactors. Power
generation is at 60 Hz, which limits the choice of
rotational speed to 3600 r/min or 1800 r/min. The
stresses in the exhaust blades impose a limit to their
length in full-speed machines and hence a limit in
the exhaust area per turbine. This, together with the
widespread use of 1800 r/min LP turbine elements in
conventional power plants, has led naturally to 1800
r/min as the design speed for PWR turbines in the
60 Hz system.
In a 50 Hz system the position is entirely different.
Much larger turbine exhaust blade annulus areas are
available and still longer blades are being developed;
making 3000 r/min turbines economical for large out-
puts and different condenser pressures. Half-speed
machines are invariably more expensive than full-speed
machines. The design of the LP turbine elements can
be based upon extensive experience of identical proven
components for conventional power stations. However,
nuclear power generation leads in itself to increases
in the size of generating units, and it may be necessary
to consider half-speed machines for future very large
units requiring large annulus areas, particularly in
combination with the low cooling water temperatures
likely in UK plants.
13.2 Water extraction devices
Since the steam enters the turbines wet and becomes
progressively wetter as it expands through the HP
blading, arrangements are usually made for internal
moisture extraction at each stage. Where appropriate,
tip seals fitted to stationary components are slotted
to permit extraction of water collecting on the outer
flow boundary. This water is either removed with steam
bled from extraction points between the fixed blade
carriers or, in stages which have no bled-steam tap-
ping, drained through the casing via pipes, drillings
and orifices to a stage at lower pressure.
Water extraction grooves may also be incorporated
where necessary to assist the feedheating belts in ex-
tracting additional moisture. These consist of an annular
groove in the cylinder wall at the trailing edge of the
moving blades connected to a series of nozzles which
discharge water and a small quantity of steam into
the space between blade rings and outer cylinder.
The turbine cylinders should be self-draining; the
Wet steam turbine plant
HP cylinder into bled-steam pipes and into the cold
reheat pipes, which are drained at all times to the
drains receiver; the LP cylinders into bled-steam pipes
and the condenser. If pockets at each end of the HP
cylinder are formed in the casting between the cold
reheat branches, these are drained continuously into
the cold reheat pipes.
Interstage drainage introduces considerable quanti-
ties of water to the feedheater system and the provi-
sion of extra large drain arrangements in the design of
this system requires careful consideration. In common
with conventional machines, every effort is normally
made to ensure that there is no possibility of water
refluxing to the turbine. Present specifications require
individual routing of drains to the turbine drains re-
ceiver and prohibit the commoning of drains from
sources at different potentials.
13.3 Erosion protection
Steam enters the HP turbines slightly wet and it be-
comes progressively wetter with each stage of expan-
sion, but the moisture droplets are very small and
are so well entrained in the bulk steam flow that the
velocities of droplets and main steam do not differ
significantly. Blade path erosion is not therefore a
significant problem and the blades can be made from
12% chrome stainless iron coupled to a NiCr MoV
forged rotor, as in conventional machines.
Centrifugal stresses are generally low and, since the
steam temperature is far below that at which creep has
to be taken into account, only medium-strength ferritic
stainless iron need be used for the blading.
Where changes in flow direction are induced in the
casings or pipework, or where pressure differences exist
across joint surfaces or pressure seals, water droplets
can combine and there is considerable potential for
erosion. The HP casings, fixed blade carriers and cold
reheat pipes must therefore be made from a chromium
alloy steel such as 2.25%Cr l%Mo. Such alloys resist
the formation of the surface oxide layers, which would
be continuously removed and reformed by an erosion-
corrosion mechanism. It is also essential to protect joint
faces subject to a pressure drop against cutting by wire-
drawing erosion, and to protect surfaces which might
be subjected to impact from water droplets flung off
the shrouding of the rotating blades. This requires
the use of very erosion-resistant alloys, such as 13%Cr
or 18%Cr stainless steel. Austenitic steel facing can be
provided by weld deposition and 13%Cr inserts may
be located by seal welding.
To minimise the possibility of joint jacking by cor-
rosion products, horizontal joint bolting must be ar-
ranged to ensure that water penetration is restricted.
It may be necessary to protect certain joints by placing
short stainless steel sleeves around them and incor-
porating stainless steel barrier keys.
229
Turbine plant systems
Severe erosion has been experienced by continental
manufacturers on low alloy and carbon steel casings
and pipework in wet steam machines. 'Alsthom' ori-
ginally made HP casings in -y CrMoV but, in view of
experience gained at Muhleberg, Beznau and Oskar-
shamm and in Germany, intend using a steel with at
least 11 % chrome in future to give satisfactory erosion
protection. They currently make pipework bends in
2 j % chrome steel and apply a high-chrome cladding
protection on interceptor valves. CEM (Asea Brown
Boveri) protected low alloy diaphragm groove facings
and similar facings for gland grooves with 13% chrome
cladding but, having found the cost of achieving a
satisfactory 13% chrome deposit prohibitive, now supply
13% chrome castings for wet steam HP inner and outer
casings.
13.4 Moisture separator reheaters (MSRs)
Separators and reheaters fall into two main types.
Manufacturers such as Westinghouse, Asea Brown
Boveri, GEC, etc., combine the two units into a single
vessel or MSR; whereas Parsons, Stein Industrie, etc.,
favour individual vessels connected by large bore
pipework.
13.4.1 Separators
Cyclone separators
In the NEI-Parsons design of separator, shown in
Fig 2.100, water droplets are recovered from the steam
by centrifugal action. The vessels are conveniently located
in the cold reheat pipes from the HP turbines, generally
one vessel per pipe. The wet steam is passed from a
EXTRACTION STEAM BRANCH
SWIRLER BLADES /
FIG. 2.100 Cyclone separator
230
Chapter 2
normally horizontal inlet pipe through a diverging con-
ical channel to a row of s wirier blades. The s wirier
blade ring imparts tangential velocity, or swirl, to the
steam and helps to agglomerate the water droplets. The
water films forming on the aerofoil surfaces of the
swirler blades are subsequently detached as coarse
droplets by the main steam flow. The droplets are then
centrifuged by the steam flow and deposited onto the
inner surfaces of a louvred liner which removes and
partitions the free water from the main steam flow.
The louvred liner is provided with a series of narrow
axial apertures uniformly distributed around its peri-
phery to entrain the water droplets. Separated water
films then cascade around the outer surfaces of the
louvred liner. To encourage the separated water to
flow over to the louvres, steam is extracted from the
separator vessel and passed to a heater in the feed
train. The separated water is also passed from the
vessel, via drain pipes, to a convenient point in the
regenerative feed train.
In order to ensure that steam leaves the separator
with the minimum of swirl, anti-swirl vanes are fitted
into the outlet nozzle. These vanes ensure that a low
energy axial flow of steam enters the reheater, mini-
mising the risk of disturbance to the reheater tube
bundles.
The performance of cyclone separators is very de-
pendent on the droplet size of the water entering the
vessel. Very high efficiencies (of the order of 98%)
can be achieved with a wetness of, say, 12% if the
droplets are relatively coarse, but efficiency falls con-
siderably if the separator is presented with steam of
the same wetness with droplets in the sub-micro metre
range. Tests to determine separator efficiency, using
superheated steam artificially wetted in a spray-type
desuperheater, generally give optimistic efficiencies
since the large water drops produced by the desuper-
heater are easily separated from the steam. Measure-
ments taken on site on practical installations have
confirmed separation efficiencies in excess of 95%
for an inlet wetness of 12%, and 93% at very high
moisture contents above 20%.
A major factor in achieving these high efficiencies
is the growth in droplet size from a mean diameter of
about 10 microns at HP turbine exhaust to about 120
microns in the transfer pipe to the separator. Further
agglomeration of water films on the surface of the
swirler blades results in droplets of about 240 micron
diameter being centrifuged to the louvred drum.
Erosion and corrosion are minimised by employing
suitably resistant materials in areas subject to im-
pingement. At the separator inlet, where moderate
steam velocities and water droplet sizes generally prevail,
2.25%Cr l%Mo steel is used for the inlet pipe and
cone pieces. In the main steam space, where velocities
and droplet sizes are greater, the swirler blades, louvres
and internal cladding on the pressure vessel are of
12% Cr low carbon steel. The basic pressure vessel
is manufactured from carbon steel.
 Wet steam turbine plant

High velocity cyclone separator

The major problem with cyclone or centrifugal se-
parators is the pressure drop produced by swirling the
steam in a relatively large diameter drum and then
straightening the flow at exit from the separator. One
method of reducing the pressure drop through the
separator is by swirling the wet stem through a number
of relatively small diameter tubes or cells arranged in
a bundle in an enlarged section of cold reheat pipe. A
typical separating cell and vertical assembly arrange-
ment used in the Stein Industrie design is shown in
Fig 2.101.
In common with the NEI-Parsons design of cyclone
separator, a set of turning vanes at the cell inlet im-
parts a swirling motion to the steam/water mixture.
Instead of a louvred drum, an annular skimmer slot
is employed to collect the water and a small flow of
extraction steam is allowed through the slot to improve
moisture removal. Another set of guide vanes at the
cell outlet straightens the flow and helps recover rota-
tional kinetic energy. Since the flow does not depart
significantly from the axial direction throughout the
separation process, pressure drops are generally small.
Also, because the cell bundle is not much larger than
the diameter of the pipe on which it is fitted, the
separator may be retrofitted into existing installations
with the minimum of disturbance.
In tests carried out at Bugey II power station, the
pressure drop for an inlet velocity of 50 m/s was about
150 mbar and the moisture content at outlet from the
separator was 0.3% compared with 11.4% at inlet.
However, 10% of the main steam flow was extracted
to assist water removal.
Stein Industrie have also developed a horizontal
high velocity separator, in which a portion of the
steam from the bleed-off is passed into the central tube
in the separating cell and recirculates through slots
in this tube just downstream of the inlet vanes. The
net leak-off flow is thereby reduced and good sepa-
ration efficiencies have been reported from rig tests.
The performance of this type of separator has not
however been repeated on site, possibly because the
drainage systems are less than adequate on site and
also because of the difficulty, expressed above, of
reproducing an an HP turbine exhaust water droplet
size distribution in a test rig.

Wire mesh separators

The early designs of combined moisture separator/
reheater supplied by GEC, Asea Brown Boveri and
Westinghouse incorporated a wire mesh separator.
The water separation characteristics had been sub-
ject to theoretical and experimental investigation and
was established in a number of industrial applications.
Brodie [4], who studied the extraction properties of
wire mesh in an atmospheric air/water flow, had de-
monstrated that a residual steam wetness of 0.1-0.2%
could be obtained but only over a narrow range of FIG. 2.101 High velocity cyclone separator

231
Turbine plant systems
very low steam velocities of the order of 1-2 m/s.
Further tests carried out by GEC confirmed that good
separation performance could be obtained for cross-
over conditions in wet steam turbines and gave good
correlation with the previously predicted upper limit-
ing velocity. These, and other investigations, showed
that water is extracted when the approach velocity is
sufficient to cause inertia impaction of droplets on
the wires of the mesh. After deposition, the droplets
coalesce and run along the surface of the wire under
the influence of gravity until they reach a point where
two wires cross. This point soon becomes overloaded
with water and large drops fall from the mesh against
the direction of the steam flow.
The wire-mesh mats must be disposed as near hori-
zontally as possible and, in view of the necessary low
velocity, the mats have to be very large (80 m2 for
a 300 MW machine). This, in turn, requires a steam
distribution system capable of collecting and draining
the separated water falling from the mesh without
causing re-entrainment, or impairing the uniformity
of the steam flow. Different manufacturers achieve
this using different ingenious methods. Figure 2.102
shows a cross-section through an Asea Brown Boveri
arrangement. In common with all mesh separator
designs, the wire-mesh mats are conveniently incor-
porated in the same vessel as the reheater tube banks.
Steam is channelled along the lower side of the vessel
(the left-hand side in the figure) and directed dia-
gonally through three mesh trays in parallel. Water
FIG. 2.102 Wire mesh separator
232
Chapter 2
is collected on the sloping base of each tray and
drained to the base of the vessel through funnels and
pipework.
A scheme devised by GEC is shown in Fig 2.103.
Steam enters from the base of the vessel and is dis-
tributed along the length of the vessel by a series of
perforated plates which also act as water collectors.
Each hole in the distribution plates is provided with a
raised lip on the upper surface of the plate to prevent
the separated water draining into the steam flow and
becoming re-entrained. The holes are of such a size
and pitch that they ensure diffusion and downstream
mixing of the steam. Water is collected in drainage
troughs set into the perforated distribution plates and
is led to the bottom of the vessel. From there, the
separated water is piped to a heater in the feed train.
Chevron or corrugated-plate separators
Although mesh separators are most effective in re-
moving moisture, their major limitation is the massive
size imposed by the low limiting velocity. A mesh
separator which is almost 100% efficient at 1.5 m/s
may only be 60% efficient at 1.7 m/s, since the steam
velocity is then just sufficient to prevent the water
falling, and re-entrainment occurs. Chevron separating
FIG. 2.103 Cross-section of an early single-stage MSR
with mesh separators
 Wet steam turbine plant

elements do not have a clear upper limiting velocity

and are therefore more tolerant of possible excessive REHEATED STEAM

local velocities. Chevron separator performance also

tends to be as good as wire mesh performance at
twice the steam velocity. Modern designs of chevron
separator regularly extract 98 % of the water from
12% wet HP exhaust steam. Because chevron sepa-
rators are able to give satisfactory performance at
higher steam velocities, they require a smaller frontal
area for the same steam flow, giving a more compact
arrangement.
Chevron separating elements are produced in various
forms. Basically, the elements are parallel corrugated
plates which induce separation of the water droplets
by inertia and impaction. Earlier types incorporated
hooks or stops in the corrugations to induce even
more sudden changes in the steam flow. These elements
were complex to make and the slight performance
improvement did not warrant the additional complex-
ity and expense. Current designs employ simple cor-
rugated plates, sometimes with curved sides or, more
recently, with flat plates in a zigzag pattern.
The droplets captured on the corrugated plates
coalesce to form a film of water which drains down
the corrugations. If this film is allowed to accumulate
over a large depth of plate it could grow to a thickness
which would result in re-entrainment of water by the
steam flow. Hence, the chevron plates must be either
of a limited depth or the corrugations must be fitted
with water-collecting channels shielded from the steam
flow. The design of the final drain-collecting device, at
the bottom of the vane, also requires detailed atten- FIG. 2.104 Cross-section of a two-stage MSR with
tion to ensure that it does not induce re-entrainment. chevron separators
A typical MSR design using chevron separators is
shown in Fig 2.104. After general steam distribution
within the vessel, the flow through the separators is structure is supported on two integral tubular sup-
controlled by perforated plates located in front of ports which penetrate the shell and provide support for
each packet of chevrons. the tube elements and integral framework. The tube
In order to avoid any problems from wet steam elements are therefore allowed to expand vertically from
erosion and off-load corrosion, components used in this tubular support near the base inside a sliding
the construction are normally stainless steel. Separator linkage arrangement. The tube elements are also posi-
plates, for example, may be in austenitic stainless steel tioned centrally within a support frame which locates
and the distribution plates in 13% chrome ferritic the elements inside the shell and ensures that the shell-
steel. Internal supports for these elements are designed side steam does not by-pass the tube elements. A full
to avoid resonant vibration and to allow for differ- diameter bolted joint is provided near the top of the
ential thermal expansions. shell to allow the upper dished end to be removed for
access to the tube elements.
Each identical tube element contains a number of
13.4.2 Steam-to-steam reheaters straight externally-finned tubes welded into similar up-
per and lower headers. Welding is done with an auto-
matic TIG welding system, using a two-pass technique
Vertical reheaters
followed by full NDT. The headers are rectangular in
Vertical reheaters have been developed in recent years section and trough-like in shape, the side opposite
by NEI-Parsons for Canadian machines and by Deutsche the tube sheet being in the form of a coverplate or
Babcock and Wilcox for machines in Europe, parti- lid. The covers are bolted to the headers and a soft
cularly in Germany. metal gasket is incorporated between the cover and
A typical NEI-Parsons steam-to-steam reheater is the trough section to ensure a leak-tight seal.
shown in Fig 2.105. The shell consists of a large ver- The tubes in each element are arranged in a narrow
tical cylinder with dished ends top and bottom. The rectangular pattern with the long span being perpen-
233
Turbine plant systems
I I \ II
BLED
STEAM
LIVE
STEAM
DRAINS DRAINS
FIG. 2.105 Vertical type reheater
dicular to the direction of the shell-side steam flow.
This results in the minimum shell diameter, and faci-
litates element interchangeability and ease of manu-
facture, erection, leak detection and replacement of
elements, if necessary.
Steam condenses as it passes down the tubes and
the vertical tube arrangement obviates problems of
slug-water flow that can occur with horizontal con-
figurations. Complete drainage during shut down or
element isolation is also ensured by the vertical
arrangement.
The heat transfer coefficients are very different on
the inside and the outside of the reheater tubes. On
the inside, where the heating steam is condensing, the
heat transfer coefficient is much higher than on the
outside which is in contact with the nominally dry
steam at low pressure. Externally-finned tubing is
therefore used to enhance the heat transfer capability
on the shell-side and hence reduce the total number
of tubes, reheater size and shell-side pressure loss,
compared with an unfinned tube arrangement. The
length and number of tubes and the fin profile are
chosen on the basis of a cost optimisation. The critical
variable in this cost optimisation procedure has been
found to be the pressure drop across the reheater,
234
Chapter 2
rather than the heat transfer coefficient of the extended
tube surface.
On recent wet steam machines, economic factors
dictate two stages of reheat. The exhaust steam from
the external separators is directed across the outside
of the tubes in a single pass in a manner which is very
close to pure crossflow. The reheating steam is supplied
to the upper header of each tube element and condenses
on the inside of the tube. The condensate is piped from
the bottom header and passed to the feed train. The
heating steam supply to the elements through which the
separator exhaust steam first passes, is obtained from
a tapping on the HP cylinder. The shell-side steam, then
passes through further elements, which derive their
heating steam from the live steam pipework upstream
of the HP stop valves. The heating elements impart a
small degree of superheat to the shell-side steam, which
then enters the LP cylinders through the LP inter-
ceptor valves in a condition almost identical to LP
inlet conditions in a fossil-fired plant.
Occasionally a small percentage of inlet steam from
the separator exhaust is allowed to pass on either side,
and also around the top and bottom, of the tube bank
and finally exits with the superheated outlet steam.
This by-pass steam cools the reheater outer shell and
minimises the vessel deformation which can be caused
by the temperature rise in the shell-side steam as it
passes from one side of the vessel to the other.
On NEI-Parsons reheaters in Canadian machines,
all components, with the exception of the tube element
header-gaskets, are made from carbon steel. In order
to protect the heat transfer surfaces on the inside
and outside of the tubes from rusting during pro-
longed shutdown periods, heated air is blown through
the reheater elements on the shell side to keep the
ambient internal temperature above the dew point.
This prevents rust forming on the outside of the tubes
and the shell internals. The tube bores are protected
during shutdown periods by nitrogen blanketing. Ex-
ternal erosion-corrosion of the tubes, tubeplates and
vessel at full and part-load is minimised by limiting
the venting and flow velocities. Wet steam erosion of
the tube bores is minimised by using low reheating
steam velocities of the order of 1 m/s and a downward
flow direction which results in a steady annular flow
pattern.
The tube length or support has to be arranged to
ensure that the natural frequency of the tube bundles
is clear of machine frequency, low harmonics of ma-
chine frequency, flow-induced Karman vortex shedding
frequencies and acoustic standing wave frequencies.
Tube diameters are normally chosen to ensure that
the tube natural frequencies are clear of aeroelastic
frequencies, but tube first-mode natural frequencies
have been found close to acoustic standing wave fre-
quencies. In an attempt to avoid this, horizontal sup-
port plates adjacent to and within the tube element are
sometimes split and wedged apart with spacer bars to
brace the tubes against the tube support plates. The

plates must be fitted with care to ensure that no
damage occurs to the tube fins on assembly. By ad-
justing the spacing of these plates, the vibrational
characteristics of the tube can be arranged to be
clear of damaging vibrations, whether mechanically
or flow-induced.
On-load detection of tube leakage can be deter-
mined by isolating each tube element and comparing
the internal 'settle-out' pressure with the prevailing
shell-side pressure.
On Canadian units, in the event of any tube leak-
age, the particular tube element is isolated until it
can be replaced by a spare element at a convenient
outage: the leaking element tubes are then plugged.
Tube elements are removed by taking off the shell
cover, cutting the tube-side steam supply and drain
pipes (live or bled), and lifting out the tube element.
The replacement of a tube element is simply the re-
verse of element removal.
A problem with vertical reheaters is that the maxi-
mum height of the crane hook has to be sufficient
to lift the heating elements out vertically. To reduce
the amount of cutting during dismantling, the live
and bled-steam pipework normally enters the shell
through the side wall rather than through the shell
cover. This pipework from the shell wall to the ele-
ment inlet headers, and the drain pipework from the
bottom headers through the domed base, has to be
sufficiently flexible to permit relative thermal expan-
sion of pipework, heater elements and shell. Occasion-
ally, expansion bends are incorporated to provide
the required flexibility.
Manholes are normally provided for inspection of
the reheater internals and the vessel is generally rigidly
supported on its own foundation from the basement
BLEDSTEAM
HEADER
r , CHEVRON \/ SHELL DRAIN
A \
'Wry
y
I N L ET
DRAIN
SEPARATOR
PACKETS
^f
BLEDST tfi M
FIG. 2.106 Typical horizontal two-stage moisture separator reheater
Wet steam turbine plant
floor. Shell-side relief is normally accommodated on
vertical reheaters by a combination of bursting dia-
phragms and pressure relief valves in the hot reheat
lines between the reheater and the interceptor valves.
Horizontal moisture separator reheaters
The overall size of the MSR vessels incorporating wire
mesh separators was originally governed by the pro-
vision of sufficient area of horizontal mesh. It was
most convenient to dispose the vessels horizontally
and position the heater elements above the mesh. The
steam distribution system was below the mesh and the
steam inlets were therefore positioned in the bottom
of the vessel. The hot reheat connections were posi-
tioned on the top of the vessel.
With one vessel located each side of the LP cylinders
at engine room floor level, the cold reheat pipework was
routed from the HP turbine exhaust to the bottom of
the MSR and the hot reheat pipework from the top of
the vessel to the LP cylinders.
With the adoption of inclined chevron separators,
it was no longer necessary to limit the steam distri-
bution system to the lower section of the vessel. A
typical schematic arrangement of a two-stage MSR is
shown in Fig 2.106. The steam is introduced into the
vessel through connections located at the end of the
shell nearest the HP turbine.
This arrangement has the dual advantage of reduc-
ing both the length and complexity of cold reheat
pipework and the associated pressure drops. The wet
steam flows along the length of the vessel within the
annulus formed by the shell and an internal support
frame, before passing through the distribution plates
and the separator elements. To achieve efficient op-
COLD
REHEAT
STEAM
INLET
\ /V v JL
/ V
SHELL
DRAIN
vv
\ 7
STEAM
LIVESTEAM
DISTRIBUTION
DRAIN
PLATES
235
Turbine plant systems
eration, it is necessary to segregate the incoming cool
steam from the reheated steam. A close-fitting shroud
is therefore often provided to guide the steam from the
reheater to the outlet connections. Where the hot shroud
is in close proximity to the outer shell, it may require
a thermal shield to prevent local heating and distortion
of the shell. To cater for temperature differentials, which
could cause unacceptable distortion, the earlier shroud
designs were divided into a number of panels held in
place by clamps, which permitted relative movement
without significant leakage. In a Swedish unit, a com-
bination of pressure differential, thermal distortion and
discontinuity of shape was sufficient to cause a section
of shroud to collapse away from the clamps. The
section then vibrated in the steam flow and failed by
fatigue. Shrouds are now designed to avoid similar
failures.
Current designs of MSR have an outer shell welded
together from cylindrical plate sections and dished
ends, designed and constructed in accordance with
pressure vessel codes. The vessels are generally mounted
on two supports, one of which is anchored to the
foundations. The other support is free to expand
longitudinally but is restrained from moving in a
transverse direction by means of a longitudinal key.
MSR vessels are always provided with manholes
for access and inspection, and penetrations through
the shell for connections to the tubenest headers are
normally provided with devices to allow for relative
thermal expansion. The number of reheated steam
outlet connections from the vessel is governed by ex-
ternal layout considerations and the number of LP
turbines.
With precautions taken to avoid high velocity wet
steam, especially at the steam inlet, mild steel is a
satisfactory material for the containing vessel and the
internal support frames. It is obviously desirable to
limit the need for erosion protection and therefore it
is necessary to avoid high velocities within the shell.
Any areas of the shell and main support frame which
are exposed to wet steam erosion are always protected
by stainless steel.
An internal support provides a framework for weld-
ing the separator sub-assemblies and a support for
the tubenests and steam shroud. Longitudinal mem-
bers which add stiffness to the frame often serve as
runners for rollers which assist in the insertion of
tubenests into the frame. These rollers also allow the
tubenests to expand longitudinally during operation.
The costs of the separator and reheater are governed
mainly by the reheater bundle, in other words by the
size of the heating surface serving the heat exchange.
The residual water after the separator must be eva-
porated before reheating. This requires additional
heating surfaces and both live and bled-steam re-
heating.
To determine the type and the size of the reheater
heat-transfer surface, it is necessary to establish the
heat transfer and pressure drop correlations for both
236
Chapter 2
sides of the tubes. The relatively low rate of heat
transfer between superheated steam and the tube gen-
erally dictates the use of externally-finned tubes.
Early designs of MSR were based on published
predictions of the heat transfer and pressure drop for
flow across tubes. However, the condensation process
inside the tube produces a two-phase flow which at
the time was not fully understood. The conditions
were therefore simulated in tests which showed that
the flow was initially stratified and progressed through
wave-flow and slug-flow to plug-flow at the tube outlet.
Early designs of reheater in the UK, using hairpin
tubes in carbon steel, suffered extensively from erosion
of the inside of the tubes, particularly at the hairpin
bends, and the impact of high velocity steam from
leaks in these tubes caused consequential damage to
adjacent tubes. Major retubing with erosion resistant
material was necessary in certain reheater s, with re-
strictions on internal steam flow and hence performance.
Some reheaters had to be scrapped completely.
Some early American MSR designs used cupro-
nickel tubes but, at elevated operating temperatures,
this material produced high levels of copper in the
reactor feed water. Since carbon steel tubes suffered
from erosion and had to be protected against rusting
during shutdown periods, 18/8 stainless steels were
provided in some continental units. This option was
expensive, particularly when compared to carbon steel,
and occasionally suffered from cracking caused by salts
which leaked out of the condenser. Seawater could be
carried around the feed circuit and since the reheater is
the only significant drying unit in a wet steam cycle,
sodium chloride was ultimately deposited in the reheater.
The reheater tubing in present machines is now
18% ferritic stainless steel. This has a greater tolerance
both to the deposition of salts and to general corrosive
and erosive conditions. Since tubeplates continue to
be made from carbon steel, the tubeplate surface is
normally clad with a layer of Inconel to facilitate
welding of the tubes to the tubeplate. Both the tube-
plate cladding process and tube welding are followed
by full NDT procedures.
Present designs of reheater are sized using heat
transfer and pressure drop data obtained from tests
on existing units for both the internal and external
surfaces of reheater tubes under operational conditions.
These tests have enabled higher operating velocities
to be used without impairing the integrity of the tube
wall. Higher velocities lead to enhanced heat transfer
coefficients and consequently permit a more compact
and economic MSR design.
Current reheater tube banks are based on hairpin
tubes arranged in rectangular-shaped nests as in earlier
designs. In earlier machines, the limited length of tube
available from the manufacturers resulted in multi-
ple-nest arrangements and central headers. Since tube
manufacturers can now provide longer tubes, headers
can be placed at the ends of the vessel, making main-
tenance and withdrawal of tubenests more convenient.

Sufficient space must, of course, be allowed at both
ends of the vessel to permit tubenest replacement:
this should be a rare occurrence and might not be
necessary in the life of the plant. Leaking tubes de-
tected by increased heating steam flow would normally
be taken out of service by plugging.
The tubes are supported by drilled plates spaced so
that under the most extreme conditions of operation
there are no harmful vibrations. The distance between
tube supports is such as to limit any vibrationally-
induced stresses and the effect of the gas flow across
the tube to acceptable levels.
The natural frequency and mode shape of the tube,
as supported in the nest, are calculated to avoid the
primary modes. It is not possible to eliminate all forms
of tube vibration, as successively higher modes occur
at small frequency intervals and the actual frequency
is influenced by factors such as alignment of the tube
support plates and the amount of clearance in the
support plate holes, both of which are variable over
the operational life of the unit. In order to avoid
binding of the tubes in their support plates, which
caused tube failure in some MSR designs, it is es-
sential that the plates maintain their alignment when
the tubenest is subjected to operational temperature
gradients.
The temperature difference between the cold and
reheated steam, as it flows across the hot tubes of the
reheater, produces temperature differentials which are
many times greater in the first tube row than in the
final tube row at full-load, with even greater differ-
entials at part-load. By arranging the heating steam flow
through a hairpin tubenest such that one leg has a low
rate of condensation and the corresponding leg a high
rate, it is possible to achieve a reasonable balance in
the steam condensed per tube. Even so, a sufficient
differential exists to induce the steam, which has not
been condensed by the inner hairpin, to flow via the
drain section of the header into the lower leg of the
outer hairpin. Obviously, whilst operating in such a
manner, the outer tubes are not adequately drained
or vented and a section of tube is intermittently de-
prived of heating steam. This section would then be
transiently cooled by the external steam until the
heating steam flow is re-established. Such a cyclic
operation has been shown to be capable of causing
fatigue failure on MSR tubes.
In early designs, this mode of operation was avoided
by venting sufficient steam from the drain section of
the header to ensure a continuous flow through all
the tubes. To vent such a flow external to the reheater
would result in large thermal losses, so the reheaters
were fitted with a vent element. This comprised a
layer of tubes, located prior to the main tubenest, which
condensed the necessary flow of steam. The vent was
independently vented and drained.
Current designs incorporate the simpler solution of
controlling the distribution of steam into the tubes.
Suitable restrictions are placed at the inlet to appro-
Wet steam turbine plant
priate tubes, to balance the pressure drop through
the nest to the extent that, with a small vent flow, the
tube temperature differentials are maintained at an
acceptable level and thermal strains are minimised.
Vent lines are normally led to heaters in the feed
trains for thermodynamic recovery, but on start-up
and low-loads it is sometimes necessary to provide
a slightly enhanced vent flow. An additional line is
then provided which is usually routed to the condenser.
It is possible for conditions to arise which cause
a pressure rise in the HP turbine and consequently in
the MSR, these are:
A turbine trip from full-load, resulting in the entrained
steam between the stop valves and the interceptor
valves settling at a pressure level between normal
pressure and the HP cylinder inlet pressure.
Operating with HP feedheaters by-passed and MSR
reheating tubenests isolated.
Leaking tubes in a live steam reheater tubenest
allowing steam to by-pass the turbine stop valves.
Leakage across the turbine stop valves in excess
of corresponding leakage through the LP turbine
valves.
Closure of all six LP turbine interceptor valves, whilst
an HP turbine stop valve and governing valve remain
open.
The MSR is, therefore, fitted with a relief capacity
sufficient for the full reactor steam output. Relief
valve capacity is provided to cater for a nominal
number of burst tubes, with a setpoint above the
maximum normal operating pressure, and bursting
diaphragms to cater for the total steam flow at a suit-
able higher pressure.
13.5 Steam supply and drains systems
The heating steam for the majority of modern re-
heaters is bled from the HP turbine to the first-stage
reheat and supplied from the live steam pipework for
the second-stage reheat. Reheater steam temperature
control is designed to be completely automatic and
requires no intervention from the operator. A typical
diagrammatic arrangement of the live and bled-steam
supply and drains system for a combined separator/
reheater is shown in Fig 2.107.
13.5.1 First-stage reheat
The bled-steam to each reheater is conveniently sup-
plied from a bleed-off (usually the first) from one of
the flows of the HP turbine. Since the bled-steam is
wet, the supply lines usually incorporate some form
237
Turbine plant systems Chapter 2

LIVE STEAM

BLED STEAM

VALVE A: ISOLATING VALVE CLOSED BY HIGH WATER LEVEL SIGNAL

IN ASSOCIATED HEATER

VALVE B: NORMAL DRAIN TO HEATER FLASHBOX

VALVE C: ALTERNATIVE DRAIN TO CONDENSER

STEAM LINE
DRAIN LINE
CONTROL SIGNAL

FIG. 2.107 Steam supply and drains system for a combined separator/reheater

of water separation device, close to the HP turbine:
to safeguard the HP turbine from any possible ingress
of large slugs of this water, non-return valves are
normally included. On the most recent machines, these
non-return valves are often power-assisted and close
in the event of a turbine trip or a load rejection.
They may also be triggered to close from a signal
initiated by an extra high water level in the associated
reheater drains tank. Bled-steam lines to the reheater
238
are rarely fitted with safety valves, but motor-operated
isolating valves are always included which close if
the water in the reheater drains tank rises to the extra
high water level.
13.5.2 Second-stage reheat
The live steam supply to the second-stage reheater
tube banks is obtained direct from the main steam
pipework immediately upstream of the HP stop valves.

To prevent excessive LP turbine back-end tempera-
tures during low-load operation when the hot reheat
steam flow is low, the live steam reheat supply is
controlled by a valve which regulates the live steam flow
according to the temperature of the hot reheat steam.
In certain designs, this control valve does not open
until the machine has reached a particular load. At
full-load, the valve is fully open and could be subject
to wear. A by-pass valve is therefore sometimes pro-
vided so that the temperature control valve is not
in use during full-load operation. At a hot reheat
temperature slightly below the normal full load tem-
perature the control valve closes as the by-pass valve
opens. A small warming connection may also be
provided to enable the pipework to be pre-warmed
to reduce the degree of thermal shock to the reheater
and pipework when the temperature control valve
opens.
In common with the bled-steam supply, isolating
valves are always included in the live steam pipework,
but non-return valves are generally not fitted.
13.5.3 Performance monitoring
The most satisfactory method of detecting tube leaks
in steam-to-steam reheaters is by monitoring the live
and bled-steam flow rates. Both live and bled-steam
supply lines to the reheaters are therefore usually fitted
with flow measuring devices, such as orifice plates
or pitot tubes. Tube leaks are identified by a sudden
increase in the heating steam flow rate. Thermocouples
are sometimes fitted to tubenest headers to ensure
that start-up procedures produce acceptable thermal
stresses, and thermocouples are also sometimes fitted
to reheater tubes to confirm that the tubenest is not
subject to unacceptable thermal cycling.
13.5.4 System drains
Both the live steam and bled-steam supply lines must
be adequately drained at all times. Drain lines usually
include a dirt trap at the take-off tapping and some
form of steam trap arrangement. Under normal con-
ditions, water is drained away via the steam trap to a
drain vessel. However, steam traps have a history of
poor reliability and, in the case of the bled-steam sup-
ply line, are often inadequate to cope with the water
flow at low-loads. Water traps are therefore always
provided with valved by-passes, sized to pass the
maximum possible flow under all operating conditions.
13.5.5 Separator drains
Both cyclone separators and MSR internal separators
are normally situated close to engine room floor level.
This provides sufficient height to accommodate the
drains tank, sufficient net positive suction head for a
separator drains pump (if fitted) and a falling drain from
the drains tank to the condenser.
Wet steam turbine plant
Separated water from each separator vessel, or from
each MSR shell, and from the cold reheat pipes is
drained by gravity into the separator drains tank.
Commoning of drains pipes before the drains tank is
not acceptable, since pressure differences between
individual pipes and vessels can cause water to back-up
in the pipework. Water levels can become unstable and
oscillation or hunting can occur in the drains system
leading to vibration and sometimes failure, particularly
of the pipework supports. It is normal practice there-
fore to provide an individual separator drains tank
and drains control system for each vessel containing a
separator.
Horizontal drains tanks are often chosen for economy
but vertical tanks have the advantage of a constant
surface area and have greater hydraulic stability in
level control. The layout of the drains pipework to the
drains tanks should be chosen with care, particularly
where loop seals are included. The lowest point of
the loop must be far enough below the floor of the
vessel to permit free drainage during any tank transient
pressure rise. Any transition in the bore of the drains
pipework should also be well below the floor of the
vessel to inhibit any tendency to flashing at this point
of sudden pressure reduction. Drains tanks are nor-
mally fitted with vent pipework, level indicators, high
level switches and pressure indicators.
Water from the drains tanks may be discharged to
a heater in the feed train via a flashbox, or pumped
to the de-aerator, in which case the pump flow is
regulated by a level controller on the drains tank. A
recirculation valve is then necessary to satisfy the mini-
mum flow requirements of the pump and to guard
against cavitation. Forward flow may be prevented
completely in the event of high level in the de-aerator
by a motor-operated isolating valve in the pump
discharge line. In this case, drains are routed to the
condenser. Drains are also normally routed to the
condenser during start-up to prevent contamination
of the de-aerator inventory. Pump discharge lines are
always provided with isolating valves and non-return
valves.
13.5.6 Reheater drains
The location of the drains receivers, control valves
and the routing of the drain pipes, requires careful
consideration to ensure stable and safe operation of
the system.
Condensate from each bled-steam tubenest header
is drained by gravity to a bled-steam reheater drains
tank. One tank per vessel is the usual arrangement.
In the case of multiple headers, as in NEI-Parsons
type vertical reheaters, drains pipes are not commoned
but individual pipes lead the condensate from the
headers to the drains tank, thus avoiding the problems
of instability mentioned above. Similarly, drainage
from the tubenests in the MSR vessels are kept quite
separate and are not cross-connected.
239
Turbine plant systems
Condensate from the drains tanks is normally routed
to a heater flash vessel or drains cooler for ther-
modynamic gain. If however the heater bank is out of
service, either a three-way valve routes the drains to
the condenser flashbox, or a motorised valve in the
line to the heaters closes and an emergency drain
valve in the line to the condenser flashbox opens in
response to a high level signal from the level controller
in the drains tank. This emergency drain valve also
opens in response to a high water level in the heaters.
All valves and drain pipework must be sized to pass
the bled-steam drains at maximum turbine capacity.
Drains tanks are sized such that the time taken to fill
the volume bounded by the tank walls, and the upper
and lower limits of the control band, will be several
times the control valve stroking time.
Non-return valves are usually provided in the line
to the heater flashbox to prevent possible refluxing
of water during transient operation, or backflow to
the condenser flash vessel from the heaters in the
event of valve malfunction. Since MSR vessels are
situated at or near engine room floor level, sufficient
height is available underneath the vessel to accommo-
date adequately-sized drain tanks and provide a falling
drain to all possible destinations. The base of a vertical
reheater, however, may be low in the turbine hall
and a positive static head may not be possible for all
operating conditions. In this case, it might be necessary
to provide a pump which would have to be sited in the
basement, or even in a pit, in order to provide the
appropriate net positive suction head. Otherwise par-
ticular drains might have to drive against an adverse
static head.
240
Chapter 2
The arrangement and control of the live steam drains
is very similar to the bled-steam drains except that
the condensate is finally routed to a heater flash vessel
further along the feed train.
14 References
[1] Heilbronn, F. S.: Effects of stored steam and water upon the
overspeed of large steam turbines after sudden loss of load:
Proc. IMechE, Volume 180, Part 3J: 1965-66
[2] Kearton, W. J.: Steam turbine theory and practice: Pitman
[3] Nelson, W. G. and Waterman, A. W.: Advances in commer-
cial aeroplane hydraulic fluids: SAE Committee A6, Aerospace
Fluid Power and Control Technologies, Boston: 1974
[4] Brodie, J. K.: Entrainment studies PhD thesis: Heriot-Watt
University: 1969
15 Additional references
Bergstrasser, G.: Reinforced concrete foundations for steam turbines
Elekt: wirts, Volume 59 pp 805-809: November 1960
Fitzherbert, W. A. and Barnett, J. H.: Causes of movement in
reinforced concrete turbo-blocks and development in turbo-block
design and construction: Proc. IMechE, Volume 181, Part 1 No 22,
pp 589-614: 1966-67
Flint, I. J.: Plant aspects of turbine generator foundations: Proc.
IMechE, Volume 181, Part 1 No 22, pp 567-578: 1966-67
Haupt, L. and Probst P. H.: Civil engineering and vibration aspects
of steam turbine generator foundations in Germany: Proc. IMechE,
Volume 181, Part 1 No.22, pp 579-588: 1966-67
Praefcke, R. O.: Steel foundations for the support of high-speed
machinery: Proc. IMechE, Paper C7: 1983
 C H A P T E R 3

Feedwater heating systems

Introduction 6.4.1 Length of U-tubes

6.4.2 Tube support plates
1 Feed system design
6.5 Bled-steam inlet
1.1 Introduction 6.6 Thermal design
1.2 Functional needs of the system 6.6.1 Desuperheating section
1.3 System configuration 6.6.2 Condensing section
1.4 Component design parameters 6.6.3 Drain cooling section
1.5 Component levels 6.6.4 Other factors affecting thermal design
1.6 Maintenance of system water content 6.7 Horizontal high pressure heaters
1.7 Protection against use of contaminated feedwater 6.8 Vertical high pressure heaters
1.8 Protection against ingress of water/steam to 6.9 Alternative designs of heater construction
turbines 7 De-aerating feedheaters
1.9 Summary
7.1 Introduction
2 HP feed system 7.2 Thermal/hydraulic design
2.1 Introduction 7.3 De-aerator construction
2.2 System parameters 8 Low pressure heaters
2.3 System configuration 8.1 Introduction
2.4 HP heater drains system 8.2 Surface type low pressure heaters
2.5 Pipework arrangement
8.3 Construction of low pressure heaters
3 De-aerator system 8.4 Water header, tube bundle and shell
8.4.1 Tube thickness
3.1 Introduction
8.4.2 Flow area
3.2 De-aerator heater
8.4.3 Tubeplate thickness
3.3 De-aerator storage tank
8.4.4 Water header wall thickness
3.4 De-aerator elevation
8.4.5 Water header branch thickness
3.5 Protection systems
8.4.6 Compensations for openings in the waterbox
3.6 Protection valves
8.4.7 Shell and dished end thickness
3.7 Pipework
8.5 Heater tube length and tube supports
3.8 Boiler feed pump suction filters
8.5.1 Tube support plates
4 Low pressure feed system 8.6 Bled-steam inlets and drain outlets
4.1 Introduction 8.7 Thermal design
8.8 External drain coolers
4.2 Low pressure system configuration
8.8.1 Thermal/hydraulic design of a flashing drain cooler
4.3 Pipework and valves
8.8.2 Thermal/hydraulic design of a water-to-water drain
5 Designs of feedheaters cooler
8.9 Direct contact low pressure heaters
6 High pressure feedwater heaters
9 Evaporators and other means of water treatment
6.1 Functional needs
6.2 Construction of high pressure heaters 9.1 Introduction
6.3 Water header, tube bundle and shell 9.2 Types of bled-steam evaporator
6.3.1 To find tube thickness 9.3 Surface type evaporator
6.3.2 Area required for flow through the tube bundle 9.4 Flash type evaporators
6.3.3 Tubeplate thickness 10 Future developments
6.3.4 Water header wall thickness
10.1 HP feed system
6.3.5 Header branch thickness
10.2 De-aerator system
6.3.6 Compensation for openings in the water header
10.3 LP feed system
6.3.7 Shell and dished end thickness
6.4 Heater tube length and tube supports 11 References

241
 Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

Introduction
Regenerative feedheating has long been recognised as
a means of improving turbine-generator plant effi-
ciency and the first practical installation was on a
3 MW set in a British power station at Blaydon Burn
near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1916.
From this modest beginning the modern feedheating
system has evolved, a typical feed system consisting of
six to eight heat exchangers, each bleeding steam from
the appropriate turbine cylinder.
The economic justification for the use of a parti-
cular configuration of feedheaters is given in Chapter
1 of this volume, in which it is explained how the
theory of regenerative feedheating is combined with
the economic information the purchaser makes avail-
able to the manufacturers to determine the most
appropriate number and disposition of feed stages.
When the ideal cycle has been evolved, it is then used
as a basis for the determination of a practical design.
The economic need to replicate proven turbine and
feed system components, whenever practical, places
restraints on the manufacturer. Usually these are of a
minor nature and will only change the ideal bleed
point pressures by a few tenths of a bar. The minor
loss in efficiency is accepted in return for the use of
proven plant and the lower cost resulting from the
replication of existing designs.
The main parameters for the feedheating systems
of a range of typical modern 500 and 660 MW units
are shown in Table 3.1. The corresponding heater
arrangements are shown on Figs 3.1 to 3.6.
The turbine/boiler main cycle parameters of stop
valve pressure (SVP) and stop valve temperature (SVT)
have been standardised for all modern fossil-fired 500
and 660 MW units.
For all stations, the SVP is 160 bar; the SVT is
565C for coal-fired boilers and 538C for oil-fired
boilers. The cold reheat pressure varies between 42
and 44 bar. As all feed systems for these units use
cold reheat (HP turbine exhaust) to supply steam to
the final heater, the final feed temperature (FFT) can
only vary by a small amount due to the effects of
small variations in cold reheat pressure and the ter-
minal temperature difference (TTD) of the final HP
heater.
Because of the economics of the advanced gas
cooled reactor (AGR) cycle, a lower final feed tem-
perature of about 156C was specified (see Chapter 1)
which has resulted in a feed system having the de-
aerator as the final heater.
The relevant cycle details for the feed system for the
pressurised water reactor (PWR) are also shown in
Fig 3.6.
The steam conditions for the 660 MW PWR of
67 bar, 0.25% wet, result in the stop valve flow being
approximately twice that of a conventional 660 MW
unit and, in consequence, all flow components must
be approximately 1.5 times their normal size to ac-
commodate the doubled flow. The PWR feed cycle
is also more complicated than conventional fossil-
fired units as provision has to be made to absorb
reheater and separator drains into the feed system under
all conditions of operation, as shown in Fig 3.6.
Table 3.1 shows that the latest stations, such as
Littlebrook D and Heysham 2, are provided with tu-
bular surface type heaters to the exclusion of the
'direct contact' (DC) heaters (i.e., feedwater and heating
steam in direct contact within the heater shell). The
change in design philosophy was the result of a re-
view, in the early 1970s, of the cost effectiveness of

TABLE 3.1
Cycle parameters for modern power stations

Station Unit Fuel Stop Stop HP Final Number of Type of Fig ref
size valve valve exhaust feed stages LP
pressure temp pressure temp heater
MW (bar) (Q (bar) (Q HP LP
*
Ince B 500 Oil 159.6 538 44.02 252.2 3 4 DC 3.1
Grain 660 Oil 159.6 538 42.06 252.0 2 3 DC 3.2
Littlebrook D 660 Oil 159.6 538 42.0 251.1 2 3 Surface 3.3
Drax
Completion 660 Coal 159.6 565 43.4 254.7 2 5 Surface 3.4

Heysham 2 660 Nuclear 159.6 538 45.2 156.4 0 4 Surface 3.5

Projected
PWR units 660 Nuclear 66.77 + 5.86 226.7 3 4 Surface 3.6

* De-aerator not included in number given

+ 0.25% wet at stop valve

242

the DC LP heater systems which were then currently
being employed.
It was concluded from the review that tubular sur-
face type LP heater feed systems were more cost
effective and they have been used for all subsequent
660 MW units.
As unit size increases, so does the power needed
to drive the boiler feed pump (BFP), which is about
2 to 3% of main unit output. Multiple electrically-
driven BFPs could have been used but a more cost
effective solution at the time was to provide a tur-
bine driving a full-duty feed pump. From Figs 3.1
to 3.5 it is seen that each system uses a back pres-
sure turbine as the BFP drive. Steam is taken from
the HP exhaust, expanded through the turbine and
exhausted to the main turbine or to a heater. A live
steam supply from the main boiler is provided on
the latest generation of boiler feed pump turbines
(BFPTs) to enable the turbine to drive the feed pump
under all conditions of unit load. As an alternative
Introduction
route was provided for the BFPT exhaust to the con-
denser, the BFPT could also be run-up with the main
unit. To increase cycle efficiency, heater bleed points
on the BFPT are provided. However, more than one
heater attached to the BFPT can cause difficulties
in the feedheaters downstream of the heaters from the
BFPT. The manner in which the BFPT has been
integrated into the various feed systems is shown in
Figs 3.1 to 3.6.
Cooling of the generator by condensate is not
employed for the latest units. The complex and costly
arrangements needed to ensure maintenance of prime
and freedom from boiling of stagnant condensate in
generator coolers on cessation of condensate system
flow was the reason why a simple cooling package,
with indirect coolers using condenser cooling water
(CW), was developed and is now used. The loss in
efficiency is accepted in return for increased opera-
tional integrity and simplification, with consequent
reduced maintenance costs for the condensate system.
243
244
BOILER
HOT REHEAT STEAM

GENERATOR
Feedwater heating systems

. . . . MAIN STEAM SUPPLY

REHEAT/BLED STEAM
FEEDWATER/CONDENSATE
DRAINS

DC3 EXTRACTION
PUMP

FIG. 3.1 Arrangement of feedheaters at Ince B power station

Chapter 3
 GENERATOR

-^
pS
TURBINE
MOISTURE
- - " MAIN STEAM SUPPLY EXTRACTION ;
REHEAT/BLED STEAM CONDENSERS HsS
FEED WATER/CONDENSATE
DRAINS
5^^^-^
%

HP HEATERS

FIG. 3.2 Arrangement of feedheaters at Grain power station

245
Introduction
246
GENERATOR
Feedwater heating systems

L-^NSSNE& TWO ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN

BOILER FEED PUMPS
- - - . MAIN STEAM SUPPLY
_ REHEAT/BLED STEAM
. FEEDWATER/CONDENSATE
HP HEATERS DRAINS LP HEATERS

FIG. 3.3 Arrangement of feedheaters at Littiebrook D power station

Chapter 3
 GENERATOR

-s^-^g-- 1

HP HEATERS LP HEATERS DRAIN COOLER - - - MAIN STEAM SUPPLY

REHEAT/BLED STEAM
FEED WATER/CONDENSATE
DRAINS

FIG. 3.4 Arrangement of feedheaters at Drax Completion power station

247
Introduction
248
BOILER

Wi GENERATOR
Feedwater heating systems

[S

CONDENSERS
(THREE OFF)

HS
GLANDl
STEAM[
ICONDENSER]

POLISHING
BOILER FEED BOILER PLANT
PUMP O. M F DE E
TURBINE Jj PUMP
TURBINE
LP MOISTURE
HEATERS DRAIN COOLER EXTRACTION
CONDENSER

. - - . MAIN STEAM SUPPLY

REHEAT/BLED STEAM
FEEDWATER/CONDENSATE
DRAINS

FIG. 3.5 Arrangement of feedheaters at Heysham 2 AGR power station

Chapter 3
 Introduction

BLED STEAM LIVE STEAM

REHEATER REHEATER

-&E&E&-
LP HEATER
DRAINS PUMP

- MAIN STEAM SUPPLY

- REHEAT/BLED STEAM
. FEEDWATER/CONDENSATE
DRAINS

FIG. 3.6 Proposed arrangement of feedheaters for a PWR nuclear power station

249
Feedwater heating systems
1 Feed system design
1.1 Introduction
The feedheating system associated with a turbine pro-
vides the means by which the steam condensed in the
main condenser is fed to the boiler. It must also heat
the feedwater by use of a series of heat exchangers as
demanded by cycle design. To provide both these ser-
vices requires a complex arrangement of heat exchangers
and pumps, with hundreds of valves interconnected by
many kilometres of pipework.
Such a network of valves, pipes and heat exchangers
has many possible flow paths. The determination of flow
paths and elimination of unwanted routes is critical for
the design of a successful system. In this respect, the
system design is analogous to electrical circuit design.
The configurations which have been developed over
the last fifteen years to meet the functional needs of feed
system design in the most cost effective manner are
described in this section.
1.2 Functional needs of the system
To play its part in the boiler/turbine-generator cycle,
the feedheating system has to perform the following
functions:
Provide the required amount of feedwater to the
boiler at a temperature dictated by cycle design.
Maintain a stable suction regime for the boiler feed
pumps.
Contain a buffer store for water to allow for a short
term mismatch between boiler demand and available
feedwater.
In the longer term, to keep the water content con-
stant.
Supply water to the boiler with an acceptable oxygen
content.
Automatically cut off the supply of contaminated
feedwater to the de-aerator, and hence to the boiler,
in the event of ingress of chlorides due to inleakage
of the condenser cooling water or chemicals from the
polishing plant.
In the event of a turbine trip or sudden reduction of
unit load, the stored energy within the feed system
must not overspeed the turbine-generator.
Be so engineered as to protect the turbine from
possible reflux of water or water/steam mixture from
the feed system under all conditions of operation.
250
Chapter 3
The above functions are the principal aims of feed system
design: how they have been achieved by the systems
installed in modern CEGB power stations is described
in the following sections.
1.3 System configuration
The number of feedheaters is determined by the applica-
tion of the relevant economic factors, as explained in
Chapter 1. However, the theoretical bleed point pres-
sures are seldom obtainable because of constraints in
blading design. The actual points used are determined
by what is possible with current designs of blades and,
in some cases, by standard cylinder modules. On all
modern large reheat units, final feed temperature is
determined by cold reheat pressure as in all present
fossil-fired plant the ultimate HP heaters are fed from
the HP cylinder exhaust (i.e., at cold reheat pressure).
A typical tubular surface type LP and HP feed system
is shown in Fig 3.7.
In this system, the condensate formed in the condenser
is pumped by the condenser extraction pump through
the gland steam condenser (GSC) and the LP heaters
to the high level de-aerator. The elevated position of
the de-aerator provides the net positive suction head
(NPSH) needs of the BFPs. In this context, the NPSH
needs of the BFP are defined as the head equivalent to
the pressure necessary, over and above the temperature-
dependent saturation pressure at the inlet to the pump,
to prevent the feedwater from flashing into steam within
the pump. The capacity of the storage tank is available
to meet any fluctuations in boiler demand. The feed
pumps draw from the de-aerator and discharge through
the feed regulating valves and the HP heaters to the
boiler.
An alternative system with DC LP heaters and tubular
surface HP heaters is illustrated in Fig 3.8. The con-
densate is extracted from the condenser and pumped
through the GSC and the generator coolers up to the
first LP DC heater. The condensate cascades from LP1
to LP3 DC heater via LP2. A DC heater extraction
pump, pumps the water from LP3 heater up to the high
level de-aerator. The BFP draws from the de-aerator tank
and discharges to the boiler via the feed regulating valves
and the HP heaters.
1.4 Component design parameters
To determine the physical sizes of the various com-
ponents used in the feed system the flows, pressures and
temperatures must be known. These are provided by the
turbine manufacturer in the form of a series of heat
balances which cover the whole of the range of expected
cycle operation. As the design point for a component
may be other than constant maximum rating (CMR)
conditions, it is important that the whole spectrum of
operational duty is examined by the manufacturer be-
 VENT CONDENSERS
CONDENSATE/FEEDWATER BLED STEAM NON RETURN VALVE (BSNRV)
XXT K f :
. . . . CONDENSATE DRAINS
MAIN STEAM SUPPLY
. . . . HP BLED STEAM
HOT REHEAT STEAM
- H P BLED STEAM
LP BLED STEAM

LIVE STEAM
FROM BOILER
Feed system design

251
FIG. 3.7 A feedheating system incorporating all-tubular surface type feedheaters
 CONDENSATE/FEEDWATER
1
HP CONDENSATE DRAINS
MAIN STEAM SUPPLY
-COLD REHEAT STEAM
NORMAL ROUTE FOR

252
HOT REHEAT STEAM
HP HEATER DRAINS
IP BLED STEAM
LP BLED STEAM

CONDENSATE ISOLATING
VALVE (CIV)
Feedwater heating systems

FEED WATER
ISOLATING VALVE
(FWIV)

BANK "A" HP HEATERS

HP HEATER DRAINS LIFT PUMP

Chapter 3

FIG. 3.8 A feedheating system incorporating direct contact LP heaters and tubular surface type HP heaters

fore the component is designed. From the heat bal-
ances, the most appropriate design conditions for each
part of the system are determined, and the value and
cost of special provisions to maintain unit output
under abnormal conditions is evaluated. The physical
design of the individual components is discussed in
detail in Section 5 of this chapter.
1.5 Component levels
Consideration must also be given to the elevations at
which the various feed system components are placed.
Their relative elevations are of prime importance as they
influence the ability of components to meet the func-
tional needs of the system. The levels at which the various
components are installed for a feed system using sur-
face type heaters are shown in Fig 3.9.
Taking the LP turbine horizontal centre line as the
datum, the vertical height of the condenser and its
transition piece, between condenser and turbine, com-
bined with the NPSH needs of the condensate ex-
traction pump, determine the basement depth needed
below the machine. The water level in the condenser
hot well is fixed by the individual condenser design.
Assuming a transverse condenser for each turbine LP
cylinder, the water level is set at a convenient height
above the condenser bottom. As the traditional split-
casing design of extraction pump usually stands on the
basement floor, the basement depth has to be set to
provide the head of condensate needed to satisfy the
extraction pumps NPSH. However, current practice
is to use a vertical multistage condensate extraction
pump of the 'caisson' type, which is sunk into a local
pit in the basement floor. Use of this pump design
allows the basement floor to be set just below condenser
bottom-plate level as the pump impellers can be placed
as far below floor level as needed. The principles in-
volved are illustrated in Fig 3.10. It is evident that the
use of a caisson type of extraction pump reduces the
basement depth and thereby reduces station cost. A
detailed description of the various types of extraction
pumps used in CEGB power stations is given in
Chapter 4.
On the latest stations with all surface-type heaters
(excluding the de-aerator), a horizontal heater attitude
is adopted as opposed to the traditional vertical posi-
tion. This allows the heaters to be placed below the
bottom of the turbine cylinders but above the con-
denser water level. The heater levels are set with suffi-
cient static head for them to cascade by gravity from
the highest pressure HP heater to the lowest pressure,
and then to the condenser. Even when set at these levels,
by using horizontal heaters it is possible to arrange the
bled-steam pipework to have a continuous slope from
the bleed point on the turbine down to the heater. The
same arrangement is also possible with horizontal LP
heaters. This has the important advantage that the
bled-steam lines can drain towards the heaters and the
Feed system design
heater drains can cascade by gravity to the condenser,
as depicted in Fig 3.11.
Gravity drainage allows operation at low unit load and
unit start-up without alternative drainage arrangements,
using pumps or special operational procedures.
On those stations which use direct contact LP heaters,
the method of fixing the heights of the heaters is more
complex. A typical DC heater level diagram is shown
in Fig 3.12.
The elevation between two adjacent DC heaters is
arranged to accommodate a column of condensate which
forms a seal between adjacent heaters. The seal is
provided in the form of a loop. The condensate column
counter balances heater differential steam pressures,
pipework and waterbox/spray losses.
The height of the condensate column at full-load is
about half the vertical separation between heaters. The
loop seal must be of sufficient depth to withstand the
most severe turbine load changes envisaged; for if it
were ruptured by a temporary reversal of condensate
flow, two turbine stages would become directly connected
and there would be the possibility of steam and water
being transferred to the lower stage.
Further information on the detailed dynamic be-
haviour of DC feed systems is to be found in the paper
by Dartnell [1] and the hydrodynamic aspects are
examined by Kubie, Rowe and Jones [2].
The height of the de-aerator relative to the boiler feed
pump is important as this provides the static head on
the BFP suction to satisfy its NPSH needs under all
conditions of operation. The other considerations which
can influence de-aerator tank height are discussed in
detail in Section 3 of this chapter.
1.6 Maintenance of system water content
The de-aerator tank provides a reservoir of water on
which the feed pump can draw should there be a
mismatch between the feed requirements of the boiler
and the condensate flowing into the de-aerator tank.
There is typically 7-10 minutes' worth of constant
maximum rating (CMR) feed waterflow stored in the
tank. To allow for normal gains and losses to the
de-aerator tank content, insurge and outsurge systems
are provided to maintain the tank content as near to a
constant value as is operationally necessary. As illustrated
in Fig 3.13, the insurge and outsurge connections to
and from the reserve feedwater tanks (RFTs) are made
to the LP feed system to allow adjustment of the
total cycle water content. During normal operation,
the large content of the tank smooths out any sudden
small changes in demand and so allows the insurge/
outsurge valves to respond in a controlled manner to
restore the tank level to normal.
In the event of a low level in the de-aerator tank, the
insurge group feeds into the condenser from where
it is pumped forward to the de-aerator tank by the
condensate extraction pumps. This continues until the
253
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

EXTRACTION PUMPS

TURBINE GLAND STEAM CONDENSER

FIG. 3.9 Pictorial representation of the relative levels of heaters and feed pumps for a power station using horizontal
HP and LP tubular surface type feedheaters

254
 Fuel system design

CENTRE LINE OF LP TURBINE

^ ^ $ : & # $ 5 f NPSH AS (

M$mw
O.QP^ri& <>Qc NEEDED ,
>rt'0.: ^*7* BY PUMP -

m i
CAISSON TYPE v ?-
EXTRACTION PUMP ?*.&
CENTRE LINE
OF 1ST IMPELLER

FIG. 3.10 Determination of basement depth

(a) Distance from centreline of LP turbine to bottom of casing determined by manufacturer to allow room for casing, etc.
(b) Depth of condenser neck determined by the need to uniformly distribute steam from the LP turbine exhaust to the
tubeplate ends of the condenser. Angle of flare is fixed to give minimum height conducive with uniform steam distribution.
(c) Tubenest depth is designed to achieve optimim thermal performance by the tubenest commensurate with the distance
between LP cylinders.
(d) Sufficient space must exist at the bottom of the tubenest to allow steam access to the bottom tubes.

water level in the tank is restored to its normal work-
ing level. If the de-aerator tank level is higher than the
setpoint, the outsurge valve is opened and the excess
water is discharged from the system to the RFTs until
normal working level is restored. The method by which
these systems are integrated into the LP feed system is
described in Section 4 of this chapter.
1.7 Protection against use of contaminated
feedwater
Should there be an inleakage of cooling water into
the condenser, the feedwater to the boiler could be
contaminated. Contamination of feedwater can also
result from the inadvertent release of chemicals from a
polishing plant.
Modern boilers can sustain severe damage from
contaminated feedwater. To prevent feedwater of an
unsuitable quality being fed to the de-aerator storage
tank and from there to the boilers, or outsurged to
the reserve feedwater tanks, protection valves which
are tripped shut on high conductivity levels are placed
upstream of the outsurge connection and downstream
of the polishing plant (if provided), as illustrated in
Fig 3.14. The hardware and detail design is discussed
in Section 4 of this chapter.
1.8 Protection against ingress of water/steam
to turbines
Many well documented instances of damage being
caused to turbines by the ingress of water or a water/
steam mixture from the feed system have been reported
[3,4,5].
There are several potential sources of water within
the feed system which can flow or be induced into the
turbine. The potential sources are as follows:
(a) High water level in an H P or LP feedheater. The
high water level could be caused by a tube leak or
failure of the drainage arrangements.
(b) High water level in a de-aerator. If there is a
mismatch between inflow and outflow the vessel
can flood.
(c) Undrained bled-steam lines. When the bled-steam
is wet, the water in the steam is deposited on the
pipework walls or is separated when a valve or
bend is encountered. Condensate is also formed
on start-up, while the lines are being warmed to
operating temperatures.
In the case of items (a) and (b), if the rising level is
allowed to continue unchecked, then it could flood
into the bled-steam line and back to the turbine.
With regard to item (c), if there is continual fall from
the points where the water is accumulating towards
the extraction point on the turbine, it will most cer-
tainly flow against the steam flow towards the turbine.
The other means by which water or a water/steam
mixture can be induced into the turbine is by a pres-
sure reversal between the feed heaters and the turbine
bleed points. A pressure reversal is caused by a unit trip
or a sudden load reduction.
255
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

FROM LP HEATERS , ( )
V HEAD J

NORMAL WOflKfNG LEVEL {NWU

bi JIZL

OEAERATOR STORAGE TANK

TO BOILER FEED PUMP SUCTION

TURBINE DRIVEN
BOILER FEED PUMP

RESERVE FEED I
WATER TANK HP5B HEATER

I _ / ^ HP4B
H E A T ER
HP4A f V j I
. . . , _ ASH BOX Y HEATER W _ 7 |

,RTING STANDBY = = :

FIG. 3.11 Component level diagram for tubular surface type HP and LP heaters

256
 Feed system design

> -

y-
STORAGE TANK
3
TO FEED PUMP SUCTION

S~\ r~\
DC3 HEATER

7*:

A

L^s^J DRAINS BOILER DC3
FEED EXTRACTION
A PUMP f
PUMP
DRAINS

--
I PUMPAI
iLTITANK
HP CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP

FIG. 3.12 Component level diagram for direct contact LP heaters

On unit trip, the HP turbine pressures decay rapidly
and the IP/LP turbine pressure falls to condenser
vacuum almost immediately. The pressures in the feed
system change slowly compared with the turbine, and
large pressure differentials will be created with the
potential to cause flow towards the turbine from the
feed system. The large quantity of water stored in
the de-aerator tank at just below the saturation equi-
valent to the turbine bleed point pressure, has the
potential to evolve sufficient steam to overspeed the
turbine in the event of a turbine trip. To ensure that
this cannot happen, a power-assisted closing non-return
valve is placed in the steam line between the turbine
and the de-aerator. In addition to tripping the non-

257
Feedwater heating systems
FIG. 3.13 Typical insurge and outsurge system
return valve, the bled-steam isolating valve is also
arranged to be shut on unit trip.
Reverse steam flow can also carry quantities of
water from heaters and undrained low points in the
bled-steam lines into the turbine and cause damage,
particularly to the large LP turbine blades. These
'back flows' can induce cooler steam into hot cylinders,
with the consequent risk of thermal distortion.
This is an example of how a system must be
designed to allow for all conditions of operation.
258
Chapter 3
OPEN ON CLOSE ON
FALLING RISING
LEVEL LEVEL
Flow in both normal and reverse direction must
be considered and, where provision to prevent flow
in one direction is provided, care must be taken to
ensure that there are no 'sneak' paths to bypass the
protection. It is evident that the protection system
must contain flooding and also prevent back flow of
steam.
The following provisions (illustrated in Fig 3.15)
have been made on all 500 and 660 MW units within
the CEGB to prevent these possibilities:
 Feed system design

OUTSURGE CONNECTION
i

DUPLICATE PROTECTION
VALVES. AIR OPENING
SPRING CLOSING

INSURGE FROM
RESERVE FEED WATER TANK

CONTAMINATED WATER
SENSORS
00 [00] 00
\ CONDENSER EXTRACTION
PUMPS

POLISHING
PLANT
EMERGENCY INSURGE CONNECTION

M-
CONTAMINATED WATER
SENSORS

VALVE TO MAINTAIN
A CONSTANT WATER
& ~ LEVEL IN CONDENSERS

RECIRCULATION CONNECTION
FOR LOW LOAD OPERATION

GLAND STEAM
CONDENSER

FIG. 3.14 Devices installed as protection against the use of contaminated feedwater

(a) A non-return valve is placed in the bled-steam line
as close to the turbine bleed point as practicable.
For the de-aerator and HP heaters, these are
power-assisted non-return valves. For the LP heater
bleed points, free-acting valves are normally pro-
vided. On very low pressure heaters, the omission
of the non-return valve is permissible if the con-
ditions given in (g) have been satisfied.
(b) Power-operated bled-steam isolating valves are
provided on each line between the turbine and a
heater, as close to the heater as is practicable. Again,
on very low pressure heaters the isolating valves
can be omitted provided the conditions given in (g)
have been satisfied.
(c) Feed or condensate isolating valves are provided,
where appropriate, to shut off the supply of water
to a heater or group of heaters.
(d) Duplicate level sensing devices are provided on
each heater, either of which will actuate trip cir-
cuits to close the protection valves.
(e) In some instances the pumps which discharge to
a particular heater are tripped.
(f) All bled-steam lines have an adequate fall towards
a drainage point. Each drainage point is capable
of draining by gravity to the drain receiver vessel,
which is at condenser vacuum. Any pockets of
water which can be formed by the closure of valves
have drains.
(g) In the case of very low pressure heaters such as
turbine moisture extraction condensers (which ex-
tract a steam/water mixture before the last blade
in the LP turbine), the pressure drop caused by
the isolating and non-return valves as specified
in (a) and (b) may be unacceptable so, instead,
duplicate unvalved drains (which can drain the
heater by gravity alone) are provided between the
heater and the condenser. The feedwater flow to
the heater is also isolated in the event of a high

259
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

CENTRAL CONTROL ROOM

ALARMS

ELECTRICAL SIGNALS

FIG. 3.15 A typical feedheating plant showing protection equipment

water level in the heater. The protection provided of protection relay and associated tripping circuits
is illustrated in Fig 3.16. are described in Volume F, which deals with control
and instrumentation.

Because of the short time scale in which the com-

mencement of water feed back to the turbine can
occur, all protection measures are automatic and the
hardware provisions for each type of heater is detailed
in the appropriate section of this chapter. The types
260
1.9 Summary
The previous sections give an outline of the main
principles for overall feed system design: to explain
 HP feed system

FLOAT SWITCHES

SECONDARY DRAIN
WITH LOOP SEAL

FIG. 3.16 Drainage arrangements for very low pressure heaters without valves in bled-steam lines
In the event of tube leaks causing a rising water level, Level 1 raises an alarm, Level 2 shuts the condenser isolating valves
just before the water reaches level 3, and Level 3 is the point at which the drains commence to flow through the second
emergency drain. The secondary and primary drain combined, have a capacity to discharge the flow of many fractured tubes
in addition to the normal drain flow and, if Level 2 was above Level 3, multiple tube failures would remain undetected.

how these principles are expressed in terms of detailed
system design, the feed system description has been
split into three sections, viz:
HP feed system.
De-aerator system and associated plant.
LP feed system.
2 HP feed system
2.1 Introduction
The HP feed system is defined as the group of heaters
and associated equipment which is situated in the feed
pipework between the boiler feed pump (BFP) dis-
charge and the boiler. Their function is to accept water
from the boiler feed pumps and raise the feedwater
temperature to the final feed temperature.
2.2 System parameters
The final feed temperature (FFT) out of the ultimate
HP heater is fixed within a few degrees by the bleed
pressure and steam temperature available to the heater.
On all current 660 and 500 MW units, the bleed point
is the HP exhaust or 'cold reheat' pressure.
The feed temperature out of a heater is conditional
on several factors. First, a bled-steam pipework tem-
perature loss, usually 1.1C, which is subtracted from
the saturation temperature equivalent of the bleed
point pressure. The resultant temperature is the sat-
uration temperature equivalent to the pressure of the
steam entering the heater shell. The heater thermal
performance and hence its heat transfer surface is
determined by the values of the temperature terminal
differences (TTDs) on the steam and drain sides.
The steam TTD is defined as the temperature dif-
ference between the saturated steam temperature at
entry to the heater shell and the feed water leaving the
heater. The drain TTD is the temperature difference
between the feedwater entering the heater and the
drains leaving the heater. To achieve optimum HP
heater performance, it is usually necessary to partition

261
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

each HP heater into three zones; namely, the de-
superheating, condensing and drain cooling zones. The
effect which TTDs have on the size of these zones
is fully explained in Section 6 of this chapter.
By applying the line temperature drops to all HP
heater bled-steam extraction pressures and the steam
TTDs, the feed temperature out of each of the HP
heaters is determined. Once the temperatures out of
the heaters (and hence into the next heater) are known,
the drain temperatures are found by applying the
drain TTDs. However, it should be remembered that
the smaller the TTDs, the greater will be the heat
transfer surface to achieve the intended performance.
HP heaters which are supplied with steam with a
high degree of superheat can have negative TTDs,
the higher feed temperatures out of the heaters being
made possible by the total steam temperature as seen
by the desuperheating zone. Figure 3.17 illustrates the
principles explained above and shows typical TTDs
for a 660 MW unit and the resultant heater inlet, outlet
and drain temperatures. It should be noted that the
second HP heater draws its steam from the BFP tur-
bine which is relatively low in superheat, hence the
steam TTD is larger than that of the ultimate heater
which has more superheat in the bled-steam.
The TTDs are determined by the economics of the
cycle, the increase in cycle efficiency by use of smaller
TTDs being weighed against the increased cost of heater
surface.
2.3 System configuration
The number of HP feedheater stages is determined by
cycle economics and can vary between two and four. The
standard configuration of HP heaters at all 660 MW
stations (with the exception of those with three units)
is two banks of half-duty heaters in parallel.
Conventional hemispherical water headers are dif-
ficult to manufacture in a size greater than that capa-
ble of accepting 50% of the feed flow for a 660 MW
unit. However, there is one 660 MW station which has
a single line of HP heaters where a special toroidal
water head design was used. It has not proved cost
effective and has not been repeated. The limiting fac-
tor is tubeplate thickness which is dependent on tube-
plate diameter and feed line pressure. To reduce the
diameter, the feed flow is divided between two 50%
banks of heaters.

P = BAR ABS
T = TEMPERATURE
P = 42.0 ts = SATURATION TEMPERATURE
ts = 253.2C
T = 340.0C t = BLED STEAM LINE TEMPERATURE DROP
STTD = STEAM TEMPERATURE TERMINAL DIFFERENCE
DTTD = DRAIN TEMPERATURE TERMINAL DIFFERENCE

BOILER FEED PUMP

TURBINE

A t = 1.1C

P = 14.13
ts = 195.4C

ts = 253.2 - 1.1 = 252.1C ts = 195.4 - 1.1 = 194.3C

P = 41.25 AT HEATER P = 13.8 AT HEATER

DRAIN COOLING DRAIN COOLING

SECTION SECTION

252.1 - 1.0 = 251.1C

& 152.0C DISCHARGE FROM
^ BOILER FEED PUMP

DESUPERHEATING SECTION

152.0 - 10.0 =J62.0C T0 DEAERATOR

STORAGE TANK

FIG. 3.17 Application of temperature terminal differences to heaters to find the temperature of feedwater and drains

262

To minimise the greatest pressure to which the HP
water headers are subjected, they are placed down-
stream of the feed regulating valves. As there are no
isolating valves between the HP heaters and the boiler
with the heaters in this position, the maximum pressure
they can be subjected to is boiler relief valve pressure
and cannot be subjected to feed pump shut-off head.
Nevertheless, the design pressure is in the region of
207 bar, which results in a typical 50% heater water
header shell thickness of about 120 mm and a typical
tubeplate thickness of 350 mm.
The difficulty in the manufacture of a thick tube-
plate is in drilling the holes through the tubeplate.
Conventional methods of drilling holes do not pro-
vide the straightness nor roundness needed. The gun
drilling technique originally developed for ordnance
work, which allows deep drilling with a high degree
of hole straightness and without the need for sub-
sequent reaming or honing, is the usual method used
to deep-drill thick tubeplates. Details of the toroi-
dal water head and of the gun drilling method can
be obtained by reference to Spence, Ryall and Mc-
Connell [6]. To date, even using the gun drilling
method, tubeplate thickness has been limited to about
350 mm.
The configurations of a single and double line of
HP heaters are shown in Fig 3.18. The main advantage
of a double line of heaters is their flexibility in opera-
tion. Assuming a typical feed system, where each line
or 'bank' normally accepts 50% flow, but on isolation
of the active bank will accept 60%, then with one
bank by-passed the FFT will be approximately 215C.
On the loss of the top heater of a single bank con-
figuration, the FFT falls to the temperature at the
outlet of the next HP heater of 209C. While the
boiler can accept both of these conditions, there is
a consequent loss in cycle efficiency for the lower
final feed temperature.
One bank of a double-bank configuration of HP
heaters (as used at Drax Completion) is shown dia-
grammatically in Fig 3.19, with all major valves and
control devices indicated. In the event of a high water
level being detected in a heater, the bank associated
with that heater is automatically isolated on the steam
and water sides. The isolation procedure is in accord-
ance with provisions (a) to (d) of Section 1.8 of this
chapter (Protection against ingress of water/steam to
turbines), and follows from receipt of a signal from
any one of the duplicated water level sensing devices
on any heater in the bank:
The power-assisted bled-steam non-return valves
are given a closing signal.
The bled-steam isolating valves close on all heaters
in the bank.
The feedwater isolating valves for the bank are
closed.
HP feed system
Considering the functions of the feedwater isolating
valves under normal conditions of operation, water
flows from the boiler feed pumps through the heaters
to the boiler. The by-pass is in the closed position, as
the spring-loaded valve is set such that it does not
commence to open until a heater bank is isolated on
the water side. Assuming that the feed flow is to be
proportioned so that 60% flows through the remain-
ing active bank and 40% through the by-pass, the
redistribution for a typical pair of HP heaters is
shown in Fig 3.20. Representative friction losses for
each heater are used to demonstrate how the head
loss across the spring-loaded by-pass valve is deter-
mined. Should the pressure loss across the by-pass
valve be larger than needed, the flow through the
active bank will increase to balance the pressure loss,
which leads to excessive steam flows. The larger steam
flows could lead to damage of the external tube sur-
face from greater than design steam velocities within
the heater. The topic of steam-flow-induced damage
to heater tubes is discussed in Section 6.3 of this
chapter. There is also the possibility of erosion damage
to the internal surface of the tubes from high velocity
feedwater due to the excessive flow through the active
bank.
The spring-loaded by-pass system is the simplest
by-pass system in current use; but in the past, diffi-
culties in setting and maintenance of the by-pass
valves led to the use of alternative designs of by-pass
system. Systems using motorised parallel slide valves
for both HP heater isolation and by-pass have been
provided. This requires a complicated control sequence
to be provided, using many electrical relays and valve
limit switches. A typical isolation sequence would be:
Open by-pass valve.
When by-pass valve is fully open, allow sequence
to start closing the isolating valves. (A system which
allows by-pass and heater isolating valves to act in
antiphase has also been used.)
Close isolating valves.
Opening the isolating valves is the reverse of the
closing sequence:
Open isolating valves.
When isolating valves are fully open, allow sequence
to start closing the by-pass valve.
Shut by-pass valve.
In the event of sequence malfunction, it is possible to
have both isolating and by-pass valves shut at the
same time. To allow an alternative path to the boiler,
an emergency by-pass spring-loaded valve is sometimes
provided to act if all normal routes to the boiler are
263
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

' BANK 'B' BANK

254.7C 254.7C

100%
BYPASS

100% FLOW
50% FLOW 60% FLOW %- 60% FLOW 50% FLOW
(NORMAL) (BYPASS) (BYPASS) (NORMAL)

40% BYPASS
100%
BYPASS

185.4C 185.4C

a) When top heater bypassed feedwater b) One bank bypassed due

temperature to boiler -209C to fault on top heater
in bank
60 x 254.7 + 40 x 185.4 = 215C
100

FIG. 3.18 Configurations of single and double banks of HP heaters

264
 HP feed system

ANTI-SYPHON ANTI-SYPHON
VALVE VALVE

BLED STEAM LOOP PIPE

TO'B'HEATER - - TO'B'HEATER

FROM FEED PUMP

VALVES
1. BLED STEAM NON RETURN VALVE HP7A (SPRING ASSISTED CLOSING)
2 BLED STEAM NON RETURN VALVE HP8A (SPRING ASSISTED CLOSING)
3 BLED STEAM ISOLATING VALVE HP7A (MOTOR OPERATED)
4. BLED STEAM ISOLATING VALVE HP8A (MOTOR OPERATED)
5. BANK INLET FEED WATER ISOLATING VALVE (MOTOR OPERATED)
6. BANK INLET FEED WATER ISOLATING VALVE BYPASS VALVE (MOTOR OPERATED)
7. BANK OUTLET FEED WATER ISOLATING VALVE (MOTOR OPERATED)
8. SPRING LOADED BYPASS VALVES

FIG. 3.19 The A bank of heaters at Drax Completion power station

In the event of a high water level in either heater being detected by the duplicated sensing devices (float switches), air is
released from the non-return valves /, 2 and the springs assist valve closure. Feedwater and bled-steam isolating valves, 5, 4y
5, 7 close and water flows forward to the boiler via the by-pass valves 8. The heaters are thus isolated on the bled-steam and
feedwater sides and the turbine is protected against reflux of water from the HP heaters.

isolated. The system as described above is expensive
to provide and maintain, and so the simple spring-
loaded by-pass system has been adopted as current
practice with improved methods of setting and main-
taining the spring-loaded by-pass valves.
Another principle in current use is to utilise the
energy in the high pressure feedwater to close the
heater isolating valves. The use of feedwater energy
'medium'-actuated valves is not an original idea but
the method by which it is achieved is new. There were
two reasons why medium-actuated valves were con-
sidered: reliability and speed of actuation.
Motor-operated parallel slide valves of the size
required for HP heater isolation duty have a mini-
mum closing time of about 20 seconds. The rate of
flooding of certain designs of vertical HP heater for
the 500 MW units, assuming a double-ended tube fail-
ure and blocked drains, is about 25 mm/s. With this
rate of flooding, the time for the water to rise from
the normal working level (NWL) to the bottom of
the bled-steam connection is about 8 s. To provide a
margin, a factor of 2 is used to allow for the valve
speed of closure increasing due to operational factors
and uncertainties in calculation of flooding rates. To
meet these needs, valves with a closure time of about
4 s are required; however, the flooding time of vertical
HP heaters can be extended by making the steam
pipework loop vertically to a suitable level before
265
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

50% 0% 50% 60% 40% 0%

FLOW FLOW FLOW FLOW FLOW FLOW

K5

(a) Both A & B banks in service (b) Bank B bypassed

FIG. 3.20 Distribution of flows through HP heaters when one bank of a two-bank heater system is by-passed
To maintain design flow in the active bank, friction loss across spring-loaded by-pass valves must equal friction loss through
the active bank. For normal flow, friction losses through A and B banks are equal. Neglecting pipework losses in the by-pass
line as small, friction loss over the active bank is (60/50) times normal operational value. The by-pass valve must pass 40%
flow with a friction loss equal to 1.44 times a normal (50%) bank friction loss.

leading it to the turbine. The shell volume is then
available to contain the flooding water up to the level
of the top of the bled-steam pipe loop, as shown in
Fig 3.27.
The medium-actuated feed isolating valves installed
on the HP heaters at Grain power station are ex-
amples of these valves and are designed to give by-
266
pass and isolation in about 12 s from receipt of a
signal to isolate the heater bank. Figure 3.21 shows
the diagrammatic arrangement of the system and gives
a brief explanation of how it works.
Figure 3.22 is a more detailed drawing of the iso-
lation valve with a brief description of the salient
design features. The most important features to note
 HP feed system

q p /

a MEDIUM ACTUATED INLET ISOLATING AND BYPASSING VALVE

b MEDIUM ACTUATED OUTLET ISOLATING VALVE
c RESTRICTOR VALVE TO GOVERN SPEED OF VALVE CLOSING
d DIRT TRAP
e SPRING ACCUMULATOR
f VALVE SPINDLE WHICH CARRIES PISTON AND VALVE HEAD
g NON RETURN VALVE
R QUICK ACTING CYLINDER EVACUATION VALVES, AIR ACTUATED - AIR TO CLOSE
I BANK PRIMING VALVE, AIR ACTUATED - AIR TO OPEN - SPRING CLOSED
FEED WATER PUMP VALVES, AIR ACTUATED - AIR CLOSE
ic CONTROL CUBICLE
I HIGH WATER LEVEL SWITCHES ON HEATER BODY
m l & m2 SOLENOID VALVES IN THE ENERGISED STATE
n SOLENOID VALVES IN THE DE-ENERGISED STATE
o FLOW RESTRICTOR
p PRESSURE REGULATOR
q AIR FILTER
r AIR SUPPLY
S LIMIT SWITCH ON VALVES SPINDLE

FIG. 3.21 Dewrance medium-actuated HP feedwater isolating and by-pass valves

If a high water level is detected in either heater, valves h are opened by solenoids ml being de-energised. Feedwater pressure
forces valves h from their seats and the feedwater from below the pistons in valves a and b is released to drain. The feed-
water pressure on top of the valves, forces the valve head to the by-pass and heater isolation position in the main valve 0,
and to the heater isolation position in valve b. The by-pass is now in operation and the heater bank is isolated. The feed
dump valves are now opened by the de-energised solenoid valves m2. The dump valves have light return springs which allow
them to re-seat when the feed side of the bank has depressurised to a nominal value. The restrictors o are provided to give
controlled opening or closing of the pneumatically-operated valves, as required. Limit switches s give indication of valve posi-
tion. When all high water level signals have been cleared and the bank is to be reinstated, the priming valve / is opened by
initiating the priming procedure which energises solenoid valve n (only possible when HWL alarms are removed). The initia-
tion of the priming procedure energises solenoid valves ml and m2 and so closes valves h and j . When pressure in the bank
is equal to feed pressure, valves a and b will return to their initial state (as shown in the diagram) under the action of the
force caused by the unbalanced area of the valve spindle of each valve.

267
 Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

produce whatever closing force is needed to close the

HAND WHEEL SPINDLE
valve as swiftly as the system hydraulics will allow.
(ONLY USED TO LOCK VALVE SHUT)
NORMALLY SCREWED BACK However, the system is complicated and costly, and is
only needed if heater flooding times are measured in
TO UPPER LIMIT

seconds, as with some designs of vertical heaters. The

cost benefits of increased reliability must be included.
The bled-steam lines to the heaters are isolated by
motorised parallel slide valves. The power-assisted non-
return valves are given the signal to close but will re-
MAIN VALVE SPINDLE

main open until the closing spring can overcome the

reducing steam flow tending to keep the valve open.
When the heater bank is isolated on the steam and
GLAND AND SPINDLE
feedwater sides, small heater shell drains are operated
BEARING HOUSING
which discharge to the condenser. Due to the action
of the heater vents, assisted by the shell drains, the
GLAND PACKING

pressure in heaters and the associated steam and drain

SHEAR BLOCKS
pipework within the isolation valves will fall to con-
SEALING RING
BACKING RING
denser vacuum.
SEALING RING The duplicate water level sensing devices which
SHEAR BLOCKS TO
HOLD TOP COVER initiate a bank trip due to a HWL are float switches
UPPER HALF OF
ACTUATING PISTON
PRESSURE FROM SYSTEM
(INTO THE DRILLING) manufactured by Mobrey to meet the plant manu-
LOWER HALF OF
CYLINDER TOP COVER
PISTON RINGS facturers' and CEGB needs (see Fig 3.23). Also illus-
ACTUATING PISTON
trated are the methods used for testing the duplicate
CYLINDER LINER
float switches with the heaters in operation.
The overall electrical control scheme is described
TO QUICK ACTING
CYLINDER EVACUATION in Volume F. This gives full details of the duplicated
VALVE
electrical supplies from the 110 V DC system which
powers the duplicate high integrity master tripping
relays. The master tripping relays initiate all protection
HEAD SECURING RING
valve closures except for the autonomous action of the
bled-steam non-return valve due to a pressure reversal.
In the event of a turbine trip, a separate signal trips
the master tripping relays which shut all the protection
valves on both banks.

FIG. 3.22 Dewrance medium-actuated valve, 2.4 HP heater drains system

outlet valve shown
When feedwater is released from the underside of
the piston, the full feed pressure causes the piston
to move down to close the valve. As the spindle moves
down, the flow is restricted by the increasing size of
the tapered portion of the spindle entering the cylinder
liner exit port which is concentric with the spindle. This
progressively slows the valve head as it approaches the
seat, so allowing swift closure without seat impact damage.
This feature also helps prevent hydraulic shock caused by
swift valve closure.
from Figs 3.21 and 3.22 are the provision for the
system to fail safe (i.e., to isolate the feedwater side
of the heaters), and the slowing down of the closing
stroke over the last few millimetres to ensure that
no hydraulic shock can occur due to sudden valve
closure. As the feedwater isolating valves have a
protective function, high integrity is important. The
use of the feedwater as a medium to close these valves,
ensures that a pressure source to actuate the valves
is always available and the actuator can be made to
268
The combined HP heater drains should be discharged
to the de-aerator under all possible conditions. The
simplest method to achieve this is to use the pressure
differential between the lowest pressure HP heater
and the de-aerator to overcome the static head and
friction between the HP heaters and the de-aerator
tank.
Figure 3.24 illustrates a typical drains system, show-
ing the control valves and relative levels of equipment.
A system with the HP heaters in a horizontal attitude
is shown. As the unit load decreases, the pressure
differential between the HP heater and the de-aerator
decreases to a point where there is insufficient pres-
sure head to raise the drains to the de-aerator storage
tank. The drains are then diverted to the condenser.
The converse applies on increasing unit load. In this in-
stance, the level in the heater is used to determine
the destination of the drain water. A rising water level
in No. 6 heater opens the control valve to the No. 5
heater flashbox or to the de-aerator storage tank. The
destination chosen is under the manual control of
 HP feed system

a ISOLATION VALVE TOP COLUMN 1

a) Mobrey float switch
b ISOLATION VALVE TOP COLUMN 2
c ISOLATION VALVE BOTTOM COLUMN 1
d ISOLATION VALVE BOTTOM COLUMN 2
e ISOLATION VALVE TOP COLUMN 3
f ISOLATION VALVE TOP COLUMN 4
g ISOLATION VALVE BOTTOM COLUMN 3
h ISOLATION VALVE BOTTOM COLUMN 4

b) Mobrey float switch arrangement using vacuum to lift the water to on load test the switches c) Mobrey float switch arrangement using condensation method

FIG. 3.23 Mobrey float switches and on-load test facilities for heaters
(a) Mobrey float switch Check that test lamps indicate that float switch
The rising water level lifts the float 1 and causes the actuates correctly
permanent magnet 2 to repel the other permanent magnet 3 Open valve a
on the switch-actuating mechanism. The repulsion force Check that test lamps indicate that water level is now
moves magnet 3 in the directon of the arrow causing the below trip level
switch-actuation rods 4 to open and close the contacts. The Switch columns and repeat procedure
contacts are housed in 5 and 6 in the terminal block. The (c) Mobrey float switch arrangement using condensation
switch assembly is mounted in a waterproof housing 9 method. To on-load-test column 3:
which is attached to the non-magnetic stainless steel Switch column 3 to 'test' state
diaphragm flange 7. The whole assembly is clamped to the Close valve g
standpipe or float switch chamber by the back flange 8. Wait until the test lamps indicate that float switch
(b) Mobrey float switch arrangement using vacuum to actuates correctly, typically up to 30 minutes.
lift the water to on-load-test the switches. To on-load-test Open valve g
column 1: Check that test lamp indicates that water level is now
Switch column 1 to 'test' state below trip level
Close valve a Switch columns and repeat procedure

269
Feedwater heating systems
TO HP 6B HEATER
FROM
FEED -
PUMPS
HP 5A SHELL DRAIN
FIG. 3.24 An HP heater drains system for horizontal heaters
the operator and is switched according to system
needs. If the level continues to rise because there is
insufficient differential pressure to lift the drains to
the de-aerator tank, the valve 3 in the line to the
condenser is commanded to open and the drains dis-
charge to the condenser. Backflow through valve 1
from the de-aerator is prevented by the NRV 75.
Number 5 HP heater drains work on a similar prin-
ciple but, because this is the lowest pressure HP
heater, the destinations available for the drains are
the storage tank or the condenser. A rising water level
in the No. 5 HP heater first opens the drains control
valve to the de-aerator tank; if the pressure differ-
ential is insufficient to lift the HP heater drains to
the de-aerator tank, the rising water level then opens
the drain control valve in the line to the condenser.
On falling unit load, when the water cannot be dis-
charged to the de-aerator, the water level continues
270
Chapter 3
TO DEAERATOR TANK
COMPONENTS
a NO 6A HP HEATER DESUPERHEATING SECTION
b CONDENSING
c DRAIN COOLING
d LEVEL TRANSMITTERS
e DUPLICATE HIGH LEVEL TRIP SWITCHES
f ON LOAD LOCAL TEST PANEL
g NO 5A HP HEATER FLASH BOX
h DESUPERHEATING SECTION
i CONDENSING
j DRAIN COOLING
k LEVEL TRANSMITTERS
I DUPLICATE HIGH LEVEL TRIP SWITCHES
m ON LOAD LOCAL TEST PANEL
n MASTER TRIP RELAYS TO ISOLATE BANK ON HWL
o HP DRAINS DIFFUSERS
DRAINS FROM
'B* BANK
to rise until its level controller sends a signal to open
the control valve to the condenser. The drains are
then discharged to the condenser until such time as
the water level falls and the drain discharge route
reverts to the de-aerator.
An alternative HP heater drains control system
associated with vertical HP heaters is shown in Fig
3.25. The point at which drains switch from being
raised to the de-aerator for discharge to the condenser
flash vessel, or vice versa, is controlled by pressure
switches on the main turbine. Two pressure switches
are used to determine the changeover point: they are
offset by about 10% between falling and rising load
to prevent 'hunting'.
The No. 8 HP heater drains route is selected by
use of drains route selection valves 3 and 4, working
in antiphase to direct heater drains to the flash vessel
or to the condenser flash vessel; the appropriate route

VENT TO CONDENSER DEAERATOR
FIG. 3.25 An HP heater drains system for vertical heaters
being determined by a valve sequence initiated by the
action of the pressure switches described above. The
control of the level in No. 8 HP heater is by valves
1 and 2, and that for No. 7 HP heater is by valves
5 and 6. As the drains flow path is determined by
the drains route selection valves there is no need to
switch signals to the control valves, which simplifies
the level control system. The drains discharged to the
condenser flash vessel are pumped by drains pumps
into the condenser hot well. The pumps are stopped
and started, as needed, by float switches mounted
on the tank.
2.5 Pipework arrangement
The correct arrangement of bled-steam pipework is
HP feed system
VENT TO CONDENSER
a DESUPERHEATING SECTION
b CONDENSING SECTION
, c DRAINS COOLING SECTION
d LEVEL SENSING DEVICE
e CONVERTER TO CHANGE LEVEL SENSED TO ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
f CONVERTER TO CHANGE ELECTRICAL SIGNAL TO PNEUMATIC SIGNAL
g CONDENSER FLASH VESSEL
h CONDENSER FLASH VESSEL DRAIN PUMPS
i STEAM TRAP
j AIR VENT FOR PRIMING
k FLASH VESSEL
important to ensure that the allowable thrusts and
moments on the heater and the turbine flanges are
not exceeded and also that they are completely drained
of any condensate which may form. In the HP pipe-
work, condensate should only be present when the
pipework is cold and is being warmed up. To this
end, drain pots with drain lines controlled by orifices
or drain traps are provided at each natural collection
point in the pipework.
Special care is taken to ensure that sections between
valves which could be closed are drained. This prevents
pockets of water being swept along the pipework on
opening of an isolation valve. Figure 3.26 shows the
pipework arrangement for a horizontal HP heater
layout and Fig 3.27 for a vertical heater. The horizontal
heater layout allows the pipework to be conveniently
271
Feedwater heating systems
FIG. 3.26 Arrangement of HP heater bled-steam pipework for horizontal heaters at Littlebrook D power station
drained to the drains vessel and then to the condenser
by gravity alone.
3 De-aerator system
3.1 Introduction
The de-aerator and associated plant accept feed from
the LP feed train to heat and de-aerate the water
and then supply it as feedwater to the boiler feed
pumps. The de-aerator storage tank also acts as a
receiving vessel for the HP drains and boiler feed
pump leak-offs. The term de-aerator in the context of
this section is taken to include the de-aerator head,
the storage tank and associate plant. The feed pump
suction pipework is also included in this section, as
its configuration has an important effect on de-aerator
behaviour under transient conditions.
3.2 De-aerator heater
A cross-section through a typical de-aerator heater
272
Chapter 3
is shown in Fig 3.28. Feedwater is sprayed or cas-
caded over a series of trays where it is heated and
de-aerated by the bled steam from the turbine. The
process is described in detail in Section 7 of this
chapter.
The non-condensable gases and a certain amount
of steam are drawn off from the vent. The vent con-
denser recovers the heat in the steam and non-con-
densable gases drawn-off from the de-aerator head.
The gases are then discharged to the condenser to be
extracted finally by the air extraction equipment.
Other designs of de-aerator heaters, which use other
means of exposing the condensate to the heating and
scrubbing action of steam, are described in detail in
Section 7 of this chapter, but the principle involved
is the same in all cases. The heated condensate and
the condensed steam drain from the head into the
de-aerator storage tank.
3.3 De-aerator storage tank
The main function of the de-aerator storage tank is
to provide a reservoir of de-aerated feedwater which
 De-aerator system

FIG. 3.27 Arrangement of HP heater bled-steam pipework for vertical heaters at Drax Completion power station

273
Feedwater heating systems
a) Half section of tray type head
a WATER INLET
b STEAM INLET
c DRAIN OUTLET TO STORAGE TANK
d SPRAY MANIFOLD
e PERFORATED DISTRIBUTION TRAY
f 1ST PERFORATED TRAY
g 2ND PERFORATED TRAY
h 3RD PERFORATED TRAY
i AIR/NON CONDENSIBLE GASES EXTRACTION POINTS
FIG. 3.28 Section through a typical de-aerator heater
can be drawn upon by the boiler feed pumps when
needed.
The capacity of the tank and the quantities of feed-
water stored at the various levels within the tank are
determined by the following functional needs:
(a) To store sufficient feedwater to meet the re-
quirements for flexible operation.
(b) To provide control levels for the operation of the
insurge and outsurge systems without exceeding
the high water level.
(c) Even when working at the top of the normal
operating level control band, to accept the con-
tents of the condenser hotwell in the event of the
condenser level control valve failing to the open
position, without exceeding the high water level.
(d) From the same initial working level as in (c), to
accept half-a-minute's-worth of CMR flow without
exceeding the high water level.
(e) From the level indicated in (c), to accept water
accumulated in the condenser hotwell after a unit
trip when the extraction pumps are restarted with-
out exceeding the high water level.
Figure 3.29 shows a cross-section through a typical
de-aerator tank for a modern 660 MW unit. Indicated
are the various levels and the resultant actions which
are initiated.
274
Chapter 3
b) Half section of spray/tray type head
The highest level to which the condensate can rise
is determined by the manufacturer, such that the
maximum velocity of the steam flowing across the
surface of the water will not cause water pick-up or
Sloshing' of the tank content. In this context, water
pick-up is defined as water which is stripped from
the tank surface and transported to the de-aerator
head by the action of heating steam. Damage to the
de-aerator head internals can be caused by the impact
of the water which has been carried over. The head
can also become flooded due to the drains being un-
able to cope with the extra water burden.
'Sloshing' of the tank content is caused by the
formation of waves in the tank which close the steam
pathway and are then propelled the length of the tank
by the force created by the heating steam being at-
tracted to the head. For a more complete explanation
of the mechanism, reference should be made to the
paper on the subject of de-aerator tank instabilities
by Cranfield and Wilkinson [7]. On the latest designs
of de-aerator, only a fraction of the steam is passed
over the tank surface, the majority being introduced
local to the head. The small flow across the tank is
retained to scavenge any oxygen within the tank and
transport it to the head. The head is vented to remove
any accumulation of non-condensable gases.
The rest of the working levels in the tank are deter-
mined applying rules (a) to (e), above. From Fig 3.29
it will be seen that the insurge and outsurge valves
have been provided with separate control bands. A
dead band is placed between the two control bands
 De-aerator system

CONDENSATE
INLET

KEY
a DEAERATOR HEATER (HEAD)
b DEAERATOR STORAGE TANK
c DUPLICATE LEVEL COLUMNS WITH ON-LOAD TEST FACILITIES TO ENSURE THE CONTINUED INTEGRITY OF THE FLOAT
SWITCHES WHICH ARE USED AS THE LEVEL SENSING DEVICES
d HIGH WATER LEVEL TRIP FLOAT SWITCHES
e HIGH WATER LEVEL ALARM FLOAT SWITCHES
f LOW WATER LEVEL ALARM FLOAT SWITCHES

^ CONDENSATE
DRAIN
FREEBOARD TO PROVIDE THE AREA NEEDED TO LIMIT STEAM
VELOCITY ACROSS THE WATER SURFACE IN THE TANK SO AS
TO ELIMINATE THE POSSIBILITY OF WATER 'PICK UP' AND
SUBSEQUENT TRANSFER OF WATER TO THE DEAERATING HEAD

VOLUME FILLED AFTER A HIGH WATER LEVEL INITIATES

CLOSURE OF THE CONDENSATE INFLOW ISOLATING VALVE

RANGE OF OUTSURGE (SURPLUS WATER) VALVE CONTROL

DEAD BAND BETWEEN OUTSURGE AND INSURGE VALVES TO

PREVENT POSSIBLE HUNTING BETWEEN VALVES

RANGE OF INSURGE (MAKEUP WATER) VALVE CONTROL

FIG. 3.29 Typical de-aerator tank levels

to allow the insurge and outsurge system to operate
independently without hunting.
3.4 De-aerator elevation
The elevation of the de-aerator must be such that
the suction head requirements of the feed pumps can
be satisfied under all credible modes of operation.
A typical de-aerator tank and suction pipework con-
figuration is shown in Fig 3.30, the tank content, pipe
lengths and component elevations being indicated.
In addition to the static head indicated, there is
also the pressure head within the vessel. Under steady
state conditions, the water within the feed pump suc-
tion pipework is at the saturation temperature equi-
valent to the pressure within the de-aerator. To ensure
that boiling within the pipework cannot occur when
a sudden pressure reduction in the tank takes place
during a transient, the water travelling down the suc-
tion pipework must gain sufficient static head to pre-
vent boiling. The important factors are the rate at
which tank pressure reduces or decays and the rate of
flow down the suction pipework. The limiting case
found for CEGB plant is a hot restart of a feed pump.
In this case the extraction pump is lost, the standby
fails to start and the feed pumps draw down the de-
aerator tank until the unit trips or is shut down. On
unit restart, the water in the condenser which has ac-
cumulated after the extraction pump trip, has to be
pumped forward to refill the depleted de-aerator.
Assuming that the tank is at full-load conditions but
only partially full, the 100% cold condensate inflow
into a hot depleted tank produces a rapid pressure
drop within the tank. The feed pump is started on
leak-off, so the feed velocity is at its slowest and
hence the time for the column of hot water in the
suction pipework to gain static head is at its greatest.

275
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

DEAERATOR HEAD
b DEAERATOR STORAGE TANK
C FEED PUMP SUCTION FILTERS
d BOILER FEED PUMP DRIVE TURBINE
BOILER FEED PUMP BOOSTER STAGE
f BOILER FEED PUMP PRESSURE STAGE
g PRESSURE BREAKDOWN DEVICE FOR TDBFP
h DRIVE MOTOR FOR STARTING STANDBY (SS) FEED PUMP
I SUCTION STAGE OF SS FEED PUMP
PRESSURE STAGE OF SS FEED PUMP
k PRESSURE BREAKDOWN DEVICE FOR SS FEED PUMP

TO HP FEED SYSTEM

FIG 3.30 A typical arrangement of feed

pump suction and leak-off pipework
The heated and de-aerated water from
the head cascades into the storage
tank from where it flows through the
pipework and filters to the turbine-driven
boiler feed pump. During normal
operation, the transit time of a partical
of water to flow from the storage
tank outlet to the feed pump suction
is dependent on the pipework length
and the flow rate needed to sustain the
boiler drum level. For the start-up
phase of operation for a 50% capacity
starting/standby pump to sustain leak-off
flow through the pump, a flow of about
one eighth of normal CMR flow is
needed (i.e., transit time is eight times
CMR flow value of between about 30 to
40 seconds)

276
 De-aerator system

Figure 3.31 shows in graphic form the effect of
the hot restart with a typically sized de-aerator tank
and suction pipework configuration. To prevent boil-
ing in the suction pipework, the inflow is limited to
a suitable flow rate by controlling the opening of the
condenser level control valve after a unit trip. For
further information on this aspect of de-aerator sys-
tem design, reference should be made to Dartnell [8].
Further information on the effect of boiling in feed
pipework and the avoidance of 'thermally induced' hy-
draulic shock is given by Wilkinson and Dartnell [9].
3.5 Protection systems
If the de-aerator pressure falls rapidly, as would
happen on a unit trip, steam will be evolved from the

STATIC HEAD DUE TO ELEVATION OF DEAERATOR TANK

EZJ PRESSURE NEEDED TO SUPRESS BOILING AT FEED PUMP SUCTION STAGE

NETT POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD NEEDED FOR BOILER FEED PUMP SUCTION STAGE

EH3 FRICTION IN PIPEWORK AND FILTERS

HEAD AVAILABLE TO SUPRESS BOILING AT FEED PUMP SUCTION

TOTAL HEAD AVAILABLE UNDER STEADY STATE CONDITIONS

= STATIC HEIGHT + PRESSURE HEAD

COMPOSITE CURVE = STATIC HEAD + PRESSURE IN

TANK AT TIME AFTER
START OF TRANSIENT

TIME FOR PARTICAL OF WATER TO FLOW FROM

TANK TO BFP SUCTION

TIME, s

FIG. 3.31 Curves showing rate of pressure decay and transit time for typical hot restart conditions for
a 660 MW turbine-generator
The curves are based on the conditions prevailing after a turbine generator trip with the de-aerator tank assumed to retain
full-load pressure but with the content reduced to the low water level. To restart the feed system, the starting and standby
feed pump (SSFP) is run on leak-off and the condensate extraction pump is started. The condensate, at vacuum temperature
accumulated in the condenser, discharges into the hot depleted de-aerator tank. The small flow rate corresponding to SSFP
leak-off flow gives an extended transit time in the order of 4 - 5 min for a typical feed pump suction pipework layout. For
this transit time, the pressure decay is restricted by limiting the condensate inflow in order that the pressure decay rate is
such that a positive head to suppress boiling is available at the feed pump suction. In general, it has been found that about
one third the normal inflow rate results in an acceptable decay rate. The second cycle starts from a lower initial tank
pressure and, from the shape of the pressure decay curve, it is seen that the result is less onerous than the first cycle.

277
Feedwater heating systems
large mass of stored water within the tank. To pre-
vent the reflux of the steam to the turbine, a non-
return valve of the power-assisted closing type is
provided in the bled-steam line between the de-aerator
and the bleed point on the turbine. As the amount of
steam evolved would overspeed the turbine, the non-
return valve is of a high integrity type specially de-
veloped by the manufacturer for this duty. The valve
is air-opened, spring-assisted closed and is commanded
to shut by the action of a switch on the turbine gov-
ernor gear when the unit trips. As a back-up, the
bled-steam isolating valve is tripped so that it also
closes. In the event of an HWL in the tank, the bled-
steam and power-assisted non-return valves are shut.
In addition, a high integrity valve in the condensate
line to the de-aerator is also shut. The route to the
turbine is therefore closed and the source of flooding
water is isolated.
Inflows to the de-aerator tank for which automatic
isolation on a high water level is not needed are the
HP heater drains and the feed pump leak-offs. This
is because the feed pump leak-offs are purely circulatory
flows between the tank and the boiler feed pump, and
the incoming HP heater drains are always less than
FIG. 3.32 A power-assisted non-return valve
278
Chapter 3
the outgoing feed flow from the tank needed to generate
the drains.
3.6 Protection valves
The bled-steam non-return valve is power-assisted.
Figure 3.32 shows a typical flap type non-return valve
with a spring-closing/air-opening actuator. There is
lost motion between the actuator and the valve flap
which allows the valve to function as a free-acting
non-return valve.
The actuator is there primarily to give the valve a
positive closing force to overcome any stiffness in
the bearings, etc., when the valve is commanded to
shut. The valve is shut by dumping the air from the
cylinder which allows the spring to close the valve.
If the air supply is lost, the valve will fail to the
closed position, although it will not shut until the
forward steam flow falls to a low value. This is be-
cause the steam flow on the underside of the disc
creates an opening force which is greater than the
spring-closing force. The bled-steam isolating valve
is a butterfly type valve of the spring-closing/air-
SOLENOID VALVE
 De-aerator system

opening type. Figure 3.33 shows a typical butterfly 3.7 Pipework

isolating valve with a spring-closing/air-opening actu-
ator. This form of actuator ensures the bled-steam
isolating valve fails-shut on loss of air pressure. On a
signal to trip, the air is dumped from the cylinder and
the multiple springs exert sufficient force to close
the valve against the full differential between heater
pressure and turbine condenser pressure to keep it
shut. This is needed as the IP/LP turbine pressure
falls to condenser back pressure in approximately one
second when the interceptor valves close due to a unit
trip. The heater pressure remains constant for seconds
or longer according to circumstances, and then re-
duces slowly, hence the isolating valve must close
against the full differential pressure.
As the de-aerator is in an elevated position relative
to the turbine, the bled-steam line has to rise at least
20 to 30 m above the bleed point on the turbine and
so great care has to be taken to drain all points where
condensate could accumulate. Drain pots are provided
at each natural drainage point, with a side take-off
which is led with a continuous fall to a suitable low
pressure disposal point. The drainage is controlled by
orifices or traps, with by-passes to allow for cold start
conditions when drainage requirements are at their
maximum. The steam traps, if used, are set so that
they discharge a few degrees above saturation tem-
perature to prevent condensate build-up. Attention is
also given to those sections of pipe which are isolated

BODY

DISC SHAFT

AIR OPENING SPRING RETURN ACTUATOR, (MAXSEAL)

- VALVE CLOSES ON LOSS OF AIR SUPPLY.

FIG. 3.33 A bled-steam isolating valve with air-opening, spring-closing actuator

279
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

by the action of the protection valves, to check that
they have adequate drainage and so ensure that there
are no trapped pockets of water which can be swept
forward on opening of the valves.
3.8 Boiler feed pump suction filters
Suction filters are provided to remove any foreign
matter from the feedwater which could damage either
the feed pumps or the downstream plant. An arrange-
ment with 2 x 100% duty filters in parallel has been
provided by the CEGB on fossil-fired stations, each
with automatic backflushing facilities.
The filters prevent particles greater than 0.2 mm
from passing through the filter mesh. To minimise the
effects on available feed pump NPSH, the filter types
adopted (Fig 3.34 and Fig 3.35) have a full flow pres-
sure drop in the clean conditions of no greater than
0.1 bar. Backflushing is arranged to operate automa-
tically when the pressure drop across the filter rises
to 0.4 bar. Timer facilities are also provided to permit
backflushing at fixed time intervals, if required.
The filter element consists of a stainless steel fine-
mesh basket, which is readily removable together with
the backflush assembly for maintenance and inspec-
tion. On initiation of the backflushing sequence, the
back wash arm is slowly rotated against the filter

ENTRAINED DEBRIS INTERCEPTED

INSIDE STRAINER CAVITIES

MULTIPLE
SEGMENTED SCREEN

ACCUMULATED SOLIDS
VACUUM-WASHED
BY BACKWASH ARM

CONTAMINATED FLUID
ENTERS HERE

ALL-STEEL
PRESSURE VESSEL

CLEAN FLUID
LEAVES HERE

DEBRIS BACKWASHED AUTOMATIC

THROUGH BACKWASH ARM
HOLLOW SHAFT

FIG. 3.34 One arrangement of a feed pump suction filter

280
 Low pressure feed system

mesh. At the same time a dump valve is opened,

creating a back pressure over the section of the mesh MOTOR AND SPEED
covered by the arm. This causes a localised reversal LIFTING LUGS REDUCING GEAR UNIT ACTUATED VALVE

of liquid flow to flush all the accumulated debris

to waste.
Hydraulic instability can occur at the commence-
ment of backflushing if the saturated liquid leaving
the filter is allowed to discharge into an empty drain
line. To prevent this, the line needs to be kept primed
and the major pressure reduction should take place
at the end of the drain line, prior to dissipation into
the unit drains system. These requirements are achieved
by the positioning of the dump control valve together
with a pressure breakdown orifice at the disposal end
of the pipeline.

4 Low pressure feed system

4.1 Introduction
The low pressure (LP) feed system is defined as the
heaters and the equipment between the outlet from
the condenser hotwell and the condensate inlet to the
de-aerator system.
Two types of LP feed system are in current use.
The older systems use direct contact heaters where,
as the name implies, the bled-steam and the conden- V V J HOLLOW

sate mix in the heater and are pumped forward to-

gether, as opposed to the traditional design of system
with tubed surface LP heaters, where the bled-steam
and the condensate are separated by the tube walls. BODY DRAIN

DC LP heaters were originally adopted in pre-

ference to the traditional vertical tubed surface LP FIG. 3.35 Alternative arrangement of a feed
heaters for the following reasons: pump suction filter

Because the steam and condensate are mixed,

zero steam and drain temperature differences are
achieved with a consequent reduction in the heat
rate of about 0.5 to 0.25%.
The cost of a DC heater, which is basically a tank
with an internal water distribution system, is con-
siderably less than a tubed LP heater.
The boiler feedwater requirements for the AGRs
necessitated the use of an in-line 100% water treat-
ment (polishing) plant. Heaters downstream of the
polishing plant must not contain copper-bearing
materials, so a DC heater of all-steel construction
seemed the logical choice.
As briefly mentioned in the Introduction, a study of
the cost effectiveness of the DC low pressure heater
system was undertaken in the early 1970s, from which
it was concluded that the factors which resulted in
their adoption in the late 1950s no longer applied
and that the gain in cycle efficiency was outweighed
by the following factors:
Operational experience has shown that the original
designs needed considerable modifications to make
them perform acceptably. These included increas-
ing the depth of the loop seals and the upgrading
of the turbine protection against the possibility of
water ingress from the heaters.
A high water level in any of the heaters in a DC
heater train results in loss of feed to the de-aerator
because of closure of the condensate isolating valve
placed just prior to the first (lowest pressure) DC
heater. As a consequence, unless a by-pass is pro-
vided as at Hinkley Point B, Hartlepool, Heysham
1 and Grain, the unit usually has to be taken off
load with resultant loss of revenue. Even if a by-
pass is provided, the flow of cold condensate to
the de-aerator causes pressure decay in the de-
aerator tank, with consequent restrictions in unit
operation.
281
Feedwater heating systems
Because of the vertical separation required between
DC heaters, already illustrated in Section 1 of this
chapter, long condensate and bled-steam lines were
needed. Extensive steelwork was also needed to
support the heaters at the required levels. These
extra costs were found to outweigh the cost differ-
ence between DC and surface type LP heaters.
As it was evident that a revision of traditional prac-
tice was cost effective, a complete review of previous
practice was undertaken by the manufacturers. A new
concept evolved which followed international practice
of using surface LP heaters in the horizontal attitude.
Figure 3.36 shows the position finally adopted, which
allowed easy bled-steam pipework drainage and makes
use of the entire heater shell to contain condensate in
a flooding situation. Another important factor is the
compact layout, which allows the heaters to be factory
built, complete with pipework fittings, etc., and ship-
ped to site as a unit. The only site work necessary is
to connect to the system on the steam and water sides
and to provide air and electricity to the valves and
instruments as needed, with consequent savings in
erection costs.
The cost of modification and upgrading of plant
after or during construction has vindicated the de-
cision to change to surface LP heaters for future
units: however, there are forty-nine 500 and 660 MW
units in operation with DC heaters. To complete
the picture of current plant, Fig 3.37 shows a typical
DC three-heater cascade as employed at Hartlepool
and Hey sham /, both AGR stations.
Water is pumped from the condenser hotwell via
the condensate system up to DC 1 heater. From this
heater, it cascades into DC 2 and then cascades into
DC 3 heater, from where it is pumped by the DC
heater extraction pump to the de-aerator heater. A
60% capacity by-pass is provided to prevent the unit
tripping on low de-aerator water level in the event
of a DC heater train trip.
4.2 Low pressure system configuration
Figure 3.38 shows the LP feed system for Littlebrook
D which uses tubed LP heaters in a horizontal atti-
tude. The heaters are by-passed in two banks, the
first group being LP1 and LP2 heaters and the second
LP3 heater. Steam is supplied to each of the three
LP heaters from the LP turbines. Each bled-steam
line contains a free-acting non-return valve and a
bled-steam isolating valve.
The drains formed in LP3 heater are cascaded to
LP2 drains flashbox, from where they are drained
into LP1 drains flashbox. The combined drains from
LP2 and LP1 flashboxes cascade to the condenser
flash vessel. The drains from LP1 heater are also cas-
caded to the condenser flash vessel.
282
Chapter 3
This grouping of LP heaters has been chosen so
that if either LP3 or LP2 and LP1 are by-passed, the
resultant steam and condensate flows will not overload
the individual feed train components. If LP3 heater is
by-passed, the condensate temperature to the de-
aerator will be at LP2 heater outlet temperature. The
steam flow to the de-aerator will increase by about
50% to compensate for the greater enthalpy rise now
needed. The de-aerator is designed to allow for this
increase in the flow without damage or operational
difficulties. When LP3 heater is by-passed, the drains
are also isolated from LP2 heater flashbox. If LP1
and LP2 heaters are by-passed, condensate at the
temperature of the gland steam condenser outlet is
supplied to LP3 heater. LP3 heater then attracts a
total of approximately three times the normal steam
flow. To allow for this large increase in steam flow,
the steam inlet and heater internals are designed for
this duty. The drain system is also capable of ac-
cepting the abnormal drains quantity.
The feed system illustrated has no drain cooling
section contained within the heater shells. However,
to improve the cycle efficiency, a drain cooler is
usually provided to recover as much of the heat from
the combined drains out of the lowest pressure LP
heater as practicable. The drain cooler can be of the
water-to-water type or the more usual flashing type.
The flash drain cooler is, in effect, an additional
stage of LP feedheating, using the steam flashed from
the drains out of LP1 to heat the feedwater. The
drains from the flash drain cooler are cascaded to
the condenser.
A development to increase cycle efficiency which
is to be used for the current PWR feed system (Fig
3.6), is the pumping forward of the drains from a
group of LP heaters. Because of the large flows in-
volved in the PWR cycle, it has proved economic to
provide the additional pumps and associated equip-
ment needed to inject the LP heater drains into the
de-aerator system in order to recover the heat in the
drain water.
The principle of forward pumping of drains is
illustrated in Fig 3.39 and shows how the enthalpy
into the upstream heater is increased by the injection
of the drains water. The consequent decrease in steam
used in the upstream heater improves cycle efficiency.
An alternative drain route to the condenser is also
provided, so that the loss of a heater drain pump or
the malfunction of associated equipment does not
result in the forced isolation of the heaters which are
drained by the drain pump because of lack of an
alternative destination for the drains. The short term
loss of efficiency is accepted until the drain pump is
returned to service.
Distribution of bleed point pressures and hence en-
thalpy rises over the heaters, determines the gain in
efficiency by forward pumping of the drains of each
individual heater or group of heaters (see Chapter 1).
 Low pressure feed system

LP CYLINDERS

FIG. 3.36 A typical arrangement of horizontal-attitude LP heaters

Pictorial view of horizontal-attitude LP heaters showing the principles adopted to determine their position relative to the
turbine bled-steam extraction points and water level in condenser. The bled-steam pipework is arranged to slope from
extraction point to heater. The heaters cascade by gravity from LP4 to LPl heater and thence to the flash drain cooler.
The drains then cascade to the condenser.

283
 Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

BLED STEAM ISOLATING VALVE (BSIV)

. 35.6m LEVEL
DEAERATOR FLOOR

8.7m LEVEL
TURBINE HOUSE
FLOOR

1 Jk*

u
FROM TMEC
EXTRACTION PUMPS

FIG. 3.37 A typical DC heater cascade

284
 Low pressure feed system

PLANT IDENTITIES VALVE IDENTITIES

a -Main condensers 1 - Condenser level control valve

-Condenser extraction pumps of the vertical cassion type 2 Extraction pump recirculation loop control valve
-Gland steam condenser (GSC) 3 - Sectionalising valve
-No.1 LP Heater 4 Condensate dump valve
-No.2 LP Heater 5 Condensate isolating valve in dump to RFT
-No.3 LP Heater 6 - Outsurge valve - controlled by level in deaerator storage tank
-Reserve feedwater tank (RFT) 7 - Non return valve in condensate main - to prevent drain down
-Make-up pump of vertical pipework in line to deaerator storage tank
-Drain tank for GSC with level control by float operated valve 8 - No.1 LP Heater inlet isolating valve
-Condenser flash vessel 9 - No.2 LP Heater outlet isolating valve
-No.2 LP Drains flashbox 10 - N 0 . 1 & 2 LP Heaters bypass valve
No.1 LP Drain flashbox 11 - No.3 LP Heater inlet isolating valve
-Duplicate columns containing LWLA & HWL trip float switches 12 - No.3 LP Heater outlet isolating valve
with on-load testing No.1 LP 13 - No.3 LP Heater bypass valve
Duplicate columns containing LWLA & HWL trip float switches 14 - No.3 LP Heater drains route selection valve - to condenser
with on-load testing No.2 LP 15 - No.3 LP Heater drains route selection valve - to LP 2 flashbox
-Duplicate columns containing LWLA & HWL trip float switches 16 - No.1 LP Heater bled steam isolating valve
with on-load testing No.3 LP 17 No.1 LP Heater bled steam isolating valve
Insurge group of valves 18 No.2 LP Heater bled steam isolating valve
Outsurge group of valves 19 No.3 LP Heater bled steam isolating valve
20 - No.1 LP Heater bled steam non return valve
21 - No.1 LP Heater bled steam non return valve
22 - No.2 LP Heater bled steam non return valve
23 - No.3 LP Heater bled steam non return valve

f
I IH>o-lt*><*r

IL
H' nlWP^
ntxn
fl II1!^

BLED STEAM
FEEDWATER/CONDENSATE
DRAINS

-w-

A
VALVE TYPES

Motorised isolation valve

Manual isolation valve

Air operated control valve

H ^ " Non return valve

Air opening spring closing isolation valve

Thermal relief valve

FIG. 3.38 A typical diagrammatic arrangement of an LP feed system, showing the main control and isolating valves

The grouping of two or more LP heaters into a enquiry document.

bank to provide a common by-pass on the feedwater
side makes it convenient to forward pump the cumu-
lative drains from the lowest pressure LP heater. The
choice as to which LP heaters are provided with a
drains pump is made by the feed system manufac-
turer at the inception of the feed cycle design, taking
into account the factors described above in conjunc-
tion with the value of efficiency given in the relevant
To meet the functional needs for the protection
against water ingress as given in Section 1 of this
chapter, each heater is provided with duplicate level
sensing devices, which can be on-load tested to verify
their health.
In the event of an HWL in LP3 heater, it is iso-
lated and by-passed on the condensate side and also
isolated on the steam side. An HWL in LPl or LP2
285
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

the control valve is determined by the signal from the

level controller on the de-aerator. The maximum ca-
BLED
STEAM pacity of the outsurge valve is normally about 10%.
A non-return valve is provided in the outsurge line
to prevent the contents of the RFT leaking into the
condensate system. A motorised by-pass valve with
an orifice in series is connected around the outsurge
valve to allow the quantity outsurging to be trimmed
by the operator as needed.
To supply the de-aerator with feed from the RFT
under emergency conditions a 30% make-up pump
may also be provided. The pump can also be used to
ENTHALPY
RISE DUE TO
fill the de-aerator, avoiding the use of the extraction
pumps for this duty when initially filling the tank.
Upstream of the make-up pump and outsurge con-
nections is a sectionalising valve, which is used to
CONDENSATE FLOW
AT EXTRACTION PUMP
DISCHARGE PRESSURE
isolate the condensate system during system flushing
: and clean up.

SATURATION
ENTHALPY

ALTERNATIVE DRAIN All of the system components upstream of the

ROUTE TO CONDENSER
IF DRAIN PUMP
UNAVAILABLE
DRAINS FROM DOWNSTREAM
HEATER
RISE OVER PUMP NEGLECTED AS SMALL
FIG. 3.39 LP heater with drains forward-pumped into
feed pipework
heaters will result in isolation on both steam and
condensate sides, with the condensate by-pass valve
opening to supply water to LP3.
Also shown in Fig 3.38 is the portion of the LP
feed system which connects the condenser to the LP
feedheaters. Part of this system is the insurge group,
by which means feedwater is admitted to the con-
denser. Water is fed into the condenser from the
reserve feedwater tanks (RFT) under the control of
the insurge group.
There are three routes by which feed can be ad-
mitted via the insurge group:
A fixed orifice which allows 1% CMR flow on a
continuous basis. Any small leakages and water
losses are made up by this quantity.
Via the control valve which receives its signal from
de-aerator level. The capacity of the valve is usual-
ly about 2 - 3 % and varies according to the static
head available from the RFT (especially relevant
for a low level tank).
A manually-operated by-pass valve which can pass
anything from 5-7% and is only used for start-up
or in an emergency.
The outsurge valve and associated equipment is con-
nected to the condensate system downstream of the
sectionalising valve. The rate of discharge through
286
isolating valve are primarily concerned with control-
ling the flow through the condensate system to main-
tain a constant water level in the condenser.
The prescribed level is required to give surge and
cavitation-free extraction pump performance and is
maintained by throttling the extraction pump flow.
A level control device on the condenser, typically as
manufactured by Fisher and sold under the trade
name 'Level-TroF, is used to give an air signal which
controls the position of a pneumatic control valve and
maintains the level in the condenser. The level control
valve fails to the 'open' position on loss of air or
control signal, thus preventing a unit trip due to loss
of forward flow to the de-aerator and hence eventual
loss of feed to the boiler.
The position of the control valve is immediately
upstream of sectionalising valve. Its function in trim-
ming the pump discharge head to suit the system
resistance is shown in Fig 3.40. To protect the extrac-
tion pump from damage due to low flows, the pump
manufacturer specifies a flow below which the ex-
traction pumps should not be operated. To meet this
need a recirculation connection and a control valve
is provided and is commanded to open as the main
control valve goes below the 25% flow position. The
way in which the recirculation valve operates in anti-
phase to maintain a minimum flow through the ex-
traction pump is also illustrated in Fig 3.40.
Between the condenser level control valve and the
sectionalising valve, a dump connection is provided,
which is used to discharge contaminated condensate
from the system during system clean up.
The non-return valve upstream of the control valve
prevents accidental discharge of water from the de-
aerator tank into the condenser in the event of an
extraction pump trip with a faulty discharge non-return
valve.
The gland steam condenser is placed upstream of
the recirculation connection to ensure a cooling con-
densate flow at all times. The extraction pumps are

(a)
CONSTANT FLOW
THROUGH GSC
FLOW TO DEAERATOR -
(b)
LEVEL SENSING DEVICE WITH OUTPUT SIGNAL
IN THE FORM OF VARYING AIR PRESSURE
(TYPICALLY A FISHER "LEVEL-TROL")
use of contaminated feed water is provided. On some
CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP GLAND STEAM
CONDENSER
(C)
FIG. 3.40 LP feed system resistance curve and function of
recirculation loop at low flows
Valve A, condenser level control valve maintains a
constant level in the condenser and hence NPSH on
the extraction pump by throttling flow to match inflow
to the condenser.
Valve B, recirculation loop control valve when valve A
is passing less than 40%, then valve B opens in antiphase
such that the combined discharge from A and B is a
constant 40% as illustrated by curve in (b).
provided with isolating valves on both suction and
discharge to allow isolation for maintenance. Non-
return valves are provided on the discharge of the
pumps to prevent backflow of water through an idle
Low pressure feed system
pump from the discharge of the duty pump.
On all 500 MW units and the earlier 660 MW units
with DC heaters, cooling of the generator by con-
densate was incorporated in the feed train imme-
diately after the extraction pump, as illustrated in
Fig 3.41.
The reason for placing it in the feed system was to
reclaim the generator losses as heat input to the feed.
In practice, it was found that for large modern power
stations the following difficulties were experienced:
On extraction pump trip, the residual heat in the
generator could boil the condensate in the system and
cause thermally-induced hydraulic shock [10].
To provide an acceptably modest condensate pres-
sure within the coolers on the generator, two pres-
sure stages are needed. Two pumps are used and
the condensate is discharged from the first pump
through the generator coolers and then into the
turbine moisture extraction condenser (TMEC) with
consequent complicated pipework arrangement. The
TMEC extraction pump then discharges to the lowest
pressure DC heater.
To prevent limitations on unit output during the
summer when condensate temperatures may be too
high to cool the generator adequately, coolers to
reduce the condensate temperature before it passes
through the generator may be required in the feed
system. The introduction of raw water coolers in
the condensate system carries the risk of leakage
of the cooling water into the system.
Whilst these problems can be overcome, the resultant
plant is expensive and needs special care to operate.
Consequently an auxiliary CW system using indirect
coolers has been developed by the main manufacturers
and is fully described in Chapter 6.
On all modern feed systems, protection against the
units, this takes the form of visual alarms to alert
the operator of high conductivity levels in the feed
leaving the extraction pumps. In this case, the opera-
tor has to use his judgement as to the subsequent
actions, for example, to close sectionalising valves
and unload the unit.
For AGR feed systems, as illustrated in Fig 3.5, a
full-duty polishing plant is provided to ensure high
quality water for boiler feed. As their boilers need
special protection against chloride ingress, valves are
provided upstream of the polishing plant but down-
stream of the outsurge connection.
In the event of a condenser tube leak, the conduc-
tivity sensors close the protection valves and trip the
extraction pumps; should there be an accidental re-
lease of chemicals from the polishing plant, the sec-
ond line conductivity sensors also close the protection
valves. The valves used for this duty are butterfly
287
 Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

GENERATOR
HYDROGEN COOLERS

TURBINE
MOISTURE
EXTRACTION
CONDENSER
(TMEC)

GH
EXCITER
COOLER TODC1
HEATER
RECTIFIER
COOLER

DISTILLED WATER
COOLING PUMPS
DISTILLED WATER
COOLERS *h
iLf3~irffiiJ TMEC
LEVEL
r~*
" CONTROL

OVERFLOW TO
MAIN CONDENSER
CONDENSATE
POLISHING RECIRCULATION
STATOR WINDING PLANT TO CONDENSER
WATER COOLERS

GENERATOR COOLERS kTMEC

I EXTRACTION
' PUMPS

BFP GLAND ATMOSPHERIC

SEAL WATER GLAND STEAM
COOLER CONDENSER

FIG. 3.41 Diagrammatic arrangement of generator coolers in an LP feed system

valves of the spring closing/air opening type similar pipework is shown in Fig 3.42 and shows clearly
to those used for bled-steam isolating valves. the principle of the heaters being below the cylinder
bottom level and above the condenser level. The
pipework also slopes towards the heater. The bled-
steam isolating valves are of the same design as those
4.3 Pipework and valves used in the de-aerator bled-steam pipework. The non-
The general arrangement of LP heater bled-steam return valves are also similar but are not provided
288

NON RETURN VALVE
FIG. 3.42 Arrangement of LP heaters, showing bled-steam pipework
with assisted-closing devices as these are not manda-
tory for LP heaters.
5 Designs of feedheaters
The aim of feedheater design is to provide a heat
exchanger that will raise the temperature of the in-
coming feedwater to a specified outlet temperature,
whilst drawing a predetermined amount of steam from
the turbine cycle. There are four groups of heat ex-
changers used in the feed system to fulfil this function:
High pressure feedwater heaters.
De-aerator heaters.
Low pressure feedwater tubed heaters.
Low pressure feedwater direct contact heaters.
The design of each type of heat exchanger is deter-
mined by the thermal, hydraulic and structural needs
of its particular function in the feed cycle. The over-
all size of a heat exchanger is fixed by its thermal/
hydraulic design.
For a tubular heat exchanger to raise the tem-
perature of the feedwater by a defined amount, the
Designs of feedheaters
BLED STEAM ISOLATING VALVE
average overall heat transfer coefficient has to be
found and used to determine the heat transfer surface
area needed. From the tube size and feedwater flow,
the tubenest diameter is found. With the tubenest
diameter known, the heater diameter and the main
structural details of the shell and water heater can be
determined by use of the appropriate design standard.
The length of the heater is a function of the heat
transfer surface needed. A detailed explanation of
thermal/hydraulic design is given in Section 6 of this
chapter.
De-aerator head and DC heater sizes are deter-
mined by the need to accommodate the sprays or
trays used to create sufficient water surface area to
transfer the heat from the steam to the water, as
needed by the cycle. The vessel diameter and length
is determined by the need to contain the requisite
number of sprays or trays.
There are long established British Standards for the
structural design of feedheaters and these are used by
the CEGB to specify a uniform design standard for all
components, materials, welding and testing.
Until 1976, the standard used was BS1500 'Fusion
Welded Pressure Vessels' supplemented by the ASME
'Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code', where appropriate.
In 1976 BS1500 was replaced by BS5500 'Unfired
Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels' [11], which conso-
lidated and expanded the previous standard. BS5500
289
Feedwater heating systems
has been used for all heaters ordered since 1976 and
will be used for all future plant. For a specific heat
exchanger size, the standard is used to determine the
thickness of all pressure parts such as shell, tubeplate
and water header, branches, etc. The materials, weld
details and procedures, as well as relief valve capacity
and vessel pressure testing, are also defined.
In certain specialist areas, such as heater internal
design, the 'Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manu-
facturers Association (TEMA) 1978' [12] can also be
applied.
The heat transfer coefficients are determined by a
manufacturer's experience with a particular design of
feedheater. However, a good approximation to the
design values for surface type heaters can be obtained
by reference to the 'Guide to the Design of Feed
Water Heating Plant (BEMA) 1968' [13] or TEMA
1978* [12].
6 High pressure feedwater heaters
6.1 Functional needs
The structural design of high pressure (HP) feedwater
heaters is determined by two main needs:
To contain the steam and HP feedwater at the ap-
propriate cycle conditions.
To provide the heat transfer surface to raise the feed-
water temperature by the specified amount.
The temperature rise and the TTDs are determined
by cycle economics, as shown in Chapter 1, and the
TEMPERATURE AT INLET
TO CONDENSING
SECTION
'U'TUBE LENGTH
FIG. 3.43 Temperature rise of feed water as it passes through an HP heater
290
Chapter 3
means by which the consequent heat transfer surface
areas are found is shown in Section 6 of this chapter.
Figure 3.43 illustrates the way in which the feed
temperature increases as it passes through a typical
two-pass horizontal heater of the U-tube type. The
heater has both integral drain cooling and desuper-
heating sections as shown (Fig 3.44).
The desuperheating section is placed on the outlet
end of the U-tubes in order that the incoming super-
heater steam can raise the feedwater near to or above
the saturation temperature of the body pressure be-
fore it leaves the heater. The drain cooling section
is placed at the inlet end of the tubes to allow the
outgoing drains to be cooled to as near to the in-
coming feedwater temperature as needed. Steam enters
the desuperheating section and is reduced in tem-
perature by transferring its heat to the feedwater to
within 27C of the temperature of saturation of the
condensing section pressure. The steam then flows to
the condensing section, where it leaves as water at sat-
uration temperature to enter the drain cooling section.
A water seal is maintained at the inlet to the drain
cooling section by a level control system to prevent
loss of prime in the section.
In the drain cooling section, the condensate is
cooled to the drain outlet temperature and then dis-
charged to the next lowest pressure heater.
Each section within the heater is provided with
baffles to ensure flow across the outside of the tubes
by the heating medium.
As the heating steam is condensed in the heater,
non-condensable gases are released. Unless correctly
vented these would rapidly blanket the heat transfer
surface and would impair the heater thermal perform-
ance. To remove these gases, vents connected to the
condenser are provided at strategic points throughout
the heater tubenest.
TEMPERATURE OUT OF HEATER
DESUPERHEATING SECTION
 High pressure feedwater heaters

WINDOW TO ALLOW FLOW OF STEAM

WATER BOX DESUPERHEATING SECTION OUT'OF DESUPERHEATING SECTION TUBE BUNDLE CONDENSING SECTION
FEED OUTLET

DRAIN COOLING SECTION ^^ SUBMERGED OPENING TO

ALLOW CONDENSATE TO FLOW
INTO DRAIN COOLING
DRAIN OUTLET SECTION

FIG. 3.44 Steam and water flow paths in a typical horizontal HP heater

Special care is needed in the venting of horizontal

heaters, as air pockets can accumulate under baffles,
etc. If lower initial heater cost outweighs the higher
running cost due to the loss of cycle efficiency, heaters CENTRAL DISTRIBUTION DUCT
FOR STEAM FROM
can be constructed without drain cooling sections or DESUPERHEATING SECTION

separate desuperheating sections.

Vertical HP heaters employ the same basic layout
with regard to disposition of the desuperheating and CONDENSING SECTION
drain cooling sections. However, there are some points
of difference in construction which are highlighted
in the following section on construction of specific
ALTERNATIVE POSITION
heater designs. FOR DESUPERHEATING
SECTION

Figure 3.45 shows a typical arrangement of a ver-

tical HP heater. The desuperheating section is below
the working water level in the heater. To prevent water
inleakage, seals are provided between the tubes and TUBE BUNDLE
the end plates of the desuperheating section, trunking
is also needed to carry the steam from the desuper-
heater to the condensing section if needed. These
provisions can be avoided by placing the desuper-
heating section in the dotted position shown in Fig
3.45 but, as it is not now adjacent to the tubeplate, WINDOW TO ALLOW FLOW
the feedwater must travel through tubes immersed
INTO DRAIN COOLING
SECTION

in water at the saturation temperature equivalent to DESUPERHEATING SECTION

the body pressure. This limits the steam TTD as, if DRAIN COOLING SECTION

a negative TTD were employed, the feed would tend

to be cooled back down to saturation temperature.
The horizontal design of heater does not suffer from
DRAIN OUTLET
this problem as the desuperheating section is above
the water level by virtue of the heater attitude.
The reduction in the complication of heater internal
construction is another point in the favour of hori-
zontal attitude HP heaters.
As the high pressure feedwater heaters are on the
discharge side of the feed pumps, the feedwater within
the water headers and the tubes is at boiler pressure
plus the pressure rise between the heater and the boiler. FIG. 3.45 Steam and water flow paths in a typical vertical
To contain this high pressure, various designs of water HP heater
header have been used in the past, but virtually all
current 660 MW units employ hemispherical-headed
heaters with a flat tubeplate. The tubes are welded fusion welding process' illustrated in Fig 3.46. This
onto the back of the tubeplate by the 'Foster Wheeler method of tube attachment has been used for many

291
Feedwater heating systems
TREPANNED S P I G O T _
FOR BUTT WELD
WATERSIDE OF TUBEPLATE
STEAM SIDE OF
TUBEPLATE
BUTT WELDING
FIG. 3.46 Foster-Wheeler method of butt-welding HP heater tubes to tubeplate
years and, once initial difficulties with the quality of
welds were overcome, it has proved a cost effective
method of tube attachment.
Current HP heaters and associated systems use
welded joints wherever practicable, as bolted joints
have proved difficult to maintain leak-free when sub-
jected to thermal cycling. It is now accepted that to
maintain heater internals, the heater shell has to be
cut off and likewise any defective valves, etc., have to
be cut from the pipework. The subsequent re-welding
of the heater shell has proved to be less difficult than
the reassembly of complicated bolted joints, which
require special techniques to ensure precise bolt ten-
sioning and thereafter periodic checking and possible
retensioning to allow for gasket relaxation.
In the following section, examples of current HP
heater construction are given for the two main con-
tractors who have supplied heaters for 500 and 660
MW units, which shows how their designs meet the
feed system needs.
6.2 Construction of high pressure heaters
The construction of the pressure envelope of vertical
and horizontal HP heaters is very similar and the
only differences are the arrangement of the heater
internals, support feet, etc.
The water header is very similar in both, although
the tubeplate tube hole pattern may differ to allow
for the different arrangements of the drain cooling and
desuperheating sections. In all cases, BS5500 [11] is
used to determine the thickness of the water header,
tubeplate, shell, etc. The U-tube wall thickness can
be found by application of BS1113: 'Design and manu-
facture of water tube steam generating plant' [14],
292
Chapter 3
[ FLUX BACKING
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
WITHIN CERAMIC TUBE
OF WELDING GUN
as BS5500 [11] makes no provision for minimum bend
radius of the thinning effect when forming a U-tube.
The materials normally used in the construction of
HP heater headers are low carbon steel for the tube-
plates with a forged steel or cast steel hemispherical
head (hemi-head). The tubeplate and hemi-head are
welded together to form the feedwater header. An
alternative which has been used in the past is a one-
piece forged low carbon steel water header of the
'bottle' type with welded-on feedwater branches. Typi-
cal examples of these methods of construction are
shown in Figs 3.47 and 3.48. The tubes used are low
carbon manganese steel suitable for fusion welding
to the back of the tubeplate. The heater shell, dished
end, baffle plates, etc., are all made from mild steel
plate.
The following sections outline how the design codes
are used to determine the physical size of a typical
HP feedwater heater.
6.3 Water header, tube bundle and shell
The dominant influence in determining the thickness
of various parts of a water header for an HP heater for
a given pressure on the feed side is the tube bundle
diameter, which is governed by the number of tubes
needed to provide the flow area for the feedwater.
The following calculations illustrate the design pro-
cess to find the relevant thickness of the pressure
parts which are needed to contain the feed pressures
and flows.
6.3.1 To find tube thickness
All modern CEGB HP feedheaters use 19.05 mm
(0.75 in) outside diameter low carbon manganese steel
 High pressure feedwater heaters

where e = minimum thickness of straight tube, mm

p = calculation pressure, N/mm 2
f = allowable design stress, N/mm 2
D = outside diameter of tube, mm

For a typical 660 MW unit

p = 217.2 bar or 21.72 N/mm 2
D = 19.05 mm outside diameter

The heater tubes are manufactured to conform to

ESI Standard 2 3 - 4 82 [15] (which supersedes GDCD
Standard 56-80 [16]).
(a) Forged hemispherical head and tubepiate with welded constuction
The tube material conforms to the Type 400' which
appears in the allowable design stress Table 2.3 (k) in
BS5500 [11], giving 96 N/mm 2 at 300C and 88 N/mm 2
at 350C for this material.
If the temperatures used to determine the allowable
stress in the tubes are taken as that experienced by the
ultimate heater, then the worst case is considered.

Steam temperature (assumed) 370C

Outlet feed temperature 253C
Average temperature 312C
By interpolation f at 312C = 97.8 N/mm 2

(b) Cast hemispherical head welded to forged tubepiate

Then tube wall thickness: t = (21.72 x 19.05)/
[(2 X 97.8) + 21.72]
= 1.90 mm
FIG. 3.47 Typical cast and forged HP heater water headers
of the hemispherical type
From BS1113 Clause 3.7.3, the thickness (e b ) allowing
for bends is given by e b = 1.125 e, so e b = 1.90 x
1.125 = 2.14 mm.

Using the nearest standard tube thickness of 203 mm,

tube bore = 19.05 - 4.06 = 14.99 mm, say 15 mm.
Having determined the tube thickness and hence the
bore, the area for flow per tube is known and so the
number of tubes required for a specified HP feed flow
can now be calculated.

6.3.2 Area required for flow through the tube

FIG. 3.48 Typical forged HP heater 'bottle' water
header monobloc construction with welded-on branches
bundle
As all HP heaters employ U-tubes, the number of holes
to give the flow area needed is equal to the number of
Us. Taking a typical 660 MW feed flow and two-
bank heater configuration:

tubes. Tube thickness is found from application of Flow/heater = 273.5 kg/s

Clauses 3.7.1.1 and 3.7.3.1 of BS1113 [14]. Heater feed inlet temperature = 191C
From Clause 3.7.1.1 but using the same notation Internal tube diameter = 15 mm
as BS5500 [11], Clause 3.5.1.1:
Average feed temperature = 222C
From ERA 1967 Steam Table, = 1.17 x 10~ 3 m 3 /kg
e = pD/(2f + p) specific volume

293
Feedwater heating systems
The missing parameter to find the flow area is the
velocity of the feedwater in the tubes.
For the purpose of this specimen calculation, a water
velocity of 2 m/s is taken, but the actual value varies
with individual manufacturer's practice; however,
the 'Standards for Closed Feedwater Heaters (HEI)
1979' [17] recommend not more than 2.4 m/s (8 ft/s)
at maximum flow conditions.
If, for instance, one bank of HP heaters is by-
passed in a two-bank system and the feed split is
60/40, with 60% through the active bank, the feed-
water velocity will increase to 1.2 times normal ve-
locity, which would give (1.2 x 2) = 2.4 m/s (i.e.,
the HEI maximum recommended feedwater velocity).
Area per tube = (/4)(14.77/1000) 2
= 1.713 X 1 0 " 4 m2
Volumetric flow = 273.5 X (1.17 x 10" 3 )
= 0.32 m 3 /s
Required area = 0.32/2
= 0.16 m2
Number of holes/flow = 0.16/(1.713 x 10~ 4 )
= 934
The heater needs 934 U-tubes and the tubeplate has
1868 holes. If a tube pitch of 25.4 mm is taken with a
60 triangular pattern, then allowing for a typical
minimum U-tube bend and gaps for internal fittings,
etc., the tube bundle can be assumed to have an
overall diameter of 1300 mm.
6.3.3 Tubeplate thickness
The tubeplate thickness is found by application of
BS5500, the calculation being shown in Fig 3.49, using
the suggested working form for U-tube tubesheet design,
page 3/96.
The values of the coefficients, which are given in
Table 3.9 of BS5500, are also shown in graphical
form to demonstrate how they are obtained during
the course of the calculation. If a single bank of HP
feedwater heaters is considered in place of the double
bank, for the same velocity of water in the tubes, the
flow area would have to be doubled.
If it is assumed the area required to accommodate
the doubled number of tubes is twice that previously
needed, then the tube bundle diameter will be V2 times
the original diameter, with a consequent increase of
tubeplate thickness to 550 mm.
6.3.4 Water header wall thickness
For the purpose of finding the wall thickness of a
294
Chapter 3
hemispherical head heater, the water head shape is
assumed to approximate to half a sphere and the
formula from BS5500: 'Minimum thickness for pressure
loading only for spherical shells', Clause 3.5.1.2 [11]
is used.
Using the same notation as on Fig 3.49, the wall
thickness (e) is given by pDj/(4f - 1.2p) where Dj
= internal diameter.
In practice, the calculated wall thickness is increased
by the manufacturer as appropriate to the method of
construction, i.e., to allow for tolerances on forgings
or the geometry needed to produce a sound casting.
6.3.5 Header branch thickness
The branches can be considered as cylindrical pressure
vessels and the formulae from Clause 3.5.1.2 (given
in (d) above) used:
thickness e = pDj/(2f - p)
The bore of the branch must be found first: if a velo-
city of 3 m/s is assumed, the cross-sectional area is
0.32/3.0 = 0.107 m 2 , giving a 0.37 m bore. Therefore,
e = (21.72 x 370)/[(2 x 104.8) - 21.72] = 42.8 mm
The thickness calculated is that needed for pressure
considerations alone. In practice, the branch wall thick-
ness is increased to compensate for the opening needed
(see Clause 3.5.4 of BS5500 [11]) and also to ensure
that it is adequate to withstand the forces imposed on
it by the pipework to which it is attached. The end
of the branch is reduced to a thickness suitable for
welding to the HP feed pipework, which has a typical
wall thickness of 32 mm (see Figs 3.47 and 3.48).
6.3.6 Compensation for openings in the water
header
The thickness calculated for the hemispherical part
of the water head is based on a vessel wall without
openings. Any openings, such as the branches and
access door, have to be allowed for by thickening the
walls adjacent to the openings (Figs 3.47 and 3.48).
The amount of the compensation is found by ap-
plication of Clause 3.5.4 of BS5500 [11]. Since the
amount of compensation will vary with individual
manufacturer's designs, a specific example is not given
here.
6.3.7 Shell and dished end thickness
The shell thickness is calculated from the formulae
used to determine branch thickness. The dished end
thickness is found using the method detailed in [11]
Clause 3.5.2 'Domed Ends'.
 High pressure feedwater heaters

CONFINED HEAD: FLOATING HEAD OR U-TUBE TUBESHEET DESIGN TYPICAL HP HEATER

LOAD CASE: FEED SIDE PRESSURE ONLY - WORST CASE CLAUSE REFERENCE
CONSISTENT UNITS: DIMENSIONS = mm :pftE = N/mm2 BS5500
SHELLSIDE TUBESIDE
DESIGN PRESSURE P, P2 20.7 U-TUBE TUBESHEET THICKNESS 3.9.3
CORROSION ALLOWANCES 1.5 1.5 PRESSURE ACTING ON
TUBESHEET DESIGN TEMPERATURE 255 P = \P2- *M 20.7 3.9.3.1
TUBESHEET MATERIAL 1503

*-[]"
20.7 = 0.486
221 - 410
ALLOWABLE STRESS
AT DESIGN TEMPERATURE
BENDING
SHEAR
/t 104.8
52.4 R = D/D0 if Pi>p2
DESIGN STRESS FACTOR (3.9.2.3) rv 2 = D2/D0\ip2>p1 R = 1473/1300 = 1.133
TUBESHEET E 3 = MAX. OF ABOVE IF p,=p 2
193.4 x 10
c0

TUBES E 0.602 TABLE 3.9
t
LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY REF. 3.9.2.1 AC 0.011 TABLE 3.9
IF TUBES EXPANDED TO FULL-DEPTH AND E^E No C = C0 + 0.613
M=A=|P-(d h-e,)|/P= - BENDING eB=CD0V 0.613 x 1300 x 0.486 = 387mm 3.9.3.1
OTHERWISE 0.155 D.p 0.155 x 1300 x 20.7 _ i q n mm
SHEAR e s = M 1 9 0mm 3.9.3.1
M = \ = |P-cfh]/P=|25.4 - 14.771/25.4 = 0.418 0.418x52.4
PRESSURE FACTORS REF. 3.9.1 MIN. ACCEPTABLE THICKNESS"
-e 387
= GREATER OF e VALUES
2
X2 = J - N\(d - 2etyD0\> = 1-18001(19.05-2x2.14)/1300l = 0.768 TUBESHEET THICKNESS = e+ALLOWANCES
X2 = 1 - N{{d/D0\2 = M80019.05/1300I2 = 0.613 = 387 + 3 = 390mm
S = X3 - X, = 0.768 - 0.613 = 0.754
FS = 0.5(X, + X2) = 0.5(0.768 + 0.613) = 0.69
TUBESHEET EDGE SUPPORT

N = 1800 TUBES (900 Us)

on P = 25.4 PITCH
mm welded

VALUES OF C AS A FUNCTION OF F s AND R FOR TUBESHEETS, AND C 0 FOR U-TUBESHEETS ONLY FROM BS 5500
TABLE 3.9 STATIONARY TUBESHEET - SIMPLY SUPPORTED

FIG. 3.49 Suggested working form for U-tube tubesheet design from BS5500, showing worked example for typical HP heater

6.4 Heater tube length and tube supports Average U-tube length between tubeplates
The thermal performance needed from the heater fixes = 1450/(0.06 x 934)
the heater surface in accordance with the methods = 25.9 m
given later in Section 6 of this chapter.
Average tube bundle length = 12.94 m, which deter-
Assuming a heater surface of 1450 m 2 as typical
of the highest pressure heater for a 660 MW unit, the mines the shell length.
heater length and tube bundle support-plate pitch is
found as follows.
6.4.2 Tube support plates
The tubes are supported by a series of tube support
6.4.1 Length of U-tubes plates in the form of mild steel drilled with the same
Number of U-tubes = 934 (as calculated previously) pattern of holes as the tubeplate. The hole size is a
close fit over the outside diameter of the tubes. The
The tubes are 19.05 mm outside diameter so the clearance between tube and tubeplate varies according
surface area per metre length is i x 0.01905 to the manufacturer's practice, but general guidance
= 0.06 m 2 /m is given in TEMA 1978 [12].

295
Feedwater heating systems
The tube support plates are distributed along the
length of the tube bundle to meet three requirements:
To guide the steam or water across the tubes to
provide efficient heat transfer.
To support the tubes so that they are not damaged
by the fluid flow expected to occur within the heater
shell.
To form the ends of the drain cooling and
desuperheating section.
Figure 3.50 shows the layout of the tube support plates
within a HP heater with drain cooling, condensing
and desuperheating sections. The sketch illustrates
how the tube support plates act as baffles to dis-
FIG. 3.50 Typical arrangement of tube support plates in the desuperheating, condensing and drain cooling sections
of an HP heater
296
Chapter 3
tribute and guide the steam as it flows through the
desuperheating section and into the condensing section.
The drains water is guided through the drain cooling
section by another series of baffles. Initial maximum
permissible values of baffle pitch are usually found
from a design code, such as TEMA [12].
In any tubular heat exchanger with fluid flow across
the tubes, there is the possibility of tube damage due
to flow-induced vibration. When fluid flows perpen-
dicular to a cylindrical object, vortices are periodically
shed downstream, the shedding frequency being pro-
portional to the fluid velocity. The cylindrical object
will vibrate and if the shedding frequency is equal to
the natural frequency of the object, a resonant con-
dition will occur. There is also the possibility that
because tubes are long slender objects, they may under
certain conditions be excited by random eddies from
DRAIN OUTLET
DRAIN COOLING SECTION

vortices within the tube bundle and a resonant vibra-
tion could occur. These phenomena are the basis for
a method given by Thorngren [18], which calculates
two dimensionless damage numbers N B D and N C D .
N B D is a factor which determines the possibilities
of damage due to fatigue of the tube material at the
baffle hole.
N C D is a factor which is used to predict if collision
damage will occur between adjacent tubes.
If the damage numbers are both less than unity,
then the distance between baffle plate supports is
adequate. If the damage numbers are greater than
unity, then the distance between the baffles needs
to be decreased. However, reducing the distance de-
creases the steam flow area and therefore increases the
velocity, which in turn influences thermal design. For
further information, reference can be made to Section
12 Recommended Good Practice' of the TEMA 1978
[12] which gives further references and advice.
The baffles are spaced either by means of tie rods,
which take the form of long screwed bars projecting
from the tubeplate with the baffles set at fixed dis-
tances apart by tubular spacers at appropriate inter-
vals, or by welding them to a structure within the
heater shell which is anchored to the heater tubeplate.
The baffles are close together in the desuperheating
and drain cooling sections, but wider apart in the
condensing section to achieve the best velocity profile
and to maximise the heat transfer process. The ideal
arrangement of baffles is only found by an iterative
process involving both thermal and mechanical design.
The relevant aspects of the thermal design are found
in Section 6 of this chapter.
6.5 Bled-steam inlet
Attention must also be given to ensuring that local
high velocities are not present at the steam inlet to
the heater. There must be ample area to allow the
steam into the desuperheating section and also to
flow across and along the tube bundle without causing
excessive local velocities. The escape area should be
at least equal to the steam inlet area.
TEMA 1978 [12] specifies the maximum permissible
velocity at the exit from the steam inlet branch into
the heater shell without provision of an impingement
plate or baffle to protect the tubes in terms of the
limiting values of ( 8 ) 2 where is the steam density
(kg/m 3 ) and v ns is the velocity of dry steam (m/s), as
v ns (max) = V(2250/Q) m/s
If a velocity greater than this value is to be en-
countered, even for short periods of operation (e.g.,
previous heater by-passed), the provision of a larger
branch or some form of impingement plate is needed.
High pressure feedwater heaters
6.6 Thermal design
Earlier in this section it was explained how the tem-
perature of the high pressure feedwater varies as it
passes through an HP heater. The heater temperature
limits, combined with the physical size of tube bundle
diameter, shell diameter, tube size, etc., are the factors
which determine the heat transfer surface area of a
heater.
Figure 3.51 (a) shows typical heat balance informa-
tion for the ultimate stages of feedheating for a 660
MW unit. Also shown, is the associated temperature
profile for the ultimate stage of feedheating (Fig 3.51
(c)). The basic equation used to find the surface area
(A) for each section is A = (q m h)/K(LMTD):
where A = heat transfer area, m2
q m = mass flow rate, kg/s
h = specific enthalpy change through zone,
J/kg
K = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m 2 K
LMTD = log mean temperature difference, as
defined in Fig 3.51 (d)
Figure 3.51 (a) and (b) illustrate how the heat
balance information is used to find the enthalpy rise
through each section in turn and the resultant tem-
perature profile.
From this information, the surface area for each
section is calculated in the manner described below.
6.6.1 Desuperheating section
The bled-steam has a high degree of superheat which
allows the feedwater at the exit of the desuperheating
section to approach very near to, or to be slightly
above, the saturation temperature equivalent of the
pressure at inlet to the desuperheating section.
To prevent erosion due to wet steam flowing through
the exit of the desuperheating section it is established
practice to retain about 28C of superheat at the end
of the desuperheating section, so T 2 is made equal
to the saturation temperature equivalent to the pres-
sure in the condensing section plus 28C. Figure 3.51
(c) is based on this assumption.
The temperatures in the desuperheating section are
used to evaluate the LMTD as shown in Fig 3.51 (d),
so the only unknown in the equation to find the
surface area is the heat transfer coefficient.
The methods of calculating the heat transfer co-
efficient for a particular tube bundle are given in
detail in BE AM A 1968 [13] or TEMA 1978 [12]: for a
typical desuperheater in the last stage HP heater its
value is about 500-600 W/m 2 K.
The heat transfer coefficient increases with the in-
creased velocity across the tube bundle. The higher
the velocity, the greater the pressure drop across the
desuperheating section, which in turn reduces the sat-
uration temperature within the condensing section.
297
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

340C
70.0 kg/s
41.25 Bar a

340C (STEAM TEMPERATURE)

^ HP1 I

7 / I 252.2C X I

/
(a) Heat balance for top two HP Heaters (b) Heat balance for individual sections ultimate heater

K
SH = Degree of
superheat in steamm
at exit from D/S
section {usually 28C)
8C)

\ ^s^ _T d0 Ts - T -

t'

\ T0

DESUPER- DRAIT^^W
HEATING COOLING ^ t,
SECTION CONDENSING SECTION SECTION

(c) Temperature profile for ultimate heater

THE MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE FOR CONDENSING, DESUPERHEATING AND DRAIN COOLING SECTIONS
FEEDHEATER SECTION LMTD em
(T-t0 )- ( T d o- t c o)

/ T - to \
INTEGRAL DESUPERHEATING SECTION
T
^ V * > - co/
t t cl

T
CONDENSING SECTION WITH INTEGRAL DESUPERHEATING AND DRAIN / s - c \
lo
COOLING SECTIONS 9e 1 1
V s - co /
(
5 - ^ , ) - ( To ~ 1
,>

INTEGRAL DRAIN COOLING SECTION

x
\ \ ~ y )

WHERE T IS THE TOTAL STEAM TEMPERATURE AT HEATER INLET

Tdo IS THE STEAM TEMPERATURE AT OUTLET FROM THE DESUPERHEATING SECTION
t, IS THE FEED WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
to IS THE FEED WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE
To IS THE DRAIN TEMPERATURE AT HEATER OUTLET
t IS THE FEED WATER TEMPERATURE AT INLET TO CONDENSING SECTION, AND IS CALCULATED BY
HEAT BALANCE
t IS THE FEED WATER TEMPERATURE AT OUTLET FROM CONDENSING SECTION, AND IS CALCULATED
BY HEAT BALANCE
IS THE SATURATION TEMPERATURE OF THE STEAM AT THE INLET TO A HEATER WITH INTEGRAL
DESUPERHEATING SECTION

IF A CONDENSING FEED WATER HEATER HAS AN INTEGRAL DESUPERHEATING SECTION, THERE IS A LOSS OF
PRESSURE FROM THE HEATER INLET TO THE DESUPERHEATING SECTION OUTLET WHICH REDUCES Ts TO Ts
THUS Ts = Ts. T
WHERE T IS THE DIFFERENCE IN SATURATION TEMPERATURE OF THE STEAM BETWEEN THE STEAM INLET
AND THE DESUPERHEATING SECTION OUTLET

(d) Determination of LMTD

FIG. 3.51 Thermal design

298

The heat exchanger designer has to reach a cost
effective compromise between increased condensing
surface area against decreased desuperheating surface
area, the velocity being dependent on the pitch of the
baffles in the desuperheating section for a given tube
pattern. Once an acceptable compromise has been
reached, a check can be made to ensure that the pitch
chosen is equal to or less than that allowed by con-
sideration of tube damage due to flow-induced vibra-
tion (as described earlier in this section).
The surface area can now be calculated. From the
area, number of tubes and surface area/metre length
of tube, the length of the desuperheating section is
found. The baffle pitch may need slight readjustment
to meet the overall length requirement.
6.6.2 Condensing section
The condensing section uses the method of calculating
LMTD as illustrated in Fig 3.51 (d) but with T! = T 2
= T s , the saturation equivalent of the pressure in the
condensing section. The effect of the 28C of super-
heat may be neglected as its effect on the surface area
will be small. The overall heat transfer coefficient is
dependent on the condensing heat transfer process
and can be found by reference to BE AM A 1968 [13]
or TEMA 1978 [12]. The baffle pitch is determined
by the need to distribute the steam throughout the
condensing section and is usually about the maximum
permissible without the risk of tube vibration. The
length of the condensing section is determined from
the heat transfer surface needed, the external area of
the tube per unit length and the number of tubes.
In a two-flow U-tube heater, as illustrated in Fig
3.44, the condensing section includes the return bend
of the 'U' and part of the bottom return leg.
6.6.3 Drain cooling section
In this section the condensate formed in the con-
densing section has further heat removed by transfer
to the incoming feedwater. The equation for the calcula-
tion of the surface area is as before. The LMTD is
found using the temperatures shown in Fig 3.51 (c).
The heat transfer coefficient is found by the methods
given in BEAMA 1968 [13] or TEMA 1978 [12]. The
velocity of the drains condensate across the tubes is im-
portant in determining the heat transfer coefficient, so
again baffle pitch is important and the subject of an
iterative process during the design.
A typical figure for the heat transfer coefficient in
the drain cooling section will be about 1900 W/m2 K.
Again, tube length is found from the drain cooling
surface as explained above.
6.6.4 Other factors affecting thermal design
The total length of the heater U-tube is the sum of
the lengths of the three sections. This length is taken
High pressure feedwater heaters
as the mean effective length of a U-tube in deter-
mining the heater shell length.
The baffles within the heater shell, which form the
compartments through which the steam or condensate
flow, have windows so that the fluid can pass longi-
tudinally. The area used is equal to, or greater than,
that available for cross-flow.
From the references given to find the heat transfer
coefficients [14], it will be seen that the theoretical
values are modified to allow for leakage through the
tube/baffle plate clearances, lack of true cross-flow and
the stagnant areas in the corners of the compartments
formed by the baffles.
The heat transfer coefficients obtained by using
these references, assume that the condensing section
within the heater is adequately vented to the condenser
to avoid the accumulation of air or non-condensable
gases within the section. The heat transfer coefficient
used to determine surface area is significantly influ-
enced by non-condensables which tend to form a
gaseous muff around the condensate film on the out-
side diameter of the tube. The slowing of the diffusion
of vapour into the condensate by the non-conden-
sables, significantly affects the condensing section per-
formance. This is a most important factor in heater
performance, and an unexpectedly poor performance
from a new heater can be usually traced to incorrect
air venting. The usual vent rate is about 0.5% of the
bled-steam flow to the heater.
Accumulation of air can also occur in the drain
cooling section and cause pockets in the corners local
to the baffle plates. This reduces the available heat
transfer surface which again reduces heater performance.
For an overview of the complete thermal/mechanical
design of HP heaters, reference should be made to
the Heat Exchanger Design Handbook 1984 [19].
Should cycle economics dictate a low first-cost feed
system, then HP heaters can be used with no drain
cooling section and/or no desuperheating section. Where
no desuperheating section is provided, a small section
local to the steam inlet is baffled to help to absorb the
superheat, but is not allowed for in the calculation of
the surface area.
The omission of the drain cooling section means
that the drains are discharged from the heater at sat-
uration temperature and there is no need for a fixed
water level in the heater shell to protect the drain
cooling section from erosion. The design procedures
to determine the surface area of each section is the
same whatever combination of sections is used.
Vertical-attitude heaters differ slightly in the inter-
nal arrangement of components but use the same
design principles for mechanical and thermal design.
6.7 Horizontal high pressure heaters
An HP heater, as manufactured by GEC for the
Littlebrook D 660 MW units, is shown in Fig 3.52.
299
300
(b) Desuperheating section
Feedwater heating systems

DIP TUBES
(d) Part section of heater

(c) Drain cooling section PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE OUTLET FLANGE TUBENEST
BLED STEAM CONDENSING SECTION

AIR VENT SIGHT GLASS ISOLATOR

STANDPIPE ISOLATOR

WATER LEVEL STANDPIPES & 'B'

STEAM INLET DIFFUSER

BLED STEAM INLET
DESUPERHEATING SECTION \
TUBEPLATE LIFTING TRUNNION

FEEDWATER OUTLET \ STAY ROD

LIFTING EYE
\ SLIDING FOOT
LEVEL SETTING SCREW
BAFFLE PLATE
DIVIDING PLATES HORIZONTAL & SIDE BAFFLES
INSPECTION COVER
^ CONDENSING SECTION MAIN SUPPORT
HIGH WATER LEVEL SWITCH
WATERBOX MANHOLE fJ
DOOR SIGHT GLASS ASSEMBLY
SIGHT GLASS DRAIN
AIR SUCTION DRAIN COOLING SECTION (a) Cutaway perspective
LEVEL CONTROL TAPPING of complete heater
0=TJ STEAM DIVIDING BAFFLE DRAIN COOLING INLET POT
4 _ FEEDWATER MAIN SHELL DRAIN
FIXED FOOT
CONDENSATE / DRAIN COOLING SECTION TOP PLATE
FEEDWATER INLET \ DRAIN COOLING INLET POT
SHELL START-UP DRAIN
DRAIN COOLING SECTION OUTLET VENT
CONDENSING SECTION OUTLET VENT

FIG. 3.52 Horizontal HP heater, Littlebrook D power station

Chapter 3

The flow paths for feedwater, bled-steam and drain
water are indicated. The heater illustrated has a steel
hemispherical water head with mild steel U-tubes weld-
ed to the tubeplate by the Foster-Wheeler method. The
shell, baffles, etc., are all made from mild steel. The
heater is of all-welded construction, except for items
such as inspection doors, etc., which need regular
removal. The heater has desuperheating, condensing
and drain cooling sections provided in the form of
suitably-baffled compartments. To provide a steam
flow path in the condensing section above the top
of the tubenest and also a space below the tubenest
for drain flow, a segment at the top and the cor-
responding segment at the bottom of the tubeplate
which could be used for tubes is left blank. This
shows as a 'flat' on the top and bottom of the gen-
erally circular tubenest. A dividing baffle is placed
in the water head to provide the two-pass flow path
for the feedwater.
The horizontal dividing plate which runs the full
length of the tubenest is used to support the baffle
plates and also to carry the air extraction ducts.
The desuperheating section is in the form of a
shroud over the return half of the water flow adjacent
to the tubeplate encompassing nine baffles. A plate
is provided to seal the bottom to form a steam-tight
compartment. The steam inlet is at the top centre of
the desuperheating section. A diffuser is provided to
prevent direct impingement of steam on the desuper-
heating section tubes. The steam flows in both di-
rections from the central entry point, the baffles having
cut-outs (illustrated in Fig 3.52 (b)) to provide as
near cross-flow of the heating steam as attainable.
The end baffles have no cut-outs and form the end
of the section. The end baffles are also thicker than
normal baffles and have combined sealing and anti-
vibration clips fitted in the clearance between the
tubes and the holes through which the tubes pass. A
removable bellows piece connects the steam inlet of
the heater and the stub branch on the desuperheating
section, the bellows piece being welded in place after
the shell is in position over the tubenest. The steam
leaves the desuperheating section by four windows cut
in the shroud as shown in Fig 3.52 (b). The condensing
section baffles have no cut-outs but take advantage
of the space between the tube bundle and the shell
to distribute the steam over the length of the con-
densing section where it is condensed, the condensate
draining to the bottom of the shell. A drain water
level is maintained in the shell by the external drain
control system.
The drain cooling section occupies the space directly
below the desuperheating section. It comprises 13
baffles with cut-outs suitable to promote cross-flow of
the drains, all enclosed by a semicircular shroud, with
the full baffles at each end forming the end of the
drain cooling section. A plate is provided to seal the
top of this section. The end baffles have combined
sealing and antivibration clips fitted between the tubes
High pressure feedwater heaters
and the holes through which the tubes pass.
Figure 3.52 (c) and (d) shows how the 'dip tubes',
which form the seal between the condensing and drain
cooling sections, are welded to the drain cooler shroud.
The dip tubes and the bellows piece which seals the
drain cooler outlet are welded in position after the
shell has been placed over the tubenest.
The space below the tube bundle in the condensing
section is used to maintain a fixed water level above
the drain cooling section dip-tubes by means of the
drain water level control system.
The drains from the bottom of the condensing sec-
tion flow via the two dip-tubes into the drain cooling
section, from where they flow to the centre and are
discharged by the central drain branch.
The venting arrangements are illustrated in Fig 3.53
which shows the vent paths within the heater. The air
and non-condensables in the condensing section are
vented by the hollow tubes incorporated in the hori-
zontal centre baffle. The drain cooling section also has
air vents just above the drain cooler outlet.
The heater has a single relief valve sized in accord-
ance with BS5500 Appendix J [11].
Support feet are provided at each end of the heater;
the fixed foot is at the water header end, with the
other foot being free to slide to allow for thermal
expansion.
A water header manhole door is provided to allow
access to the feed side of the tubeplate for inspection
and tube plugging. The heater internals are not in-
tended to be maintained in situ, but to have the whole
heater cut out of the pipework and moved to some
convenient maintenance area for the shell to be cut
adjacent to tubeplate and removed. This is only ne-
cessary if a heater has to be retubed.
6.8 Vertical high pressure heaters
A 500 MW unit vertical HP heater, as manufactured
by NEIP for Ince B power station, is illustrated in
Fig 3.54. Because of the economic factors prevailing
when the overall turbine/feed system was evaluated,
it was found that the provision of drain cooling sec-
tions was not cost effective. The heater does, however,
have a desuperheating section. The water header is of
the all-forged 'bottle' construction, with the inlet and
outlet branches and the support feet welded to the
main forging. The desuperheating section is at the
bottom of the heater surrounding the tubes on the
outlet side of the U-tube bundle. As the desuperheat-
ing section wrapper plate and end section will be in
contact with the drains water, a double-skin con-
struction is used to prevent direct contact between
metal at steam superheat temperature on one side
and condensate at saturation temperature on the
other (see Fig 3.54 (a)).
A baffle plate is provided at the bled-steam inlet
to prevent tube erosion/vibration and, as a further
301
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

TUBEPLATE DESUPERHEATING CONDENSING SECTION CONDENSING SECTION

SECTION CENTRE BAFFLE MAIN SUPPORTS

WATERBOX \ DRAINS COOLING TUBENEST

SECTION VENTS

CONDENSING
SECTION
CENTRE BAFFLE

DRAINS COOLING
SECTION
TOP PLATE
TYPICAL VIEW DRAINS COOLING
ON ARROW ' SECTION TYPICAL VIEW
ON ARROW 'B'

VENT FROM DRAINS

COOLING SECTION CONDENSING SECTION HEATER
END BAFFLE SHELL
VENT FROM REAR CONDENSING SECTION
CONDENSING SECTION SIDE BAFFLE

CONDENSING SECTION
HORIZONTAL BAFFLE

STEAM

AIR

WATER

TYPICAL VIEW
ON ARROW ' C

CONDENSING
SECTION
DISHED END BAFFLE

FIG. 3.53 Venting system for a typical HP heater

302
 High pressure feedwater heaters

AIR RELEASE CONNECTION

BLED STEAM PIPE ,^%

VENT CONNECTION

BAFFLE PLATE
(HAIRPIN TYPE)

STIFFENERTUBE

BOLLARD
ATTACHMENT PLATE

CONDENSING SECTION

DISTANCE TUBE

(d) Condensing section drains flow

STAY

RELIEF VALVE CONNECTION

DEFLECTION PLATE

BODY

BOLLARD FACING
TUBE NEST
AIR RELEASE CONNECTION

TUBE SUPPORT
CONNECTING SLEEVE PLATES

WRAPPER PLATES
PACKER (DRAIN COOLER SECTION)

SPACER T
SEALING PLATE
(DRAIN COOLER SECTION)

INSPECTION BRANCH

OUTER WRAPPER (c) Condensing section steam flow

ANTI-VIBRATION
PLATE
(DESUPERHEATER SECTION) STRIPS

DRAIN CONNECTION
(BODY)
INNER WRAPPER
PLATE
DRAIN CONNECTION
(DRAIN COOLER SECTION)
BAFFLE PLATE

INLET RING WATER INLET

STEAM INLET CONNECTION SUPPORT FOOT

DIVISION PLATE
BELLOWS UNIT

INSERT PIPE DRAIN CONNECTION

(CAVITY SECTION)
DRAIN POT

DRIAN CONNECTION COVER PLATE

(DESUPERHEATER SECTION)

DRAIN CONNECTION
(DRAIN POT) (b) Desuperheating section steam flow

(a) Heater arrangement

WATER OUTLET VENT CONNECTION
(DRAIN POT)

FIG. 3.54 Vertical HP heater, Ince B power station

precaution, antivibration strips are placed between the
tubes opposite the steam inlet branch. The steam inlet
is sealed to the shell by a bellows piece which is
welded to the wrapper plate and the inlet branch. The
steam flows through the desuperheater (as shown in
Fig 3.54 (b)) and into the condensing section through
a port cut in the back wall of the wrapper plate at
the top. The steam and drains then follow the route
indicated in Fig 3.54 (c) and (d). In both sections,
the steam is constrained to flow across the tubes in
such a manner as to maximise heat transfer. As the
steam condenses, the drains flow down into the bot-

303
Feedwater heating systems
torn of the heater to accumulate in that half of the
shell not occupied by the desuperheating section. A
water level is maintained in the bottom of the heater,
the purpose being to seal the drain outlet to prevent
erosion due to two-phase flow adjacent to the drains
outlet. The air vents are placed at the top of the shell
as all non-condensable gases and air will rise to that
point.
These two short descriptions of current HP heaters
illustrate how the design principles, explained earlier
in this section, are implemented in practice.
6.9 Alternative designs of heater construction
A brief description of older heater designs is included
to indicate how other approaches to provide cost ef-
fective HP heaters have been tried.
The most expensive component in the construction
of a conventional hemispherical water header type of
FEED WATER
INLET
CYLINDRICAL
HEADER
AIR VENT
CONNECTIONS
2
DIAMETRICALLY
OPPOSITE
=3
(a)
FIG. 3.55 HP feedheaters with cylindrical headers
304
Chapter 3
HP heater is the water header. To reduce its cost
and also its thermal inertia, designs incorporating a
drum-type water header have been constructed.
Figure 3.55 (a) and (b) shows two different solu-
tions for constructing an HP heater without a con-
ventional water head. The heater shown on Fig 3.55 (a)
was constructed for Thorpe Marsh power station and
employed a central header with the mild steel tubes
radially disposed, the tubes being welded to the header
by the Foster-Wheeler method. The length of the tubes
was such that they had to be constructed from several
lengths of pipe butt-welded together. This length of
tube was difficult to handle and adequate provisions
had to be made within the shell to support the tubes.
The only drawback to this design was its high cost of
construction.
The heater illustrated in Fig 3.55 (b) was constructed
by GEC and used mild steel tubes manually-welded to
bifurcation pieces which were, in turn, welded to boiler
superheater type headers. The bifurcation pieces were
FEED WATER
OUTLET
DE SUPER HEATING
SECTION
SUPPORTING
FOOT
DRAIN OUTLET
(b)

used to allow a smaller number of attachments to
be made to the header to gain access for the attachment
weld to the headers.
These heaters suffer from some tube erosion in the
region of the bifurcations but, in general, have been a
successful design. Because of the high cost of con-
struction, the development of this design was not
pursued.
7 De-aerating feedheaters
7.1 Introduction
Water from the condenser (condensate) which has
been heated by the LP feedheaters is supplied to the
de-aerator to be further heated and de-aerated
preparatory to being fed to the boilers by the boiler
feed pump, via the HP feed train. De-aerators on
modern large units are designed to provide feedwater
at exit from the storage tank with not more than 5
micrograms per kilogram (/ig/kg) of oxygen.
De-aeration is achieved by the application of Henry's
Law which states that the quantity of gas dissolved in
a given quantity of solution is proportional to the
partial pressure of that gas over the solution. When
this law is applied to the removal of oxygen from feed
water, where the atmosphere above and around the
condensate contains no oxygen, then the dissolved
oxygen will escape to that atmosphere in an attempt
to achieve equilibrium.
To construct a de-aerating heater to release the
maximum amount of oxygen from the incoming con-
densate, the following factors have to be considered:
The time for the dissolved oxygen to travel to the
surface of the water.
A dwell time is needed for the steam to heat the
condensate and so increase the equilibrium pressure
of the dissolved oxygen in order to release it.
The surface tension of the water.
The time taken for the diffusion of the oxygen
from the water into the steam atmosphere.
The storage tank associated with de-aeration has to
meet the following needs:
Store approximately 7-10 minutes' worth of CMR
flow, as defined in Section 3.3 of this chapter.
Accept the leak-off flows from the boiler feed
pumps, when needed. At low loads, when the flow
through the feed pump would be less than about
25%, a special leak-off system which discharges
De-aerating feedheaters
to the de-aerator tank is used. Chapter 4, Section
14.7 of this volume describes the system and how
it functions.
Accept the HP heater drains.
Heat the tank content from cold to provide hot
de-aerated water for unit start-up.
The following examples of different manufacturers'
de-aerators show how they achieve these objectives
by different design philosophies.
7.2 Thermal/hydraulic design
Figure 3.56 shows a typical de-aerator and feedwater
storage tank, the head of which heats and de-aerates
the incoming condensate before it drains by gravity
into the storage tank. The design uses spray nozzles
to produce a fine film/spray to maximise the surface
area of the water available to the steam for heat
transfer and to minimise the distance that the oxygen
has to travel to be released. Any residual oxygen is
released while the water is further heated as it passes
over a series of perforated trays, which causes the
condensate to fall as a continuous 'rainfall' from tray
to tray.
The heat transfer coefficient in the fine film/spray
zone is about five to ten times the value for the drop
phase of approximately 14 kW/m2K. As nearly 90% of
the temperature rise occurs in the film phase, the
temperature difference between the water drops cas-
cading from the lower trays and the steam is small. The
additional trays, however, are needed to allow time
for the residual oxygen to escape and also to heat the
water to the saturation temperature equivalent to the
prevailing pressure.
The steam flow path is shown by the arrows in
Fig 3.56. A small flow of steam, along with the oxy-
gen and non-condensable gases, is extracted by vents
on the top of the head. The mixture of steam and
oxygen, if vented directly to the condenser, would
constitute a heat loss. To save this heat, a vent con-
denser is provided to heat the incoming feed by con-
densing the vapour and extracting the heat from the
oxygen and non-condensable gases.
The oxygen and non-condensable gases are extracted
from the vent condenser by venting it to the conden-
ser, from where the gases are discharged by the main
air extraction pumps.
The storage tank associated with the de-aerating
function stores about 300 tonnes of feedwater in a
tank of approximately 4.5 m diameter by 32 m long:
it is accommodated on an elevated floor in an annexe
between the boiler house and turbine hall.
Diffusers are provided to discharge the leak-offs
and the HP drains into the tank, as indicated on Fig
3.56.
305
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

SECTION THROUGH X-X

TYPICAL CENTRIFUGAL SPRAY NOZZLE

DEAERATOR WATER
DISTRIBUTION HEADER

STEAM INLET -

, STEAM INLET
(TO PURGE TANK)

STEAM HEATING TUBE NEST DISTRIBUITON PIPES STEAM HEATING TUBE NEST STORAGE TANK
TO ENSURE MIXING
OF TANK CONTENT

FIG. 3.56 Section through a typical spray/tray type de-aerator and associated storage tank

The steam coils used to boil and thereby de-aerate
the tank content prior to unit start-up are also shown
in Fig 3.56.
Unless provision is made to induce movement of
the tank contents, stagnant areas of subcooled water
will result. A distribution system is provided to pre-
vent direct discharge of the incoming heated and de-
aerated feedwater from the boiler feed pump suction
pipe connection. By use of a distribution system, ade-
quate mixing of the tank content is ensured.
Vertical baffles are also needed to prevent possible
Sloshing' of the tank content from end to end under
conditions of abnormal steam flows across the tank
surface. The transfer pipes between the tank and the
de-aerator head are of generous size to allow flow of
vapour to the head when the tank content boils due
to a reduction in de-aerator tank pressure.
The de-aerating head shown in Fig 3.57 employs a
different design philosophy, using trays only to obtain
the de-aeration of the feedwater. The incoming feed

DEAERATOR

WATER
(CONTAINMENT
TROUGH
FOR CLARITY VENT CONDENSER WATER DRAIN PIPE DISTRIBUTION
NOT SHOWN IN THIS VIEW CONTAINMENT FROM CONTAINMENT TROUGH
TROUGH TROUGH
SECTION A'-A'

FIG. 3.57 Section through a typical tray-only type de-aerator and associated storage tank

306

is heated by a large vent condenser which contributes
an appreciable proportion of the temperature rise over
the heater. This reduces the heating required during
transit through the trays.
The condensate is directed onto the top tray from
where it cascades through the rest of the trays to flow
by gravity into the storage tank. The steam/water flow
paths are indicated on the figure.
The steam flow to the vent condenser is about
25-30% of the bled-steam flow: any oxygen and
non-condensable gases are swept away in this vent
flow. The vent condenser is vented to the main con-
denser, as indicated, and the gases are discharged
from the main condenser by the air extraction pumps.
The feedwater storage tank associated with the
de-aerating heater on Fig 3.57 is similar in size and
the provisions for leak-offs, HP drains, etc., to
that described for Fig 3.56. The other features de-
scribed for the first de-aerator storage tank are also
provided.
A design of de-aerator currently intended for use
within a CEGB power station is the 'Stork' de-aerator.
This type of de-aerator employs a different approach
to the task of extracting the oxygen and other non-
condensable gases from the condensate. Figure 3.58
AIR VENT AIR VENT
CONDENSATE _ ^ i ^ A
INLET 1 ^ ^T
DETAIL OF PERFORATIONS
FIG. 3.58 Section through a typical 'Stork' de-aerator
De-aerating feedheaters
shows a section through a typical Stork de-aerator,
with the steam and water paths indicated.
There is no de-aerating head as such, but in the
space above the working water level in the top of the
storage tank there is a series of specially designed
sprayers, which spray the incoming feedwater onto a
ring of plates which further breaks up the water.
The sprayers are designed to create sufficient spray
area and water droplets to provide the necessary heat
transfer surface to heat the incoming feed to as near
to the saturation temperature (corresponding to the
pressure within the de-aerator) as practicable. In prac-
tice, the temperature of the feedwater in the tank has
been measured to be within 1-2C of the saturation
temperature. The stored water in the tank is therefore
heated to the saturation temperature of the incoming
heating steam as it enters the tank through the sprays.
A steam distribution system in the form of a 'rake'
is provided, the teeth of which are vertical tubes per-
forated at their ends. The end which is perforated is
positioned to be always below the lowest working
feedwater level. The heating steam introduced into
the tank content via the steam 'rake' is nearly at the
same saturation temperature as the tank content and
is therefore not condensed, but bubbles through the
STEAM DISTRIBUTION P I P E S -
PERFORATED TO ALLOW DISCHARGE OF STEAM
BELOW WATER LEVEL
307
Feedwater heating systems
water where it absorbs any residual oxygen and non-
condensable gases not liberated in the spray phase.
The oxygen and non-condensable gases are released
from the steam and incoming feed in the spray area
and are extracted from the air vent on the top of
the shell. The 'Stork' de-aerator has no vent con-
denser as the loss due to the heat in the vapour/air
mixture is too small to warrant its cost.
The sprayers on the top of the vessel are a Patented
'Stork' design (as shown in Fig 3.58) and create a
uniform spray pattern between maximum and mini-
mum condensate flow rates.
HP drains are sprayed into the top of the tank above
the water level through dispersers. The leak-offs are
introduced below the water level by means of pipes
of the same design and vertical attitude as those which
form the teeth of the steam rake. Steam coils are
provided for start-up heating with electrical heaters
to maintain tank temperature.
In the event of sudden unit load reduction, the
bled-steam pressure will fall and the tank content will
boil. The small auxiliary connection is provided to
equalise the pressure between the space above the
water level in the tank and the steam rake and dis-
tribution pipework. The connection prevents the water
being forced into the steam distribution system.
Vertical baffles which extend to the high water
level are provided to prevent the formation of waves
on the water surface and to preclude the possibility of
'sloshing'. The action of the steam bubbling through
the tank content prevents the formation of stagnant
areas where subcooled water could collect.
Baffles adjacent to the drain outlets shield the areas
around them from disturbance by the steam discharg-
ing from the steam rake. The drain outlets are internal
to the tank and have a flare to promote smooth flow
into the feed pump suction pipework.
7.3 De-aerator construction
The de-aerating heads and tanks shown in Figs 3.56
to 3.58 are cylindrical pressure vessels, with dished
ends constructed of mild steel. The spray nozzles and
trays are made of stainless steel to prevent corrosion
attack.
The spraywater distribution system and tray support
structure, shown in Figs 3.56 and 3.57, are made of
mild steel and the perforated stainless steel trays are
supported and held by this structure. The trays have
to be fixed firmly, as they are subjected to the forces
created by the steam as it flows across the trays.
Because the head on the de-aerator illustrated in
Fig 3.56 is supported on steelwork, the connections
to the tank are all provided with bellows joints to
allow for relative movement. The vent condensers are
similar in construction to the LP heaters described
in Section 8 of this chapter. They have mild steel
tubeplates with stainless steel tubes fixed by expan-
308
Chapter 3
sion into the tubeplate. The shell and other details
are made of mild steel.
De-aerators ordered prior to 1976 were designed
and constructed in accordance with BS1500 and after
1976, to BS5500 [11]. The thickness of the tank walls,
dished ends, sizes of branch compensations, allowable
size and positions of support feet, etc., are all deter-
mined by use of BS5500 [11].
Appendix J of BS5500 [11] is used to determine
relief valve capacity.
As already indicated, the de-aerator tank is a large
vessel and therefore cannot be transported and erected
in one piece. The tank is made in segments rolled
from mild steel plate, with the axial joints made by
welding. When the segments are joined to form the
tank, these joints are positioned so they do not coin-
cide. This prevents a continuous line of weld in the
horizontal direction and the crossing of two welds.
The tank is site-erected in segments and welded to-
gether when in place.
8 Low pressure heaters
8.1 Introduction
The current generation of surface type U-tube low
pressure (LP) heaters has developed from the tradi-
tional surface LP heater, which has been in use for
the last 70 years. The design has been updated to
take advantage of modern manufacturing techniques
and materials. The latest designs of heaters are also
constructed to take full advantage of a horizontal
attitude.
The other design of LP heater currently in use on
the 500 MW units and the early 660 MW units is the
direct contact type. They are similar in design and con-
struction to the de-aerating head of a de-aerator.
8.2 Surface type low pressure heaters
Because LP heater extraction points are normally on the
LP turbine cylinders, the superheat (even on the highest
pressure LP heater) does not justify the provision of
desuperheating sections within the heaters.
Drain cooling sections could be provided but the com-
plication and cost of a drains level control system can
seldom be justified. It is usual practice to have the
LP heaters constructed as condensing-only heaters,
and to provide a drain cooler upstream of the lowest
pressure heater to recover some of the heat in the
drains.
The drain cooler used is usually of the hashing'
type. A flashing drain cooler is a separate heater
placed in the feed train upstream of the lowest pres-
sure LP heater. It is a small heater with no bled-steam

supply but has a chamber at one end where the com-
bined LP drains are flashed into steam and water.
The steam is condensed on the heater tubes and the
drains are discharged to the condenser via a loop
seal.
To reduce the water burden of the steam flowing
to the last row of LP turbine blades, a special pur-
pose heater called the turbine moisture extraction
condenser (TMEC) is provided. The TMEC is designed
to extract the steam/water mixture from the water ex-
traction belt situated immediately before the last row
of LP turbine blades. Modern TMECs, if required,
are provided in the form of a multi-compartment
LP surface type heater. Each compartment is con-
nected to a low pressure cylinder. This prevents inter-
connection of cylinders and consequent difficulties
caused by recirculation of a water/steam mixture
between cylinders.
As the construction of a TMEC is so similar to an
LP heater, its detailed construction is not described.
The steam inlet size of an LP heater is large com-
pared with the heater body size due to the rapid
increase in the specific volume of the steam as the
pressure decreases. On some of the lower pressure
heaters, this results in multiple inlets with steam belts
to keep the inlet velocity to the tube bundle to an
acceptable value.
A current development in LP heater design, which
has not yet reached service, is to place the two lowest
pressure LP heaters in the condenser neck. Figure 3.59
shows this diagrammatically. The heaters are of the
duplex type (i.e., LP1 and LP2 combined) with gravity
drains into the condenser. The general construction
is similar to other LP surface type heaters. The main
advantage of this arrangement is the saving in tur-
bine hall space. Small savings are also made due to
elimination of the pressure drop associated with the
bled-steam isolating and non-return valves. The pres-
sure drop in the bled-steam pipework is also virtually
eliminated.
DRAINS TO DRAIN COOLER
DRAINS FROM LP2 DRAINS FROM LP2 TO LP1
O = OVERFLOW DRAIN USED WHEN DRAINS FLOW IS ABOVE LEVEL OF NORMAL DRAIN OUTLET
N = NORMAL DRAIN
FIG. 3.59 Combined LP1 and LP2 heaters in the condenser neck
The LP1 and LP2 tubenests are placed in the same shell. The LP2 half of the tubenest is enclosed in an inner shell which
isolates it from LP1 on the steam and drain sides. The water box is divided into three parts.
Low pressure heaters
8.3 Construction of low pressure heaters
The construction of vertical and horizontal LP heaters
is very similar. The following descriptions are for
horizontal heaters but any significant points of dis-
similarity between horizontal and vertical heaters are
included.
Figures 3.60 and 3.61 show arrangements of two
typical U-tube two-flow LP heaters as manufactured
by NEIP and GEC, respectively.
The maximum head that the condenser extraction
pump can generate occurs at the no flow condition
and is sometimes called the Closed valve head'. The
LP heaters are designed on the feedwater side to
withstand the extraction pump 'closed valve head'.
On a typical 660 MW unit this is a pressure of about
40 bar. Because of this modest feed water pressure
(compared with HP heaters), LP heaters can be de-
signed to take full feed flow without the resultant
tube bundle diameter leading to an unacceptably thick
tubeplate.
The general form of the LP heater is similar to HP
heaters but, because the feedwater side pressure is
modest, the water header can be of cylindrical design
with a dished end. The shell side pressures are also
modest, so again the shell is cylindrical in section with
a welded dished end. A fixed and a sliding foot is
provided to support the heater. The shell, tubeplate
and water header are all made of mild steel.
An all-welded construction is used and it is ac-
cepted that in the unlikely event of access being re-
quired to the heater internals, the shell will have
to be removed by cutting close to the back of the
tubeplate. The tubes are roller-expanded into the
tubeplate.
The tubes of LP heaters may be of 70/30 brass
or stainless steel as dictated by steam temperature
or boiler feedwater chemistry requirements. Brass may
be used in LP heaters where the steam temperature
is not greater than 150C. Above this temperature
stainless steel is used. For AGR feed systems, where
309
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

CONDENSATE
OUTLET STEAM INLET STEAM INLET

STEAM IMPINGEMENT
PLATE

AIR VENT
TO CONDENSER

SECTION THROUGH
STEAM INLET
CONDENSATE
INLET

FIG. 3.60 Section through a typical horizontal LP heater, Heysham 2 power station

WATER LEVEL STANDPIPE '

STANDPIPE ISOLATOR

E
SIGHT GLASS
^ ISOLATOR
SIGHT GLASS
' ASSEMBLY
MAGNETIC
LEVEL SWITCH
STANDPIPE
ISOLATOR
SIGHT GLASS
ISOLATOR
AIR VENT FROM CENTRE DUCT

LIFTING EYE
WATER LEVEL STANDPIPE 'B'
WATER EXPANSION SLIDING FOOT

WATERBOX VENT

TUBEPLATE
BAFFLE PLATE
SIDE BAR SUPPORT
WATERBOX DIVISION x
PLATE STAY ROD
~~ SHELL DRAIN
INSPECTION COVER
- FIXED FOOT

FEEDWATER INLET
FEEDWATER OUTLET MANHOLE ACCESS
WATERBOX

FIG. 3.61 Section through a typical horizontal LP heater, Littlebrook D power station

full flow polishing plant is needed, copper-bearing
materials should not be employed downstream of the
polishing plant: so stainless steel is used for all LP
heater tubes, including the drain cooler and TMEC.
Until 1976, LP heaters were designed to comply with
BS1500; heaters specified since that date have been
constructed to BS5500. The heaters shown in Figs 3.60
and 3.61 are constructed to comply with BS5500 [11].
The methods used to determine the physical size of
an LP heater to fulfil a particular duty, as defined
by feed cycle needs, is very similar to that illustrated
for HP heaters in Section 6 of this chapter. Using
the same order of calculation as for HP heaters, the
details are shown in the next section.
310
8.4 Water header, tube bundle and shell
A significant factor in determining the thickness of
the various parts of the heater is the tube bundle
diameter. To find this the number of U-tubes needed
to pass the feed flow has to be found. Each LP feed
heater passes full feed flow.
8.4.1 Tube thickness
As the LP heater U-tubes are roller-expanded into
the tubeplate, the tube wall thickness is determined
by the need to have a long term leak-free joint be-
tween the tube and the tubeplate. Experience has
shown that tubes expanded into a mild steel tube-

plate, as used for LP heaters, need a tube wall thick-
ness of at least 1.2 mm to prevent the tube wall
relaxing under conditions of thermal cycling.
While the thickness of 1.2 mm is greater than is
needed for feed water pressure requirements, it never-
theless allows for corrosion damage and also makes
the U-tubes easier to handle while the heater is being
manufactured.
The tubes are fully expanded into the tubeplate
for a depth of approximately 50-75 mm from the
water side of the tubeplate and then lightly expanded
for the rest of the depth of the tubeplate. The light
expansion is to close the gap between the tube and
tubeplate, where water could penetrate and possibly
cause crevice corrosion. The mechanism of roller-
expanding tubes into tubeplates is described in depth
in Chapter 4, Section 3 which deals with the methods
of fixing tubes in condenser tube sheets.
8.4.2 Flow area
The calculation to find the flow area is the same as
that described in the section on HP heaters. The
maximum velocity used in the tubes depends upon
the manufacturer's practice but usually does not ex-
ceed 1.8 m/s.
For a 660 MW unit, a typical LP heater has about
1000 U-tubes with a tube bundle diameter of about
1.4 m.
8.4.3 Tubeplate thickness
The tubeplate thickness is found from BS5500 [11],
using the suggested working form for U-tube tube-
sheet design on Page 3/96.
The calculation is very similar to that shown on
Fig 3.49, the only difference being that allowance
is made for the stiffening effect of the tubes where
they pass through the tubeplate. Using this method of
calculation, a typical 660 MW LP heater tubeplate
with a tube bundle diameter of 1.4 m has a thickness
of about 200 mm.
8.4.4 Water header wall thickness
The formula from BS5500 Clause 3.5.1.2(a) Cylin-
drical Shells' [11], is used to find the wall thickness
for the water headers illustrated in Figs 3.60 and 3.61.
With corrosion and other allowances, a typical wall
thickness is 32 mm.
8.4.5 Water header branch thickness
The same formula as that quoted above for water
header wall thickness is used to determine the branch
wall thickness.
8.4.6 Compensations for openings in the waterbox
The thickness calculated for the various components
Low pressure heaters
do not allow for the effects of openings in the vessel
walls. The compensations needed around the various
openings to compensate for the penetration are
calculated, as for HP headers, by the application of
Clause 3.5.4 of BS5500 [11].
8.4.7 Shell and dished end thickness
The pressure range over which LP heaters operate
is from maximum bleed point pressure to full vacuum.
If the shell thicknesses were determined by differen-
tial pressure alone, the thickness of the lower pressure
heater shells would be insufficient to withstand loads
from pipework or being lifted into place during the
course of plant erection. In practice, shell thickness
is not made less than about 12 mm but this again
depends on individual manufacturer's practice. Ex-
ternal stiffening rings are sometimes also used to
permit the use of slightly thinner shells. The dished end
thickness is chosen to suit the shell thickness.
8.5 Heater tube length and tube supports
The procedure used is again similar to that already
described for HP heaters. However, for LP heaters,
this usually only involves consideration of a condensing
section. If integral drain coolers were to be used,
the procedure would be the same as that used for HP
heater drains coolers. An average U-tube length between
tubeplates on an LP heater for a modern 660 MW unit
is about 18 m, giving an average tube bundle length
of 9 m.
8.5.1 Tube support plates
From Figs 3.60 and 3.61, it will be seen that there is
a divergence of design philosophy in the method of
providing support for the tube bundles. The heater
in Fig 3.60 has a vertically-disposed structure extend-
ing the length of the tube bundle, made of plate
and hollow square-section tube which carries the tube
support plates. Attached to lugs on the periphery of
the tube support plates are radial side support bars,
which locate the tube bundle in the shell. The support
plates also take the weight of the tube bundle while
it is being inserted or withdrawn from the shell.
The heater shown in Fig 3.61 uses six stays, over
which fit hollow cylindrical spacers to maintain the
intended distance between baffle plates. The baffle
plates are cropped at top and bottom, as shown in
the section through the heater, to allow steam to flow
transversely along the top of the shell and drains to
flow along the bottom of the heater. The main steam
and drain flow paths are indicated on the figure. Two
guide rails are provided inside the shell to take the
tube bundle weight via the baffle plates. They also
support the tube bundle when it is inserted or with-
drawn from the shell.
311
Feedwater heating systems
The distance between the tube support plates is
determined by the following needs:
To guide the steam across the tubes to provide
efficient heat transfer.
To support the tubes so that they are not damaged
by the action of the steam flowing across them.
The rules used to determine distance between baffles
is the same as those given in Section 6.4 of this
chapter for HP heaters. The Thorngren [18] damage
numbers are normally used to determine if the dis-
tance between baffles is such that flow-induced vibra-
tion damage is unlikely.
8.6 Bled-steam inlets and drain outlets
As with HP heaters, high local velocities adjacent
to the bled-steam inlets must be avoided to prevent
damage to tubes.
Impingement plates are provided under the bled-
steam inlet branches on the heater illustrated in Fig
3.60. The manufacturer of the other heater, however,
has chosen to provide steam inlet belts with ports
placed around the circumference of the shell to pro-
vide a large flow area and consequent low inlet velo-
cities. A drain is provided on the bottom of the steam
inlet belt to prevent water accumulation.
As condensate is formed in the heater, it is drained
from the bottom of the heater shell.
The drainage of horizontal heaters depends upon
the water flowing from each end of the heater to a
drainage point on the bottom of the shell.
A natural water level is established which is de-
pendent upon outlet diameter, rate of flow of conden-
sate out of the vessel and the radius of the horizontal
vessel. The relationship is complex and reference should
be made to Gardner and Crow [20], Kubie, Rowe and
Jones [2] and Cranfield [21] for a full explanation
of the influence that various parameters have on the
depth of water in the heater. The determination of
the natural water depth is important. The water level
must be below the bottom tubes or the heat transfer
surface will be lost. The level at which the high water
level switches should be set is also dependent on the
maximum working level under the permitted operating
conditions.
8.7 Thermal design
The determination of the surface area of a condensing
type LP heater is similar to the method already out-
lined in Section 6 of this chapter, which refers to the
thermal design of the HP heater condensing section.
Although the higher pressure LP heaters have some
superheat in the bled-steam, it is ignored for the
312
Chapter 3
purpose of calculating the LMTD. Using the equation
given in Section 6 of this chapter, the heat transfer
surface is determined.
Baffle pitch is again determined by the need to
distribute the steam throughout the heater and is
usually close to the maximum allowable without risk
of damage to the tubes due to flow-induced vibration.
The U-tube length is found from tube outer surface
area/metre length, number of tubes and the surface
needed.
The need to vent the heaters to prevent the heat
transfer process being reduced in efficiency due to the
presence of non-condensable gases has already been
discussed for HP heaters. It is just as important to
have the LP heater adequately vented: this may be
more difficult in some cases than with HP heaters,
as some LP heaters work under vacuum and the vents
have to cope with any slight air inleakage which may
occur local to the heater. For the heaters illustrated
in Figs 3.60 and 3.61, the air is extracted from the
centre of the nest for its full length to ensure that
no pockets of air can be trapped between the baffles.
8.8 External drain coolers
Two types of heat exchanger can be used as external
drain coolers to extract the maximum amount of heat
from the combined drains of the LP heaters.
Figure 3.62 shows diagrammatically the two types
of drain cooler. The flashing type is similar to an
LP heater, as the steam fraction of the flashed drains
is condensed on the U-tubes of a heat exchanger. As
seen from Fig 3.62 (c), the pressure in the shell is
equal to the saturation pressure equivalent to the
drains temperature. It is the temperature difference
between the incoming feedwater and the drains outlet
that determines the size of the heater. At the design
point, the heat transfer surface is sized to maintain
the drain cooler outlet temperature at the specified
value.
The general construction of a flashing drain cooler
is the same as an LP heater. The shell is extended to
provide a flash chamber where the drains can flash
into steam and water at the pressure determined by
the thermal performance of the heaters. The steam will
be about 30 to 40% of the incoming quantity and,
because of the low pressure, volume will be large.
U-tubes are roller-expanded into a mild steel tube-
plate and the shell is of all-welded mild steel con-
struction. Internal baffles are provided to prevent the
flashing steam and water impinging on the shell or
tubes and causing erosion damage. The path taken by
the steam and water is indicated in Fig 3.62 (a).
The alternative type of drain cooler uses the heat
in the drain water to heat the incoming condensate
by making the drains flow across the tube bundle
through which the feed is flowing (Fig 3.62 (d)). In
principle this is identical to the drain coolers already
 Low pressure heaters

CONDENSATE , DRAINS FROM

STEAM EVOLVED BY CONDENSATE LP HEATERS
DRAINS FLASHING DIFFUSER
DRAINS FROM
LP HEATERS

JLJl

r
DRAIN TO IMPINGEMENT
PLATE TO

CONDENSER
PREVENT DAMAGE
CONDENSATE TO " U " T U B E S CONDENSATE DRAIN TO
INLET INLET CONDENSER

(a) Flashing type drain cooler (d) Water-to-water drain cooler

(b) Temperature diagram (e) Temperature diagram

DRAINS FROM LP HEATERS DRAINS FROM LP HEATERS

-HN
X
Where t is the feed water inlet temperature Where I is the feed water inlet temperature

t is the feed water outlet temperature tQ is the feed water outlet temperature

T is the saturation temperature of the flashed steam T is the mean temperature of drains at inlet to drain cooler

T is the mean temperature of drains at inlet T Q is the drain temperature at heater outlet

T is the drain temperature at heater outlet

(c) Heat balance (f) Heat Balance

FIG. 3.62 External drain coolers

313
Feedwater heating systems
described for HP heaters. The heat balance to deter-
mine the rise over the drain cooler is shown in Fig
3.62 (0 and the resultant temperature gradient is
illustrated by inset (e) of the figure. Again, U-tubes
are roller-expanded into a mild steel tubeplate. The
shell is of all-welded steel construction.
The baffle arrangement, however, is different as
the baffles are required to guide the water across
the tubes and to prevent leakage between the shell
and baffle. The baffles are semicircular and a close
fit in the shell. The path needed to be taken by the
drain water is shown in Fig 3.62 (d).
8.8.1 Thermal/hydraulic design of a flashing
drain cooler
The temperature of the feedwater leaving the heater
for a specified temperature difference is found by
performing a heat balance over the drain cooler (Fig
3.62 (c)).
The temperatures required to complete the diagram
shown in Fig 3.62 (b) are now available. Assuming
that all the condensate flows through the drain cooler
tubenest, then the tubenest will have the same number
of tubes as the LP heaters in the feed system. The
overall diameter will also be the same. The LMTD
calculation is shown in Fig 3.62 (b). The heat transfer
surface is then found using the same method as for a
normal LP heater.
8.8.2 Thermal/hydraulic design of a water-to-
water drain cooler
The temperature out of the drain cooler is found by
a heat balance over the drain cooler as shown in
Fig 3.62 (f); however, in this case the drains flow is
treated as hot water.
The heat transfer coefficient is calculated as for an
HP or LP internal drain cooler, using the temperatures
indicated in Fig 3.62 (e).
The tubenest will have the same number of tubes
as the first LP heater for full condensate flow, and will
have the same shell diameter as the LP heaters.
The baffle pitch is determined by the need to main-
tain the velocity of the water across the tubes to give
the needed heat transfer coefficient.
The drain cooler actually used depends on the
manufacturer's assessment of the most cost effective
type for a particular installation.
8.9 Direct contact low pressure heaters
In both thermal and mechanical design, direct contact
(DC) LP heaters are very similar to a de-aerator heater
head. They are cylindrical vessels arranged in either
the horizontal or vertical attitude, equipped internally
with a means to maximise the heat transfer surface
314
Chapter 3
of the incoming condensate for presentation to the
heating steam. The maximum heat transfer coefficient
is obtained by using sprays or trays to form film/
droplet flow.
The shells and dished ends are constructed of mild
steel. As the last station to be constructed with DC
heaters was ordered before 1976, all the DC heaters
were constructed in accordance with the now super-
seded BS1500. The size of the heater shell is deter-
mined by the need to accommodate the sprays or
trays to pass the feed flow, and so varies from heater
to heater. Figure 3.63 shows a typical horizontal atti-
tude DC heater of NEIP manufacture, employing a
system of jets which impinge on plates to produce
a fan-shaped film. The feedwater from the previous
heater is introduced into the channels which run along
the axis of the vessel. These distribution channels
are bridged by pipes across the inside of the shell.
Holes of the appropriate size and position direct jets
of water onto the 'spray plates'. Sufficient depth below
the spray plates is provided for the steam to heat the
water to the saturation temperature corresponding to
the heater body pressure.
A small baffle which runs the length of the shell
at each side forms a ledge from under which the air
is extracted. The heater is continuously vented to the
condenser. The steam inlet has a baffle which directs
the steam along the axis of the shell.
The drain outlet is at the centre of the heater and
is fitted with an antivortex device. As discussed earlier
in this section for horizontal LP heaters, a natural
drainage level in the heater exists dependent on the
flow rate into the heater, the heater shell diameter,
etc.
The DC heater illustrated in Fig 3.64 was manu-
factured by GEC. The design philosophy is similar
to the de-aerator head shown in Fig 3.57, but with
minor differences to adapt the principles for DC
heater service.
A water distribution header directs the incoming
condensate through perforated windows in its under-
side onto perforated trays below. The resultant rain-
fall is heated by the condensation of the steam to
the saturation temperature equivalent to the shell
pressure.
The illustration shows the provision made to allow
the steam free access to the water cascading over
the trays. Steam flow is directed to the lower half
of the heater to ensure that water cascading from
the bottom trays is heated to the full saturation tem-
perature. Air is vented to the condenser from each
nest of trays from just below the cold water entry
point.
Double drain outlets are provided to ensure ade-
quate drainage, taking into account the principles
discussed earlier in this section for horizontal LP
heaters.
The trays and perforated distribution inlet window
are made of stainless steel to prevent erosion/corrosion.

PRESSURE GAUGE CONNECTION RELIEF VALVE CONNECTION
WECTION
OFF LOAD SWITCH
TEST CONNECTION
BLANK CONNECTION STANDPIPE
tal direct contact LP heater, Ince B power station
FIG. 3.63 Typical arrangement of a horizontal
9 Evaporators and other means of water
treatment
9.1 Introduction
The traditional method of producing high quality
water for boiler feed was to distil water by the eva-
poration of treated raw water. Treated water is boiled
in the evaporators by the application of heat in the
form of LP bled-steam from the turbine or a steam
supply from the auxiliary boiler. The resultant vapour
is condensed and can be used to replenish the reserve
feedwater tanks or fed directly to the condenser as
a make-up water; however, the lower cost of water
treatment by the deionisation method has made it
uneconomic to install bled-steam evaporators for the
latest plant.
Evaporators and other means of water treatment
SPRAY TUBE
SPRAY TUBE SUPPORT
SPRAY PLATE
CONDENSATE INLET HEATER BODY
AIR RELEASE MANHOLE ACCESS DOOR
CONNECTION
Current practice is to use a chemical raw water
treatment plant followed by filters and mixed-bed
deionisation plant. For the AGRs and for the pro-
jected PWR, a full-flow polishing plant in the feed
train is provided to ensure the high quality of boiler
feedwater.
A full description of the raw water treatment plant,
filters and mixed-bed deionisation plant, and a full-
flow condensate polishing plant is given in Volume E.
However, to provide a complete description of modern
plant, the following section gives details of typical
steam evaporating equipment which is currently in
use in large CEGB power stations.
To provide the operational water needs of modern
power stations, a raw water treatment plant is needed
with a daily output of about 3% CMR steam flow.
The water treatment plant has also to provide water
to meet the additional losses of two-shift operation,
315
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

TRAY SUPPORT CONDENSATE

CHANNEL BOX

CONDENSATE
CONDENSATE
INLET

CONDENSATE
INLET

FIG. 3.64 Typical arrangement of a horizontal direct contact LP heater, Heysham 1 power station

the filling of boilers and the feed system after main- stage and is finally removed by means of an extraction
tenance, and the special needs of chemical cleaning pump.
and commissioning.

9.2 Types of bled-steam evaporator

VAPOUR OUTLET

Two types of evaporator have been used by the CEGB

(discounting the horizontal submerged coil type as WATER RETURN

inappropriate for large modern power station feed-

VAPOUR/WATER
water treatment). MIXTURE EJECTED

The first is the surface 'Vertical-tube' type invented

by Kestner in 1909. Figure 3.65 shows the arrange-
ment of a typical vertical-tube evaporator. The water
inside the tubes is boiled by the heating action of
the bled-steam on the outside of the tubes and a
mixture of vapour and water is expelled from the
top of the tubes. The water spills into the central
WATER LEVEL
FLOAT CONTROL
VALVE
downcomer and the process continues by natural cir-
culation. The rising vapour passes through baffling INCONDENSABLE
to reduce the quantity of entrained droplets thrown GAS OUTLET

up by ebullition and is then condensed in an external

vapour condenser. Any non-condensable gases carried
CONDENSATE OUTLET
MAKE-UP INLET
out with the vapour are vented.
The second type is the 'Flash' evaporator. A sche-
matic diagram of a two-stage flash evaporator is CONTINUOUS
BLOW DOWN

shown in Fig 3.66. The raw water is heated near to HEATING STEAM
saturation temperature of the heating steam and is I L P VAPOUR
I FEEDWATER
then cascaded through the evaporator in series, which , CONTINUOUS
1
BLOWDOWN
is at a lower pressure than the water. A proportion
of the hot raw water flashes in each stage and is
condensed by the raw water on its way to the heat FIG. 3.65 Typical arrangement of a 'vertical-tube'
input section. The distillate cascades from stage to evaporator

316

HEATING STEAM
HEAT INPUT
SECTION J
1 COLLECTION
TRAY
Jr K. /
y
Y RAW WATER IN
A
H ^ - ^
| VAPOUR 1
CONDENSATE
DRAIN
7-x
^^^^^H^^M
FIG. 3.66 Schematic diagram of a two-stage 'flash'
evaporator
9.3 Surface type evaporator
The flow diagram for a typical single-stage evaporator
is shown in Fig 3.67 and the associated evaporator
assembly in Fig 3.68. The principle involved is similar
to that described for the vertical-tube type evaporator.
However, the natural circulation is replaced by a small
pump which ensures circulation to the heating cham-
ber. Various heat exchangers are also added to increase
the thermal efficiency of the process.
Treated feedwater is pumped successively through
four heaters/coolers, a preheat and a vent vessel to
an evaporator. After vaporisation in the evaporator,
it is condensed into distillate and delivered to the
system discharge point by a distillate pump.
During its passage from the feedwater pump to
the evaporator, the temperature of the feedwater is
raised by heat exchange, first by distillate from the
condenser, secondly by condensate from the evapora-
tor and, thirdly, by bled-steam from the turbine.
Feedwater is also used (by the second cooler in the
line) to cool non-condensable gases vented from the
vent vessel, evaporator and condenser.
Gases are vented from the feedwater in a vent
vessel, positioned between the preheater and the eva-
porator, after which it enters the vapour chamber of
the evaporator. It is then circulated to the heating
chamber of the evaporator by a circulation pump.
The feedwater is vaporised by heat exchange with
bled-steam from the turbine. The vapour rises, re-
enters the vapour chamber and then passes to the
evaporator vapour condenser.
Bled-steam condensate from the heating chamber,
which includes that from the preheater, passes through
two of the heaters/coolers where it exchanges heat
with the incoming feedwater as already described.
The drain from the heater/coolers is taken to the
condenser flash vessel.
A vacuum system connected through the inconden-
sable gas cooler to the evaporator, vapour condenser
and vent vessel; draws gases, together with some vapour,
from these vessels and discharges to atmosphere.
The system maintains a vacuum at the back end
Future developments
of the evaporator plant which provides the necessary
temperature variation through the evaporator for effi-
cient heat transfer.
The vapour chamber of the evaporator is connected
to a blowdown system which allows a calibrated flow
of water to be pumped out of the vapour chamber. This
DISTILLATE OUT
fixed flow rate maintains the correct body concentra-
tion when the evaporator is on-load.
The purified water vapour from the evaporator is
condensed in the condenser by heat exchange with
condensate from the turbine. It is then drawn from the
condenser by a distillate pump and pumped through
a cooler/heat er to the system discharge point. The
distillate raises the temperature of the incoming feed-
water as already described. After leaving the heater/
cooler the temperature, pressure and conductivity of
the distillate are checked.
9.4 Flash type evaporators
Flash evaporators have been available for many years.
They have only emerged within the last two decades
as a viable proposition for large scale distillation,
due to the fact that multiple-effect or multistage
plant can now be built in the very large sizes required
for potable water in arid countries. Thanks to modern
methods of raw water pre-treatment they can also
operate continuously for long periods.
Large multistage evaporators can be built econo-
mically on the 'egg crate' principle, each stage con-
sisting of a narrow vertical compartment in the crate
with raw water on its way to the heat input section
traversing each compartment in straight tubes. Figure
3.69 illustrates the construction of an experimental
10-stage flash evaporator which has been in service
with the CEGB.
Since heat consumption varies inversely with the
number of stages, the flash evaporator can compete
successfully with other forms of evaporation plant
by having multiple compartments or stages in a single
vessel. However, even this economic form of water
treatment plant is not as cost effective as a modern
polishing plant for the production of boiler feedwater
and no further installations are planned.
10 Future developments
The development of feed system design and its asso-
ciated components is dependent upon the cycle steam
conditions and the turbine-generator unit capacity
chosen for the next generation of power stations to
be constructed by the CEGB. Present indications are
that non-nuclear stations will be coal-fired, with sub-
critical or supercritical steam conditions and a unit
capacity of about 1.5 times the current 660 MW units.
The need for the development of systems and com-
ponents for a number of specific plant areas has been
317
318
TO ATMOSPHERE

0 SILENCER
M VACUUM
g 2 r-, PUMP
Feedwater heating systems

TREATED FEED T FEED WATER PUMP

WATER INLETt

FEED WATER
DISTILLATE
SEAL WATER
- BLED STEAM
BLED SYSTEM CONDENSATE
INCONDENSABLE GASES & CONDENSATE
CONDENSATE
INCONDENSABLE GASES

FIG. 3.67 Schematic diagram of a typical single-stage evaporator

Chapter 3
 Future developments

WATER OUTLET
BRANCH
INSPECTION MANHOLE

SUPPORT FOR
GAS COOLER

TOP WATER BOX

SIGHT GLASS

REINFORCING RING BLED STEAM INLET

DEMISTER PAD

BLOWDOWN TANK VENT

PREHEATERVENT

VENTVESSEL BALANCE

SIGHT GLASSES
SUPPORT PLATE

SUPPORT FOR THERMOMETER

VENT VESSEL POCKET

FEEDWATER INLET
FROM VENT VESSEL

THERMOMETER
POCKET

CONDENSATE FROM
PREHEATER

LOWER WATER BOX

RECIRCULATING WATER OUTLET

- INSPECTION
MANHOLE
VAPOUR CHAMBER

HEATING CHAMBER

FIG. 3.68 Details of evaporator assembly, vapour chamber and heating chamber

CONDENSATE
OUTLET

MAKE-UP WATER
INLET

FIG. 3.69 Diagrammatic arrangement of a 10-stage flash evaporator

319
Feedwater heating systems
identified to meet the increased flows and pressures
to be used for the projected plant.
The current generation of designs are adequate for
projected nuclear power stations, although any ap-
propriate developments made for future coal-fired
plant would be utilised.
The feedheating system can be conveniently divided
into three sections; HP feed system, de-aerator system
and LP feed system: consider each in turn.
10.1 HP feed system
The increase in unit size and possible use of super-
critical steam conditions will increase the HP heater
hemi-head diameter and thickness. With current HP
header design using a hemi-head with U-tubes, the
tubeplate thickness will increase because of the heater
diameter being 1.25 times that of present units to
maintain the velocity of feed in heater tubes at exist-
ing values. A further increase in tubeplate thickness
will be needed for heaters used in a supercritical
cycle as the feedwater pressure will be approximately
1.5 times that used when steam conditions are sub-
critical. The increased tubeplate thickness will also
need further development of present techniques for
deep-hole (gun) drilling. One disadvantage of thicker
tubeplates and hemi-head walls is the increased sus-
ceptibility to damage caused by thermal transients
inducing high stress levels.
The perforated area of the tubeplate responds al-
most immediately to the feedwater temperature change
caused when preceding heaters are by-passed. The un-
perforated volume and the hemi-head respond slowly,
thereby creating a temperature gradient between the
perforated and unperforated sections of the tubeplate
with the potential of creating high local stress levels.
FEEDWATER ^
INLET ^
FEEDWATER ^
OUTLET ^
FIG. 3.70 Arrangement of HP header-type heater
320
Chapter 3
Although thermal transients can be reduced to a
minimum by individual by-passing of preceding heaters
and rigorous reinstatement procedures, with specified
rates of temperature increase for a cold heater, the
use of such measures imposes cost penalties due to
the extra equipment involved as well as imposing op-
erational restrictions.
The limitations imposed by the thermal inertia of
the large mass of metal in a conventional hemi-head
type of heater can be overcome by using a modern
version of the header type of heater similar in prin-
ciple to that illustrated in Fig 3.55. The use of the
latest manufacturing techniques for a similar design
has resulted in heaters which are currently giving satis-
factory service in Europe and America as shown in
Fig 3.70. To increase throughput of feedwater in
such a heater, the number of tubes is increased and
the header length is adjusted to allow the attachment
of these extra tubes. The heater shell diameter has
to be increased to accommodate the extra tubes but,
as the shell is only subjected to bleed pressure, it
will require only a modest increase in thickness. As
the header diameter is small, an increase in pressure
of 1.5 times does not result in a header wall thickness
which imposes operational restrictions due to thermal
transients inducing unacceptable stress levels within
the header. The use of header type heaters is con-
sidered to be an option for future stations as an alter-
native to conventional hemi-head HP heaters.
10.2 De-aerator system
Traditionally the de-aerator storage tank capacity and
height have been determined by the constraints de-
scribed in Section 3 of this chapter. For increased unit
size, it becomes increasingly costly to accommodate

the storage tank size and weight at the traditional
high level.
Design studies indicate that a decreased tank ca-
pacity may be acceptable. A review of the boiler needs
for hot de-aerated water during start-up, storage capacity
to meet normal rates of load change and topping up
the boiler after a unit trip, has indicated that a tank
of about half the previously accepted capacity would
be adequate (i.e., about 5 minutes CMR worth of flow).
The rate of pressure decay (and hence the ability of
a given de-aerator system to avoid boiling in the feed
pump suction pipework during transients) depends
on the amount of stored heat (i.e., hot water) in the
tank and the rate of introduction of cold feed to the
tank. As the amount of hot water is reduced, so is the
stored heat.
Provision has to be made to prevent common mode
failure of LP heater bled-steam isolating valves causing
loss of heating steam to the LP heaters, as this intro-
duces condensate at a reduced temperature to the
tank which could cause an unacceptable rate of pres-
sure decay. Diversity of operation or the provision of
stored energy local to the valves would be a suitable
solution.
All other conditions can be avoided by good op-
erational techniques and suitable sequences to avoid
pumping cold condensate into a hot depleted tank.
An alternative solution is to provide a 'pegging'
steam supply which would maintain the de-aerator
pressure from an alternative steam supply (say cold
reheat) in the event of an unacceptable rate of pres-
sure decay being detected.
Modern boiler feed pumps for large capacity tur-
bine-generators being supplied by UK manufacturers
to customers overseas, require less suction head than
those currently installed in CEGB power stations. The
height at which the de-aerator tank must be placed
relative to each boiler feed pump depends upon the
suction head requirements of the pump, plus an
allowance for friction and transients. Any reduction
in suction head requirement allows a corresponding
reduction in tank elevation. The elevation at which
the tank is placed is also influenced by the need to
have a suitable floor or steelwork to support the weight
of the tank.
When the measures to prevent unacceptable rates
of pressure decay during a transient are combined with
the new generation of feed pumps which require re-
duced suction heads, then the combination of a small-
er de-aerator tank at a lower level can be achieved.
However, the overall system must withstand any tran-
sients which could cause loss of suction or boiling within
the pipework between the de-aerator tank and the feed
pump suction stage. This ability to withstand transient
conditions can be demonstrated using the calculation
methods outlined in Section 3 of this chapter, allowing
for any special features used to minimise pressure
decay during normal operation.
The de-aerator storage tank capacity and elevation
References
have to be determined for each case. However, in
general, it is expected that tank size can be reduced
to about 5 minutes' worth of CMR flow at normal
working level, with the tank placed at a significantly
reduced elevation.
10.3 LP feed system
It is expected that future large coal-fired units will
use an LP feed system similar to that already illus-
trated in Fig 3.6 for the PWR cycle (i.e., forward
pumping of higher pressure LP heater drains with
the lower pressure heaters mounted in the condenser
neck). There will therefore be no significant changes
in existing system design or components.
11 References
[1] Dartnell, L.: review of the operational behaviour and
design of direct contact feed water heating plants for large
thermal power stations': Proc. IMechE., Vol. 187: 1973.
[2] Kubie, J., Rowe, M. and Jones, E. W.: 'Hydrodynamic aspects
of the design of feed heaters and de-aerator storage tanks':
Paper C140/79 'Steam Turbines for 1980s, IMechE Sym-
posium': 1979
[3] Downs, J. E.: 'Forced outages of large steam turbines an
analysis of causes': Vol. 32, Proceedings of the American
Power Conference: 1970
[4] Dickinson, J. D. and McKinley, D. E.: Turbine effects
from steam and water abnormal cooling': Proceedings of the
American Power Conference: 1970
[5] Reinhard, K. G. and Schatzmann, G. P.: 'Turbine water dam-
age prevention': Proceedings of the American Power Con-
ference: 1972
[6] Spence, J. R. Ryall, M. L. and McConnell, A.: 'The develop-
ment and production of high pressure feed heaters for modern
central power stations': Proc. IMechE, Volume, 182: 1967/68
[7] Cranfield, R. R. and Wilkinson, D. H.: 'Analysis of power
plant de-aerator storage tank instabilities': Proc. IMechE,
Vol. 195: 1981
[8] Dartnell, L. M.: The thermal-hydraulic design of main feed water
pump suction systems for large thermal power plant': Proc.
IMechE, Vol. 199: 1985
[9] Wilkinson, D. H. and Dartnell, L. M.: 'Water hammer
phenomena in thermal power station feed water systems':
Proc. IMechE, Vol. 194: 1980
[10] Dartnell, L. M.: 'Hydraulic and thermal hydraulic instability
in condensate feed systems for large thermal power stations':
Proc. IMechE, Vol. 186: 1972
[11] BS5500: 'Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels':
1985
[12] 'Standards of tubular exchanger manufacturers association', Sixth
Edition: Addenda Address, Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association, Inc., 25, N. Broadway, Tarrytown, New York,
10591: 1978 and 1982.
[13] 'Guide to the design of feed water heating plant': Publication
No. 226, the British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers'
Association Limited, 8 Leicester Street, London: 1968
[14] BS1113: 'Design and manufacture of water-tube steam gen-
erating plant (including superheaters, reheaters and steel tube
economisers)': 1985
321
Feedwater heating systems Chapter 3

[15] ESI Standard 2 3 - 4 : 'Seamless steel feed water heater tubes carbon Processing, Page 129: April 1970
for high pressure applications': Electricity Supply Industry:
[19] 'Heat exchanger design handbook': Hemisphere Publishing
March 1982
Corporation: 1984
[16] CEGB Standard 234102; GDCD Standard 56, Issue 2: 'Carbon
[20] Gardner, G. C. and Crow, I. G.: 'Onset of Drawdown of
and Alloy Steel Feed Water Heater Tubes': December 1980
Supernatent Fluid in Surge Tanks': Chemical Engineering
[17] 'Standards for closed feedwater heaters': Heat Exchange In- Science, Volume 26, Pages 211 to 219: 1971
stitute, Inc., Fourth Edition: Heat Exchange Institute, 1230, Keith
[21] Cranfield, R. R.: 'Drain discharge characteristics of horizontal
Building, Cleveland, Ohio, 44115: 1984
drums': Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Volume,
[18] Thorngren, J. T.: 'Predict exchanger tube damage': Hydro- 23, No. 2: 1981

322
 C H A P T E R 4

Condensers, pumps and cooling water

plant

CONDENSERS 8 Plant testing

8.1 Introduction
1 Introduction
8.1.1 Test codes and practices
2 Economics 9 Future developments
2.1 Condenser surface area, turbine exhaust pressure and 9.1 Aims and objectives
CW flow 9.2 Research and development
2.1.1 Input data 9.2.1 Tubenest layout
2.1.2 Computation 9.2.2 Thermal performance properties of tubing
3 Historical development and layout
PUMPS
3.1 Phase 1
3.2 Phase 2 10 Air extraction equipment
3.3 Phase 3 10.1 Introduction
10.2 Determination of air extraction quantity
4 Environmental considerations 10.2. 1 The mechanism of air extraction
4.1 Cooling water quality 10.2.:2 The condenser air cooling section
4.1.1 Corrosion prevention 10.3 Review of air extraction equipment
4.1.2 Other copper-alloy tube failure mechanisms 10.3 1 Hydraulic air pumps
4.1.3 Material selection 10.3.:2 Liquid-ring type air pump
10.3.3 Air ejector/pump systems
5 Thermal design
10.3.4 Steam ejector/pump systems
5.1 Theory 10.4 Quick-start plant requirements
5.1.1 Heat rejected 10.4. 1 Type of plant
5.1.2 Heat transfer 10.4.:2 Starting times
5.2 Design codes, standards and specifications
5.2.1 H El Standards 11 Hydraulic aspects of centrifugal pumps
5.2.2 BEAMA design recommendations 11.1 Specific speed
5.2.3 CEGB specifications 11.2 Net positive suction head
5.3 Influence of tubeplate and tubenest geometry on thermal 11.3 Suction specific speed
performance 12 Circulating water pumps
5.3.1 Subjective design evaluation
5.3.2 Computer assisted design evaluation 12.1 Introduction
12.2 Horizontal split-casing pumps
6 Mechanical design 12.3 Vertical pumps
6.1 Introduction 12.3.1 Vertical metal-casing pumps
6.2 Constructional development 12.3.2 Concrete volute pumps
6.2.1 Construction materials 12.4 Gearboxes
6.2.2 Design forces and stresses 12.5 Shaft seals
6.2.3 Methods of manufacture and construction 12.6 Pump testing
6.3 Protection and cleanliness of condensers 12.7 Materials
6.3.1 Debris filter 13 Condenser extraction pumps
6.3.2 Condenser tube cleaning system
14 Boiler feed pumps
6.4 Special considerations
14.1 Introduction
7 Operational life limiting constraints 14.2 Feed pump developments
7.1 Condenser air inleakage 14.3 Advanced class feed pump construction
7.1.1 Locating air leaks 14.4 Axial thrust
7.1.2 Measurement of air leakage rate 14.5 Gland sealing
7.2 Cooling water leakage in condensers 14.6 Pump layout and drive
7.2.1 Fluorescein method 14.7 Light load protection
7.2.2 Foam or film methods 14.8 Testing
7.2.3 Bubbler devices 14.9 PWR feed pumpsets
7.2.4 Tracer gas methods 14.10 Future trends
7.2.5 Flame and smoke methods 15 Miscellaneous pumps
7.2.6 Ultrasonic method
7.3 Condenser fouling and cleaning 15.1 Service water pumps
7.3.1 Condenser fouling 15.2 Chemical injection pumps
7.3.2 On-load condenser cleaning 15.3 Fire pumps
7.3.3 Off-load condenser cleaning 16 References

323
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
CONDENSERS
1 Introduction
The ultimate heat sink for a large thermal power
station is the atmosphere. There are various options
available, using different processes to achieve the
most effective heat sink, and therefore meet the re-
quirements of the condensing plant and cooling water
(CW) system.
Typical atmospheric heat dissipation systems are
illustrated in Fig 4.1. Those most commonly used are:
Process (a) evaporative cooling, associated with
closed systems (cooling towers) for heat dissipation.
Process (b) heated water discharges, associated with
direct cooled systems (river or seawater) for heat
dissipation.
When considering a new site for a power station, it
is important at the planning stages to ensure that
it has adequate cooling water facilities. With increas-
ingly high station output and unit rating, the choice
of location is narrowed by the necessity to match
available water resources. This along with equally
important factors, such as type of fuel and selection
of steam conditions, are the major features con-
sidered when assessing the suitability of any site.
In order for a steam power station to operate an
efficient closed cycle, the condensing plant, CW sys-
tem, and associated pumps must extract the maximum
quantity of heat from the exhaust steam of the LP
turbines.
The primary functions of the condensing plant are:
To provide the lowest economic heat rejection
temperature for the steam cycle.
To convert the exhaust steam to water for reuse
in the feed cycle.
To collect the useful residual heat from the drains
of the turbine feedheating plant, and other aux-
iliaries.
The aim of the CW system is to maintain a supply
of cooling medium to extract the necessary heat, in
order that the condensing plant can meet its objec-
tives. It achieves this by the use of effective screen-
ing equipment, circulating water pumps, valves, and
(where necessary) cooling towers.
The economics, design, construction and functional
requirements of the above systems and associated
plant components are discussed in detail in the sec-
tions which follow.
Since many pumps of different types and duties
feature in the above systems, aspects of their design
are collectively considered in later sections of this
chapter. These include condensate extraction pumps,
cooling water pumps, circulating water pumps and
feed pumps.
324
Chapter 4
Figure 4.2 indicates the component terminology
for the two typical arrangements of the evaporative
cooled and heated water systems which will be used
throughout this chapter, and it is intended to be used
for reference purposes. The following paragraphs
briefly describe the functional requirements of some
of the plant components.
The screening plant must remove any debris from
the cooling water which is large enough to block the
condenser or auxiliary cooler tubes. It must be easy
to keep clean, even during periods of excessive debris.
The cooling water (CW) pumps must circulate the
water against system resistance, or pumping head,
under all conditions encountered at a particular site.
To ensure efficient and flexible CW pump operation,
valves are usually provided to allow any combination
of pumps, condensers and cooling towers to operate
together.
In the heated water discharge direct-cooled system,
the cooling water (river or seawater) is used once and
then discharged. In the evaporative-cooled closed cool-
ing tower and mixed cooling systems, the cooling
towers transfer heat from the plant to the atmosphere
and the cooled water is recirculated. In this case the
water requirements are for make-up and purge pur-
poses only.
In addition to the condenser satisfying the primary
functions, its design must also be capable of meeting
the following objectives:
To provide the turbine with the most economic
back pressure consistent with the seasonal variations
in CW temperature or the heat sink temperature
of the CW system.
To effectively prevent chemical contamination of
the condensate either from CW leakage or from
inadequate steam space gas removal and condensate
de-aeration.
The aim of the designs is to ensure that these objec-
tives are met within the framework of the following
practical considerations:
Economies of size, space and pumping power.
Ease of maintenance and construction.
2 Economics
The detailed design of the condenser and its asso-
ciated CW system requires careful optimisation of
parameters which include material selection, cooling
water flowrate, condenser surface areas, and turbine
exhaust pressure, etc., in order to harmonise the
performance inter-relationships between all the dif-
ferent plant components, and to produce a design
offering maximum efficiency and reliability, and mini-
mum running and maintenance costs.
 Economies

COOLING
TOWER m ATMOSPHERIC
AIR FLOW

e
! ! ! ! (a) Evaporative cooling
PUMP

'////////A

DRY COOLING
TOWER

(c) Indirect air cooling

PUMP

(d) Direct cooling

FIG. 4.1 Typical atmospheric heat dissipation systems

325
 Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

(a) Heated water discharge system

POND WATER
RETURN TO
CW INLET
FOREBAY

(b) Evaporative cooled system

KEY

1. FOREBAY AND GATE AREA 13. INLET END WATERBOX

2. COOLING WATER (CW) SCREENS 14. OUTLET END WATERBOX
3. DRAFT TUBE 15. TUBEPLATE ASSEMBLY
4. CW PUMP 16. WATERBOX ACCESS DOOR
5. CW PUMP DISCHARGE VALVES 17. TUBE SUPPORT PLATES
6. CW CULVERTS 18. TUBES
7. CONDENSER INLET ISOLATING VALVE 19. CONDENSATE OUTLET
8. CONDENSER SHELL 20. EXPANSION BELLOWS
9. CONDENSER OUTLET ISOLATING VALVE 21. AIR EXTRACTION BAFFLE
10 SURGE CHAMBER 22. AIR EXTRACTION
11. SEAL WEIR 23. AIR COOLING SECTION
12 COOLING TOWER 24. ACCESS LANE

FIG. 4.2 Terminology for major plant components

326

Particular attention must be paid to direct-cooled
systems, where condenser cooling water is taken from
the sea or from an estuary, since there are large varia-
tions in the quality of the water from site to site, which
may adversely affect the choice of certain materials
for example. On the other hand, cooling tower sta-
tions operate in a controllable closed-system, where the
quality of the cooling water is more uniform from site
to site.
River and lake cooled stations (of which there is
only one large example in Britain) take an interme-
diate position as far as water quality is concerned.
Having identified these technical inconsistencies,
the basis of an optimisation study is to achieve a
balance between capital costs and operating costs,
giving the lowest overall lifetime cost.
2.1 Condenser surface area, turbine exhaust
pressure and CW flow
In developing proposals for a new power station,
it is necessary to optimise the design of the various
component parts, and of the total system.
Traditionally, all the main component parts of the
system are assessed separately, each being optimised
according to its own set of design rules, using 'fixed'
interface parameters based on a combination of pre-
vious experience and engineering judgement. However,
some of these 'sub-optimisations' are in fact inter-
dependent, for example, variations in the civil costs
of the CW system may have a significant effect on
the true optimum size of condenser. The problem is
best approached by applying an iterative process, each
sub-optimisation being repeated with revised values
until the system design is fixed. This is very time
consuming by hand calculation, but one which lends
itself ideally to calculation by computer.
A computer program has been developed to assess
the most economic condenser surface configuration,
turbine exhaust pressure, and CW flow for any given
site. It creates a mathematical model of the system,
taking into account the cost and performance inter-
relationships between the different plant components,
simultaneously. It can evaluate both direct-cooled
systems and closed systems (cooling towers), and per-
forms the repetitive calculations necessary to ultimate-
ly arrive at the lowest lifetime costs by balancing the
capital costs and operating costs of each individual
item of plant.
The paragraphs which follow, highlight the specific
aims and objectives of a typical computer optimisation
study for a seawater-cooled station, and describe the
assessment procedure involved in achieving a realistic
analysis.
The main parameters to be optimised are:
Condenser surface area hence the vacuum, assum-
ing that an efficient tube layout is adopted.
Economies
Cooling water flowrate.
Number and size of condenser tubes hence tube
length and flow velocity in the tubes.
Basement height.
Seal pit weir height.
Culvert flow velocity hence culvert size.
Culvert length usually fixed by external con-
siderations, e.g., avoiding recirculation between
inlet and outlet.
From the culvert velocity and length, and other para-
meters, the CW pumping requirements can be deter-
mined. A typical assessment procedure is illustrated
in Fig 4.3.
2.1.1 Input data
Referring to Fig 4.3, headings 1 to 6 represent the
different items of input data which should be as
representative as possible. Listed under each heading
are the different parameters which collectively con-
stitute the item of input data. Relevant information
or estimates should be available on parameters such
as station load factor and seasonal variations in sea-
water temperature, and values must be decided for
parameters such as auxiliary power consumption, and
the capital costs of different plant items. Finally,
pump characteristics and system resistances are re-
quired, from which pumping costs can be input.
2.1.2 Computation
The problems to be solved can be classified into three
basic types:
The first type of calculation is based on a single
set of parameters to determine the predicted per-
formance of the system. This can be used to com-
pare the overall costs of a small number of discrete
options.
The second type of calculation is a true optimisation.
The single calculation described above is repeated
many times for a grid of values defining possible
CW flows and configurations of condensing surface
(i.e., number and length of tubes). The program
identifies the lowest overall (capital and operating)
cost at each stage and, after a number of iterations,
homes in on the optimum within the applied con-
straints. This type of calculation is important for
determining the most appropriate CW flow and
condenser size for a new site. Figure 4.4 shows
typical graphical presentation of the results.
The third type of calculation is the sensitivity study.
This involves repeating the optimisation process
for a range of values of one particular parameters,
such as power cost, to examine how this affects
327
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

^ DESIGN CW INLET TEMPERATURE T] COST DERIVATION |

COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE POWER - /kW

CW INLET TEMPERATURE HEATRATE - /kW
WEIGHTED MEAN CW INLET TEMP INTEREST CHARGES
LOAD FACTOR

V w

3| CW SYSTEM CIVIL AND PLANT COSTS

CULVERTS
FOREBAY
SCREENS
VALVES
PUMPS
COOLING TOWERS - /m3/s

1 CONDENSER COSTS

SURFACE AREA-/m2

5| PUMPING COSTS

CW SYSTEM RESISTANCE
STATIC HEAD
CONDENSER FRICTION
PUMP CHARACTERISTICS - /kW

1 TURBINE HEAT RATE COSTS

VACUUM CORRECTION CURVE - /kW

|f

COMPUTATION

_ . ,_
)

J ENGINEERING JUDGEMENT AND

PRACTICAL CONSTRAINTS

CONDENSING PLANT DESIGN

CW SYSTEM
COOLING TOWER

\r

\r r

RT~ STATION LAYOUT 10| ENQUIRY SPECIFICATION ]

AVAILABLE CW FLOW
CW SYSTEM - STATION DESIGN DESIGN CW INLET TEMP
CONDENSER CW VELOCITY

FIG. 4.3 Turbine exhaust pressure assessment procedure

328

CONDENSER
SURFACE AREA
COOLING WATER FLOW RATE
FIG. 4.4 Typical graphical presentation of optimisation study
the optimum design (i.e., optimum CW flow, con-
densing surface, etc.). It is also possible to carry
out a sensitivity study to show the effect of simul-
taneous variations of two independent variables.
This type of calculation is particularly useful where
one or two parameters are not known precisely,
or for carrying out broad-range generic studies.
Referring again to Fig 4.3, the final stage of
assessment is covered under the heading 'Engineer-
ing Judgement and Practical Constraints'. It is
important at this stage in the study to identify the
limitations of various parameters, before recom-
mendations can be made for condensing plant
design, CW system design, and cooling tower design.
For example, with aluminium brass tubes it is not
considered advisable for the cooling water velocity
to exceed approximately 2.5 m/s or to be less than
1.5 m/s in order to avoid undue tube fouling under
unfavourable conditions. Another limitation is the
lowest value of absolute CW system pressure which
can be permitted at any point in the hydraulic cir-
cuit. It is usual to avoid pressures of less than
Historical development and layout
EQUAL COST
CURVES
about 3 m head of water under normal conditions,
and pressures higher than normal may be necessary
if other studies indicate that water hammer may prevail
under unstable conditions such as pump tripping, or
valve closure.
Sometimes special external limitations exist; for
example, the temperature of cooling water discharge
may be of particular concern in rivers with important
fishing interests, especially of migratory species such
as salmon.
On completion of a successful study, data is avail-
able which can be used in the assessment of a par-
ticular station layout, and also as the basis for Enquiry
Specifications.
3 Historical development and layout
Since the mid-1940s the turbine manufacturing and
electricity supply industries have benefited from a
continuing policy of standardisation, which has re-
329
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
suited in consistent concepts of condensing plant
layout.
The costs incurred in extensive design work, and
the development of special manufacturing techniques,
have been spread over a large number of units which
have progressively benefited from minimised commis-
sioning problems, and increases in service reliability
and maintainability. During this period the size of
generating plant has also progressively increased from
120 MW to units of 660 MW.
Standardisation of approximately fifty machines
was achieved in two stages; first at a unit size of 120
MW, and later at a unit size of 500 MW. The latest
machines of 660 MW size represent an evolutionary
development: at present, there are some 23 machines
at this rating either in service or under construction
in the CEGB.
Certain features associated with 660 MW turbines
have had a major influence on the development of
condenser design and layout. In order to appreciate
the significance of these features, a slight digression
to highlight the development of their design is worth-
while.
Single shaft turbines running at speeds of 3000
r/min have become increasingly complex, as set rat-
ings have increased by increasing the steam mass
flow. Increasing the steam mass flow has demanded
a need for multiple LP exhausts with last row turbine
blades approximately 914 mm long, and an exhaust
area of approximately 6.7 m2.
While the turbine manufacturers (each of which
has developed its own blading design) have made
improvements to details such as aerodynamic per-
formance, erosion shield vibration characteristics and
root fixings, the main dimensions have remained largely
unchanged until recently when the development of new
exhaust blading has increased the operating capability
to very much higher specific steam loadings.
Economic considerations have also favoured substan-
tially increased turbine exhaust specific loadings. This
is reflected in the 660 MW machines at Littlebrook D,
where a four LP turbine exhaust design (of approximate-
ly 7.8 m2 annulus area per exhaust) has been adopted.
Structural relationships between turbine and condenser,
and the method of overall support, have also developed
as unit ratings have increased.
Three main phases of design exist within a period of
development which covers early 120 MW plant right
through to the present 660 MW plant design. Justifica-
tion for these various changes are now discussed.
3.1 Phase 1
In this phase, which covers about half the total num-
ber of 500 MW turbines, the underslung condenser
arrangement used on previous 120 MW and 200 MW
units was retained. The reinforced concrete turbine-
generator foundation block was kept, but develop-
330
Chapter 4
ments were made in several other aspects. A general
feature of these condensers was that they were all of
single-shell design; otherwise they differed considerably.
The most obvious differences relate to the basic tube
arrangement. Figure 4.5 (a) illustrates a transverse
arrangement, and Fig 4.5 (b) an axial arrangement.
Each of these has advantages, as will be seen from
later sections. When considering thermal performance
the transverse design is simpler and easier to predict.
A difficulty with the axial condenser is that the long
tubes naturally result in a rather large difference in
thermal performance between inlet and outlet ends,
so making the effective extraction of non-condensables
more difficult.
The axial arrangement, however, has a capital cost
advantage because of the smaller number of (longer)
tubes involved. This results in a saving in the cost
of manufacture of the expensive tube plates. It also
allows a simple turbine-generator foundation arrange-
ment in which the LP turbines are supported by
parallel foundation walls, one along each side. The
process of tubing the condenser can use the space
under the electrical generator, which is kept free of
major plant items for this purpose.
Again, due to the length of tubing involved with
an axial design, it becomes necessary to take mea-
sures to avoid large scale axial migration of steam
towards the cold end, which may involve adopting
opposed cooling water flow. This can be done by
having two separate water passes with the flows in
opposite direction, as illustrated in Fig 4.6. Such an
arrangement can complicate the culvert layout, cooling
water pipework and valve layout, and result in ad-
ditional costs. Designing the condenser as a series
of compartments to give a multi-vacuum design has
generally been found to provide a more satisfactory solu-
tion and is now standard British practice for axial
condensers.
3.2 Phase 2
This phase covers the remaining 500 MW units and
all except the most recent 660 MW units. Compared
with Phase 1, it is characterised by a radically dif-
ferent design: the axially-tubed side-mounted conden-
ser. The development of the side-mounted condenser
coincided with a general move towards the use of
steel foundations.
In some arrangements, this becomes a Cannier'
design as shown in Fig 4.5 (c), in which condenser
and turbine are separated and connected to each
other by short ducts (either rigid or with flexible
bellows, depending upon the details of the turbine
and condenser support arrangements). In other cases,
the condenser and turbine are combined to form an
'integral' condenser design (Fig 4.5 (d)) in which the
condenser shell encloses both the condenser tubes and
the low pressure turbines.
 Historical development and layout

//////

(a) Axially underslung

(b) Transverse underslung

/////7?

(c) Axially integral (d) Axially pannier

FIG. 4.5 Condenser configurations for recent British 500 and 600 MW units

331
 Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

CW PUMPS CW PUMPS

TURBINE
HOUSE
>; TURBINE
HOUSE .

INLET

>

H
IT
-o :
-O
BOILER HOUSE
BOILER HOUSE

TRANSVERSE TURBINE LAYOUT LONGITUDINAL TURBINE LAYOUT

SINGLE PASS UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW

e
- CW PUMPS

TURBINE
HOUSE
TURBINE HOUSE
.
-
INLET

Q' Z
-O -O
BOILER HOUSE
BOILER HOUSE

TRANSVERSE TURBINE LAYOUT LONGITUDINAL TURBINE LAYOUT

SINGLE PASS2-DIRECTIONAL FLOW

FIG. 4.6 The effect of undirectional and two-directional condenser cooling water flow on system layout

The side-mounted and integral design styles have
several advantages. Compared with the equivalent
underslung condenser, the steam flow path between
the turbine exhaust and the condenser inlet is wider,
and the losses smaller. Because of the reduction in
exhaust casing length, the overall length of the ma-
chine and condenser can be reduced quite significantly
(typically the condenser tubes are about 20 m long).
The turbine centreline height above basement, and hence
the crane height and overall turbine house height, can
also be reduced by, typically, 4 m. However, these
advantages are partly offset by other factors. Their

332

relative importance depends upon the detailed layout
adopted, but two of these factors are the increased
width of the turbine hall, and the question of acces-
sibility to the LP turbine for maintenance.
3.3 Phase 3
As already mentioned, economic considerations have
recently led to a preference for increased turbine ex-
haust specific loadings and, hence, relatively smaller
condensers. This allows a relaxation in the structural
inter-relationship between condenser and turbine. Other
factors have also promoted a move away from the
side-mounted condenser towards an arrangement in
which each low pressure turbine is combined with its
own transversely-tubed under slung condenser. This
has the advantage that it allows the development of
a modular LP turbine/condenser design so that one,
two or three modules can be combined to cover a
large range of possible ratings, for example, 200 MW
with one module, and 600 MW or more with three
modules. This modular concept has a strong attraction
for turbine manufacturers, particularly where they
are competing in world markets. One or two highly
developed basic designs can then meet all practical
requirements.
In these few remarks, it is clear that the choice of
condenser for future large turbine-generator plant
appears to favour the transversely-tubed underslung con-
denser: this seems unlikely to be reversed in the
foreseeable future.
4 Environmental considerations
In addition to the physical size and arrangement of
the condenser relative to the turbine, another very
important consideration which has a direct bearing
on the condenser design adopted is the effect of the
environment.
Of major concern here is the cooling water quality,
and also the choice of suitable constructional ma-
terials to prevent premature corrosion and erosion of
plant components, due to dissolved and suspended
solids, respectively.
4.1 Cooling water quality
The cooling water quality can have a marked effect
on the design and shape of the waterside components,
such as waterboxes, which can influence both the cor-
rosive and erosive effects of the cooling water. These
aspects are discussed in more detail in the subsections
which follow.
The demand for substantial quantities of cooling
water leads to an increasing tendency for large power
stations to be located on the coast and on the estu-
Environmental considerations
aries of major rivers. Currently, over 40% of operational
stations are placed in such locations and are therefore
subjected to a wide variety of cooling water conditions.
A typical water analysis can contain abrasive sand
particles and marine life. Debris and cyclic tidal var-
iations affect tube velocity and promote two-phase
flow under syphonic conditions: this is particularly
damaging to condenser tubes and CW system ma-
terials. It is against this background of operating
experience that a broad knowledge of materials has
been accumulated.
Fortunately, the position is less severe with the
operation of inland power stations, where cooling
water quality is generally satisfactory. There are, how-
ever, instances of condenser tube corrosion due to
products of biological decomposition and operation
in polluted waters.
It is important to secure information concerning
CW quality as early on in the planning stage of a
power station as possible, since it forms the basis
upon which material selection will be made later. A
survey of other industries using the same water sup-
ply, along with the local water authorities, is of
tremendous value in identifying the history of CW
quality. Meanwhile, systematic monitoring and dis-
cussions with local authorities yield information on
the current situation, and on possible future develop-
ments which may influence water quality.
Lack of attention to this type of detail often leads
to the wrong choice of materials. In condenser tubes,
for example, tube perforations and condensate con-
tamination levels exceeding the boiler water chemical
requirements [1] can have serious economic conse-
quences. If leakage of CW into the condensate per-
sists, costs can be incurred from tube replacement,
loss of availability and consequential damage to other
sections of the plant, such as boiler tube failure from
feed water chloride contamination.
These problems can be avoided and the associated
costs minimised by combining the detailed knowledge
accumulated on CW quality with that associated with
the known corrosion performance of condenser tube
materials, which forms the basis of material selection
strategy discussed later.
4.1.1 Corrosion prevention
Copper alloys form the basis of traditional condenser
tube and tubeplate materials, typical chemical composi-
tions of which are given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
Copper-based condenser tube alloys rely for their
corrosion resistance on the passivating action of a
protective film of corrosion product which forms when
the tubes enter service. Under conditions of turbulence
and excessive water velocity, this protective film can be
corroded/eroded from the tube surface, exposing the
bare unprotected surface and thus promoting further
attack. Such unfavourable conditions can occur in
condensers operating with high water velocities or
333
334
TABLE 4.1
Condenser tube materials typical chemical compositions

/o /o /o <7o % % % 7o % /o
Alloy
Copper Tin Arsenic Zinc Aluminium Nickel Iron Manganese Chromium Titanium

70/30 brass 70 0.04 Rem

Admiralty brass 70 1 0.04 Rem
Aluminium brass 68 0.04 Rem 2
70/30 cupronickel 70 30
Modified cupronickel 66 30 2 2
Modified cupronickel 64 30 3 3
Cupronickel IN8 38 Rem 18 0.8 0.5 0.4
Cupronickel IN8 48 Rem 30 0.7 0.4
Titanium 100
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant

(Rem = remainder)

TABLE 4.2
Condenser tubeplate materials typical chemical compositions

Alloy % <7o % Total

Copper Tin Zinc Manganese Lead Iron Aluminium impurities

BS2875-CZ112 61.0-63.5 1.0-1.4 Rem 0.75

Naval brass

Aluminium bronze 88-92.5 0.2 max. 1.0 max. 0.01 max. 1.5-3.5 6.0-8.0
ASTM-B171
Alloy D

Aluminium bronze Rem 0.2 max. 0.3 max. 1.5 max. 2.0-4.0 9.0-11.0
ASTM-B171
Alloy E

(Rem = remainder)
Chapter 4

under siphonic conditions which lead to air release
and greatly increased local water velocities due to
turbulence. For each material, there is a threshold
water velocity above which attack of this type will
occur. For example, the breakdown velocities for the
protective film on aluminium brass and 70/30 cupro-
nickel are 2.5 m/s and 4 m/s respectively, compared
with design water velocities of the order of 1.5 m/s.
The most common tube failure event is corrosion/
erosion from impingement attack, which develops
from a number of causes. These are dealt with under
the following headings:
(a) General impingement attack.
(b) Tube inlet attack.
(c) Lodged debris.
(d) Iron oxide scale.
FIG. 4.7 Condenser tube impingement attack
Environmental considerations
(e) Waterborne debris.
(f) Mussel fouling.
(a) General impingement attack Impingement attack
is characterised by an overall surface roughening
and horseshoe-shaped undercut pits, the extent of
which depends upon the extent of local turbulence
(Fig 4.7). The attack is aggravated by water con-
taining a high suspended-solid burden, as is the
case with condensers operating in estuarine con-
ditions where high tidal rates are experienced. The
resistance to impingement attack of conventional
copper materials is illustrated in Fig 4.8. They all
exhibit a threshold water velocity value, and are
liable to suffer from attack under conditions of
high water velocity.
(b) Inlet end impingement attack Inlet end attack is
a localised form of impingement attack associated
335
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

90/10 COPPER
NICKEL IRON

INCREASING PROBABILITY
OF PREMATURE FAILURE IN
SEAWATER IMPINGEMENT
ATTACK

NORMAL WATER VELOCITY m/s

FIG. 4.8 Probability of impingement attack in seawater

with high inlet water velocities and air release.
The attack has the same characteristics as general
impingement attack and is aggravated by a high
suspended-solid burden. It has been suggested
that annealing of tube ends may lower the resis-
tance of the material to impingement attack.
(c) Impingement attack at lodged debris General debris
causes partial blockage of the condenser tubes
and gives rise to high local water velocities of the
order of 6 m/s. This exceeds the threshold value
for conventional copper alloys and causes severe
highly localised impingement attack.
Tube failures caused by general debris can be
minimised by concentrating attention on removing
the source of the problem.
(d) Iron oxide scale This is produced from the cor-
rosion of carbon steel waterbox and CW pipe-
work components and is prevented by applying
cathodic protection or by protective coatings (see
Section 6.2.3 of this chapter). The oxide scale
which forms as easily dislodged 'plate-like' sheets,
becomes lodged in the tubes and causes failures
due to highly localised impingement attack.
(e) General waterborne debris This is produced from
ineffective screening plant allowing shells, wood
and marine debris to pass, in addition to debris
from the culverts in the form of concrete spoil.
(f) Mussel fouling This is caused by ineffective
use of low level CW chlorination or bio-fouling
equipment.
If impingement attack cannot be controlled by pre-
ventive maintenance, consideration can be given to
the use of secondary screening in the form of reduced
throat inserts (Fig 4.9). These are nylon inserts with
an internal profile resembling a venturi. When fitted,
the insert initially absorbs water and effectively locks
itself into the tube.
There is a 0.24 mm feather edge on the upstream
edge of the insert which fits closely to the tube wall
to prevent significant disturbance to the water flow.
Tests confirm that erosion problems from debris lodged
in these inserts are contained and cause no damage to
the tubes.
4.1.2 Other copper-alloy tube failure mechanisms
Other types of copper-alloy tube failures can occur
and these are briefly reviewed under each of the fol-
lowing headings:
(a) Deposit attack.
(b) Hot spot corrosion.
(c) Stress corrosion cracking.
(d) Corrosion fatigue.
(e) Steamside ammonia corrosion.
(a) Deposit attack Deposit attack on condenser tubes
occurs under conditions of stagnant or low water
velocities, generally less than 1 m/s. Deposition

336
 Environmental considerations

FlG. 4.9 Condenser tube reduced throat inserts and tube plugs

337
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
of inert materials, such as sand and silt particles,
causes oxygen depletion at the particle-to-tube ma-
terial interface, leading to differential aeration and
anodic dissolution of the tube material. The pre-
sence of decomposing biological materials and pol-
luted water, particularly sulphide-containing water,
accelerates this type of attack. Deposit attack can
be experienced in both inland and coastal power
stations, particularly in locations where polluted
waters are used.
By maintaining the cooling water velocity in
the tube above 1 m/s and avoiding stagnant con-
ditions in aggressive media by flushing and peri-
odically refilling the condenser with town water
during shut down, major deposit attack may be
prevented. However, a permanent solution can be
achieved only by the selection of a more resistant
material. Such materials are the 70/30 and 90/10
cupro-nickels (of which the 90/10 is claimed to
have the better resistance) and titanium. Titanium
offers the best solution, as it is immune to this
type of attack under normal condenser operating
PITTING POSSIBLE IN CONTACT
WITH TEFLON ETC IN
VERY SHARP CREVICES
CONCENTRATION
OF % NaCI
FIG. 4.10 Pitting resistance of titanium
338
Chapter 4
conditions (Fig 4.10).
(b) Hot spot corrosion This form of localised pitting
corrosion occurs at 'hot spots' on the condenser
tube wall which can occur because of low water
velocity and/or high heat fluxes. These conditions
can be caused by poor steam distribution or the
absence of water on the cooling water side of the
tube. The cupro-nickel alloys are less resistant than
aluminium brass to this type of attack. However,
this form of attack is rarely experienced in main
steam condensers as the steam side temperatures
are not high enough (Fig 4.11 (a)).
Problems can be experienced in the dump steam
sections of the condenser or in separate dump
steam condensers with high superheat, where direct
steam impingement on the tubes occurs. Retubing
in titanium tubing can provide a satisfactory solu-
tion or, alternatively, an engineering solution to
avoid direct steam impingement such as redirection
of steam flow can be found; the introduction of
effective steam desuperheating is also considered
to be a satisfactory option.
PITTING PITTING
POSSIBLE PROBABLE
 Environmental considerations

(a) Local high temperatures on the outside of tubes

can lead to abnormally rapid corrosion at corresponding
positions on the inside (cooling water side) of the tubes.
Hot spot corrosion takes the form of a highly localised
pitting attack, a characteristic feature being that the pits
often contain metallic copper. The illustration shows a
section through a pit filled with metallic copper produced
by a hot spot attack in a copper/30% nickel alloy tube.

(b) Stress corrosion cracking can arise from the imposition

of longitudinal stresses when certain tubes are rolled into
the tubeplates. It is also important to avoid over-rolling the
tubes to prevent excessive expansion and the consequent
failure by cracking.

(c) Failure of tubes by cracking can occur as a result of

the combined action stress and corrosion. In corrosion
fatigue, the stresses are cyclic or alternating and are
applied in-service, for example, as a result of cyclic
temperature changes or externally-transmitted vibration.

FIG. 4.11 Photomicrographs of hot spot corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue cracking in tubes

339
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
(c) Stress corrosion cracking Failure of condenser
tubes by cracking under the combined action of
tensile stress and corrosion has occurred in the
past owing to high residual tensile stresses inad-
vertently remaining from the tube making process.
However, with modern condenser tube production
practice, such failures are now uncommon (Fig
4.11 (b)).
Cracking can result from stress corrosion at
the tube-to-tubeplate expansion joints. The cracks
initiate at the edges of the expanded regions on
the CW side of the tube and propagate into the
tube wall under the influence of residual stresses
remaining from the 'rolling-in' operation. The cor-
rosive medium is suggested to be ammonia, formed
from the decomposition of organic slime, and con-
centrated by evaporation during outages. Effective
media control such as washing with clean water
before prolonged outages or fitting protective sleeves,
appears to provide a solution to this problem.
(d) Corrosion fatigue Corrosion fatigue can occur
in any tube material and is caused by steam buf-
feting, or structure-borne vibrations, in association
with inadequate tube support. Generally, failure
occurs at midspan where tube thinning occurs due
to excessive movement and contact with adjacent
tubes (Fig 4.11 (c)). Additional support plates or
the fitting of antivibration damping equipment
solves this problem.
(e) Steamside ammonia corrosion Ammonia corrosion
usually attacks brass alloy air cooler tubes in the
form of pits on the external tube surface, with
grooving at points adjacent to tubeplates and sup-
port plates [2]. Titanium and the copper-nickel
alloy tubes are highly resistant to this form of
attack and the problem can be solved by retubing
in an appropriate material.
4.1.3 Material selection
The need for a materials selection strategy has been
touched upon briefly in the consideration of CW qua-
lity. The objectives of such a strategy are to ensure
that the costs associated with leaking condenser tubes
are minimised throughout the life of the plant. This
can be established by studying the following technical
and economic considerations:
The estimated life of candidate tube materials from
test rig trials, manufacturer's literature, experience,
etc.
The predicted number of outages and associated
costs.
The number of retubes required.
The capital costs of materials and retubing costs.
340
Chapter 4
Heat transfer efficiency and thermal performance
effects.
Compatibility with other CW system materials.
Experience has indicated that studies of this type
yield materials which initially appear to be an expen-
sive choice, but because of their inherently better
corrosion-resistant properties show a higher economic
return when plant availability and retubing costs are
taken into consideration.
Copper-based materials
As previously illustrated in Fig 4.9, the copper-based
tube materials are liable to varying degrees of im-
pingement attack, depending upon the operating con-
ditions. These materials, however, can be usefully
employed providing that a good margin of safety
is maintained between operating conditions and the
impingement attack threshold, and providing that
steamside corrosion conditions are satisfied. Where
freedom from erosion or steamside corrosion cannot
be assured, it is necessary to use a material such as
titanium.
Titanium
Over the past twenty years, work has progressed in
the development of titanium for use as a condenser
tube material. Its major attribute is a tenacious oxide
film, which rapidly repassivates if ruptured under nor-
mal condenser operating conditions. Jet impingement
tests on both welded and seamless titanium tubing at
water velocities of 10 m/s for 60 days have shown
the material to be immune to attack. Under these
conditions, aluminium-brass and cupro-nickel tubing
failed rapidly. Titanium tubing manufacturers (Imperial
Metal Industries Ltd. [3]) quote impingement attack
threshold values of 20 m/s in clear seawater and 6
m/s in water with a high sand content. Thus, even at
localised tube blockages where water velocities can
rise to 6 m/s, the tubing retains its resistance to
impingement attack, whereas this velocity would be
beyond the reliable range of the copper-based materials
(Fig 4.8).
The use of titanium tubing in condensers designed
for conventional copper-based tubing materials, how-
ever, poses a problem of incompatibility between tube/
tubeplate materials.
Couples of titanium and naval brass, and titanium and
iron/steel have junction potentials of - 2 8 8 mV and
- 660 mV respectively, in relation to a saturated calo-
mel electrode (SCE) [4]. This creates the potential pro-
blem of anodic attack of the tubeplate material which
could lead to penetration of the tubeplate within the
design life of 30 years. Where naval brass tubeplates
have to be used, such as in retubing situations, the
practice has been to coat the tubeplate and waterbox

internals with a multilayer neoprene rubber, thus
effectively insulating against galvanic action.
For new construction, tubeplates manufactured
from aluminium bronzes ASTM-B171 Alloy D, and
ASTM-B171 Alloy E, have couple potentials with ti-
tanium tubes of -215 mV (SCE) and -133 mV (SCE),
respectively. The corrosion rates of aluminium bronze
tubeplates are therefore low enough to allow their use
without any protective coating. The waterboxes, how-
ever, are still protected with suitable coatings as in a
retubing situation.
In-service trials have been carried out at a number
of power stations, listed in Table 4.3, under various
operating conditions ranging from the particularly
aggressive sand-laden waters of Bristol Channel power
stations to the polluted environment experienced by
Thameside power stations.
Following the satisfactory performance of the ti-
tanium tubes in these trials, two condensers were
retubed with titanium; one with seamless tubing and
one with seam-welded tubing. Results from these
trials confirmed that the tube installation procedures
and subsequent service has been satisfactory.
Fifteen years ago, titanium was considered extremely
expensive and unlikely to become economic.
The cost constraint on the use of titanium tubing
can be minimised by a reduction in the required
tube wall thickness. This, coupled with savings ex-
pected from leak-free operation, establishes the use
of titanium as an economic material for power sta-
tions where aggressive attack is either experienced or
predicted.
As a result of the favourable in-service trials and
increasing economic competitiveness, titanium tubing
is now used in all new power stations where impinge-
ment attack of the condenser is considered possible.
On-site rig tests, which are carried out at new power
station sites prior to the ordering of titanium, confirm
that in all cases the corrosion resistance is good, and
that no operating problems are envisaged.
5 Thermal design
The preceding sections outline the functional require-
ments of condensing and CW systems, and illustrate
how environmental studies into cooling water quality
are taken into consideration when choosing the geo-
graphical location of a new power station, and how
these aspects, in turn, affect the economics of plant
optimisation.
Emphasis has been placed on the importance of
correct selection of materials in order to avoid un-
acceptably high availability and maintenance costs.
Consideration has also been given to the choice of
turbine and condensing plant arrangements.
The objective of thermal design is to ensure that
Thermal design
the temperature difference between the turbine ex-
haust steam and the cooling water is as low as pos-
sible if the benefits of the Rankine cycle are to be
realised, providing that the mechanics used are con-
sistent with previously discussed economics of plant
optimisation.
5.1 Theory
The condenser is the heat sink for steam power plant.
The condensation process is accomplished by the
transfer of heat from the steam exhausting from the
turbine to the water used for cooling. Steam is con-
densed at substantially constant pressure and its heat
content (enthalpy), which is given up, raises the tem-
perature of the cooling water as it flows through the
tubes (Fig 4.12). Referring to Fig 4.13, which illus-
trates a basic heat flow diagram, there are three factors
which determine the enthalpy of the steam at the
turbine exhaust:
The conditions and heat content of the steam leaving
the boiler.
The efficiency of the turbine in converting this heat
energy into work.
The selected heat sink temperature.
5.1.1 Heat rejected
Equating the total heat per kilogram of steam leav-
ing the boiler h, with subsequent heat losses h r , h b ,
h g , and the heat equivalent of turbine-generator work
output h w , then the heat at the turbine exhaust he
can be represented by the equation:
he = h - (hw + hr + h b + hg) kJ/kg
The heat flow rate rejected to the cooling water ,
is found from the equation:
= qm (he - hc) kJ/s or kW
where qm = CW flowrate, kg/s
Added to this is any heat rejected by drains from
feedheaters, etc., which may be discharged within the
condenser.
5.1.2 Heat transfer
The heat is transferred to the cooling water across
the condenser tubes (Fig 4.14).
341
342
TABLE 4.3
Titanium tube trials
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant

Location River Usk Blackwater River Thames SE Coasst River Medway River Usk River Thames

CW system Siphonic Siphonic Siphonic Siphonic Siphonic Siphonic Siphonic

No. of tubes 4.0 18.0 6.0 12.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
OD, mm 22.0 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4
Thickness (mm) 1.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.7/0.9
Type of tube Seamless Seamless Seamless Seamless Seamless Seam-welded Seamless
Date installed 1956 1968 1965 1968 1967 1962 1966
Date inspected 1967 1972 1971 1970 1964 1970
Condition As new As new As new As new As new As new
Chapter 4
 Thermal design

EXHAUST STEAM

TO AIR PUMPS

AIR POCKETS FORMED WHERE

OPPOSING STEAM FLOWS MEET

FIG. 4.12 Typical steam flow pattern in a condenser

In any heating or cooling process, the resistance to the outlet.

heat transfer determines the relative temperature of
the heated and cooled fluids.
The total resistance of the tube to heat transfer is
determined by the sum of:
Rs = the resistance of the condensate film on the
steamside of the condenser tube, m2 K/W
Rm = the tube metal resistance, m2 K/W
Rv the waterside film resistance, m K/W
Wet steam enters the condenser and condenses
completely at a constant temperature tsK, as it passes
over the condenser tubes. These processes are re-
presented in Fig 4.16.
Consider an element of tube length d where the
cooling water is at t w and the condensing fluid is at
t s . The temperature difference is (ts - t w ) = , and
a small amount of heat, , is transferred across
the element. From Newton's Law of cooling,
= UA (ts - t w ) (4.1)

and therefore
The total resistance to heat transfer RT of the tube
is therefore given by:
= (TTD df)Ue (4.2)

RT = R< + Rm + Rw m2 K/W
where D = mean diameter of tube.

The overall heat transfer coefficient U, is inversely

The coolant increases in temperature d6w along element
proportional to R j therefore:
dl, and the heat received is

U = 1/RT W/m 2 K
d$ = q m w c w d6w (4.3)

Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)

where q mw mass flow rate of coolant, kg/s
Consider Fig 4.15 which represents a condenser. The
cw specific heat of coolant, kJ/kgK
cooling water enters the condenser tubes at tempera-
ture t wl K, and its temperature is raised to t w2 K at de w temperature increase of coolant, K

343
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

hr

r|Wh
HEAT IN

\i TURBINE

^ ^ ^

\L/
WORK
OUT

~t 2
- CW OUT

CONDENSER X J _ HEAT
REJECTED
- ^ CWIN

CONDENSATE
EXTRACTION PUMP

h - TOTAL HEAT OF STEAM LEAVING THE BOILER

h r - THE RADIATION HEAT LOSS
h b - THE BEARING HEAT LOSS AND MECHANICAL LOSSES
h a - THE GENERATOR GAS AND LIQUID COOLER HEAT LOSSES
ho - HEAT AT TURBINE EXHAUST
h c - TOTAL HEAT OF THE CONDENSATE
h w - HEAT EQUIVALENT OF TURBINE GENERATOR WORK OUTPUT

FIG. 4.13 Basic heat flow diagram

Let the incremental increase in fluid A temperature Substituting this in Equation (4.2),
dt w = dO, then substituting into Equation (4.3),
d0/(l/q m w c w ) = (irDdOUe
d0 = d<i>/qmwcv (4.4)
therefore d0/0 = TTDU ( l / q m w c w ) d i (4.6)

Integrating Equation (4.4) between sections 1 and 2

(Fig 4.16), Integrating Equation (4.6) between sections 1 and 2,

2 - = <>(l/qmwcw) (4.5)
logn 1/2 = *DOJ (l/q m w c w ) (4.7)

Also from Equation (4.4), (where i is the total length of the tube)

d<i> = d0/(l/q m w c w ) From Equation (4.5),

344
 Thermal design

K = (tW2 - t w l )/[log n (t s - t w l )/(t s - t w2 )] (4.9)

TOTAL RESISTANCE RT

Qm is known as the logarithmic mean temperature

difference (LMTD).

Finally, the total surface area of the tubes can be

expressed by

A = / (4.10)

where A = total mean surface area of the tubes, m2

= rate of flow of heat, kW
CONDENSATE FILM
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m 2 K
0 m = LMTD, K

5.2 Design codes, standards and

FOULING/WATERSIDE
specifications
FILM
Documents exist which are based on the design theory
outlined above. They are generally used as a guide in
establishing condenser size and design. The validity
of these documents is sufficient to ensure that con-
denser selections will meet specified performance. They
include:

The Heat Exchanger Institute (HEI) Standards for

Steam Surface Condensers [5].

FIG. 4.14 Heat transfer resistances and films The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers
Association (BEAMA) publication on the Recom-
mended Practice for the Design of Surface Type
Steam Condensing Plant [6].
1/qmwCw = ( - 2)/

These documents provide a comprehensive treatment

Hence substituting into Equation (4.7), of surface condenser performance and describe levels
of performance which can be obtained from well de-
signed condensers.
log n / 2 = - 2 )/ The objectives of thermal design procedures will
be reviewed in relation to the relevant codes and
standards.
Therefore = TTDRJ (, - 2 )/( 1 / 2 ) (4.8)

5.2.1 HEI Standards

Comparing Equation (4.8) with Equation (4.1), = These standards [5] use four basic equations in sizing
UA (ts - t w ), it can be seen that the mean temperature condensers:
difference, 0 m , is given by
Mean temperature difference The logarithmic mean
temperature difference is expressed as follows:
K = ( - e^/iog^/e^
t7-t,
(4.11)
Since dx = (t s - t w l ) and 2 = (t s - t w 2 ) lognfts-tO/its-t) l0gn(e,/e2)

345
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

WET
STEAM

^L

^L_

=>

^1

=>

=>

CONDENSATE
OUT

FIG. 4.15 Water cooled surface type condenser

WET STEAM t s STEAM/CONDENSATE t s CONDENSATE

i 1 i1
F
()

LU
ce !
w2
Z>
I- tw
<
OC
LU
CL

d*
f

*W1

4/
COOL NG
WATEER

^
CONDENSER TUBE LENGTH

FIG. 4.16 Graph of steam/water temperature variation against tube length

346

Coefficient of heat transfer The coefficient of heat
transfer recommended by HEI is expressed by the
heat transfer resistance summation equation:
U = Fj F 2 F 3 C (V)i (4.12)
where C = correction factor for tube diameter,
numeric
V = tube water velocity, m/s
The Fourier Equation The Fourier equation for
unidirectional heat transfer is used to express the
rate of heat flow in terms of heat transfer surface
area, coefficient of heat transfer and mean tem-
perature difference and is written as follows:
qmsL = AU6m (4.13)
where qms = mass flow rate of condensed steam,
kg/s
L = specific latent heat, kJ/kg
Heat Balance Equation This equation is usually
written as:
qmsL = qmwC6r (4.14)
where qmw = mass flow rate of cooling water, kg/s
c = specific heat of cooling water kJ/kgK
By suitable manipulation of these equations, a con-
denser design can be established for a given performance
rating, based on eight principal variables, which are:
1 Total heat transferred, which is a function of:
Weight of steam to be considered.
Enthalpy of steam less enthalpy of condensate.
Enthalpy loss or gain of drains and make-up.
2 Absolute static steam pressure.
3 Cooling water flow rate.
4 Cooling water inlet temperature.
Thermal design
5 Cooling water outlet temperature.
6 Cooling water velocity through tubes.
7 Effective heat transfer surface, which is a func-
tion of:
Number of tubes.
Tube length.
Tube diameter.
Tube thickness.
Tube material.
Number of cooling water passes.
8 Service conditions:
Tube cleanliness.
Air inleakage.
5.2.2 BEAMA design recommendations
The thermal design procedures set down in the BEAMA
design recommendations [6] are very similar to those
followed by the HEI, except differences occur in the
statements regarding tube cleanliness, and the correction
factor for cooling water temperature as applied to the
overall heat transfer coefficient (Fig 4.17).
The curves for the BEAMA heat transfer coefficients
are based on tubes in the brushed-clean condition and
include an allowance for the normal oxide film coat-
ings which are an inherent feature of any tube during
its operational life, whereas the HEI curves relate to
tubes in the clean, as-new condition. In addition, the
BEAMA curves for cooling water temperature cor-
rection are based on a mean temperature, and not on
tube inlet temperature as in the HEI curves.
Taken collectively, these departures have very little
effect on any design, providing due recognition of
these differences is made.
5.2.3 CEGB specifications
Specifications for plant include a requirement for the
contractor to guarantee the thermal performance of
the condenser. The contractor is expected to guarantee
an absolute pressure at the turbine exhaust under the
conditions of design steam flow, minimum cooling water
quantity at the design cooling water inlet temperature
and with the tubes in the brushed-clean condition.
The temperature of condensate leaving the condenser
and the air suction temperature, with the design air
loading, are also guaranteed.
As a way of comparing how the design standards
produced by the HEI and BEAMA reflect the level of
347
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

y y^

y
^ TRANSFER
^ AT21C-HEI

y
HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT kW/m2K 3.0

y
^ ^ ^ ^ H E A T TRANSFER
^ r AT 21 C - BEAMA

20

1.0 1.5 2.0

TUBE VELOCITY m/s

1.0

MEAN COOLING WATER ^

TEMP-BEAMA ^ ^ S
^ y
0.9 */-
/ I N L E T COOLING WATER
> TEMP-HEI

DESIGN CORRECTION JL
FACTOR /
/
/
-/-
/

40 C

FIG. 4.17 Graphs indicating differences in assumptions made by HEI [5] and BEAMA [6] design documents

348
 Thermal design

performance which can be obtained from well designed
condensers, Fig 4.18 shows the test results of a number
of condensers of over 4600 m 2 , as presented by Steel
[7]. Superimposed on these data are the values for
the heat transfer coefficients, as recommended by the
HEI and BE AM A standards.
It can be seen that the Standard procedures closely
represent the mean of test results obtained in practice.
Furthermore, it should be recognised that these test
results also incorporate the complexities of thermal and
aerodynamic processes present in large condensers, and
cover the diverse arrangement of tubenest geometry and
differences in operating conditions.
Recognising the proven use of the BEAMA [6]
and HEI [5] design codes to obtain well designed
condensers, further development work has resulted
in a single individual formulae being established for
each design code which equates the total heat trans-
fer coefficient based on the data and formulae of
each code as shown in Fig 4.18. These equations are:
U = 2.15 (v'5)(0.7586 + 0.0135T-0.0001T 2 ) kW/m 2 K
U = 2.70 (v05)(0.5707 + 0.0274T- 0.00036T2) kW/m 2 K
for BEAMA [6] and HEI [5], respectively.
This not only simplifies the use of these design codes,
but lends them ideal for use in computer analysis.

HEI RECOMMENDED
HEAT TRANSFER
4.0 COEFFICIENT-(F3= 0.95)

BEAMA RECOMMENDED
HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT - (BRUSHED
TUBES)

BEST FIT CURVE

o
OPERATING DATA
X S FROM EXISTING
< OPERATIONAL
CONDENSERS

CONDENSER HEAT
+
TRANSFER RATE - kW/m 2 K

X
o A A
o A

-
I
1.5 2.0

VELOCITY THROUGH TUBES - m/s

FIG. 4.18 Typical condenser test results of heat transfer coefficient plotted against water velocity in tubes

349
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
More recently, however, calculated values of heat
transfer coefficient, based on laboratory measurements
of steam and waterside coefficients, indicate that con-
denser performances better than those predicted by
present design codes, i.e., HEI [5] or BEAMA [6],
should be possible with careful attention to the tube-
nest geometry.
5.3 Influence of tubeplate and tubenest
geometry on thermal performance
It has been shown that the HEI and BEAMA docu-
ments give recommendations for the design of water-
cooled surface type condensing plant, and describe the
levels of performance which can be achieved. However,
omissions on the separate treatment of tubeplate
geometry and tubenest ventilation arrangements make
it difficult to use this data when calculating new designs
which have tubenests and venting systems differing
from those for which the empirical dependence was
obtained.
Two methods of design evaluation can be applied
in the assessment of tubeplate geometries; there is
the general subjective treatment, which involves eval-
uating the total pressure within the steam space and
tubenest, and there is more recently the rigorous
mathematical analysis using computer-aided numerical
solutions which solve the heat and mass transfer equa-
tions for individual tubenests.
Each method is discussed in turn, the general prin-
ciples of tubenest arrangement are outlined, and their
practical application illustrated by reference to large
condensers designed over the last 15 years.
5.3.1 Subjective design evaluation
The tubenest geometry and its disposition relative to
the turbine exhaust have a considerable effect on
the distribution of steam over individual groups of
tubes which, in turn, influences local heat transfer
rates, and tubenest ventilation. More perhaps than
any other feature of large condensers, tubeplate and
tubenest arrangements may differ considerably between
one design and another. This can be seen from the
many arrangements employed on the 500 MW series,
Fig 4.19. Each manufacturer of condensing plant ar-
rives at his own solution independently. This high-
lights a point which emerges from experience, that
tubenest arrangements which are apparently quite dif-
ferent can be of equally good performance, providing
that proper attention is paid to a number of general
principles.
External constraints
In designing the tubenest arrangement, a number of
external influences and constraints have to be taken
into account. The main external constraint has already
350
Chapter 4
been illustrated in Fig 4.19, i.e., the choice between
side-mounted and under slung condenser dispositions,
which depends mainly on turbine design and turbine
layout factors. Other factors which are also generally
fixed at an early stage, without special reference to
tubenest arrangement, include the condenser envelope
interaction with the turbine support structure, operat-
ing floor height above basement, overall turbine hall
dimensions, CW flow direction, number of passes,
and the condenser alignment (i.e., axial or transverse).
In addition, before the tubenest arrangement is
developed in detail, the main performance character-
istics of the condenser must be agreed, following
optimisation studies as mentioned in Section 2 of
this chapter. The main parameters settled at this stage
are:
Design heat load.
Design CW inlet temperature.
Design CW flow.
Design condenser pressure.
Total surface area.
Tube length.
Tube outside diameters, wall thickness, and material.
Number of tubes.
CW velocity in tubes.
Apart from the performance parameters, the type of
tube/tubeplate fixing will have been decided, which
in turn determines the minimum pitch of the tubes
(Section 6 of this chapter), and also design values for
the amount of air entering the condenser in the steam
will have been established.
Preliminary considerations of tubenest arrangement
A number of decisions relevant to tubenest arrangement
can be taken at this stage:
Subdivision of the total number of tubes This is the
extent to which the total number of tubes may be
subdivided into separate banks, each associated with
its own tubeplates and water boxes, air extraction
points and cooling waterside isolation. It is common
nowadays to restrict the number of tubes supplied
from any waterbox to around 5000, which has been
found through experience to be a number which does
not inconvenience on-load leak searching or tube
cleaning.
Subdivision of banks Consideration may also be
given to subdividing the individual banks into two
 Thermal design

EXHAUST STEAM

I I I I I I
-CONDENSER

SINGLE-PASS
TUBENEST

THREE-PASS
- AIR COOLING
SECTION

DIVISION PLATE

(a) Section through axial underslung tubenest

mm
EXHAUST STEAM

CONDENSATE TRAYS

SINGLE-PASS TUBENEST

EXHAUST
STEAM

(b) Section through transverse underslung tubenest (c) Section through sidemounted tubenest

FIG. 4.19 Typical tubenest configurations for 500 MW condensing plant

351
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
or more sub-banks, each with its own air extraction
point (Fig 4.19 (b)).
Compartmentalisation of the condenser Steam from
each LP turbine can be condensed in two or three
separate compartments, which are baffled from each
other on the steamside and operate at different back
pressures, the lowest being at the end corresponding
to the CW inlet. An alternative to this arrangement
is the 'opposed flow' concept whereby the CW flow
is in one direction in half the banks, and in the op-
posite direction in the remainder. This avoids the
need for large-scale axial redistribution of steam within
the condenser, towards the CW inlet end.
Detailed considerations of tubenest arrangement
As a first stage in tubenest design, it is necessary to
choose a basic concept. The two main features by
which the various possible concepts can be most easily
characterised are the steam flow approach pattern
to the tubenest and the disposition of the air cooling
section:
The steam flow approach pattern to the tubenest The
steam may enter the tubenest from just one direction,
i.e., from the turbine exhaust, or it may be allowed
to pass around the nest and enter it from all sides.
Figure 4.19 (c) clearly indicates that, for side-mounted
condensers, a unidirectional steam approach has al-
ways been the natural choice, since the face area of
the tubenest is fairly large. However, Fig 4.19 (b)
indicates how underslung condensers have a small face
area to a unidirectional steam approach, and a more
common arrangement is for a substantial percentage
of the steam to be allowed to pass round one or both
sides of the nest, thereby increasing the face area over
which the steam finally enters.
The disposition of the air cooling section In most
condensers the air cooling section is a block of tubes
located between the main condensing section and the
air extraction point (or points), representing some
10% of the total number of tubes (Fig 4.19 (a)). In
other condensers, however, the air cooling section is
arranged adjacent to the CW inlet tubeplate, and con-
sists not of separate tubes, but of the cold ends of all
the tubes. The steam must travel axially along the con-
denser to reach the air cooling section, and this type of
condenser requires design in three dimensions.
Causes of poor condenser performance
There are a number of possible reasons for poor con-
denser performance, the main parameters being:
High pressure drop in the tubenest.
352
Chapter 4
High pressure drop before tubenest, and ineffec-
tive use of the incident velocity of the approaching
steam.
Air blanketing and stagnation in the tubenest.
Inundation of tubes by condensate, and undercool-
ing of condensate.
Three-dimensional effects.
The main options open to the designer will now be
discussed briefly in relation to the various causes of
poor performance listed above:
High pressure drop in the tubenest This is mainly
concerned with the pressure drop in the main con-
densing section of the tubenest. Once the inconden-
sable gases and residual steam have reached the air
cooling section, it might be assumed that the volu-
metric flow is small, and that the pressure drop is
therefore no longer a significant problem. This how-
ever can be a dangerous assumption (Fig 4.19 (b)).
High pressure drop before the tubenest This aspect
of large condenser design originally tended to receive
little attention, though its significance is now well
recognised. If high velocity steam entering the con-
denser is not travelling naturally in the direction in
which the designer would like it to go, the effective
pressure drop caused by forcing it to turn in a dif-
ferent direction may be substantial. Figure 4.20 shows
how one condenser designer has developed his tube-
nest layout to improve the use of the incident velocity
in the steam. This problem is more apparent in
underslung condensers than side-mounted or integral
condensers. Conversely, due to irregularities in the
velocity profile of the approaching steam, the pressure
drop through the condensing section of the tubenest
should not be too low. A moderate pressure drop
helps to redistribute the steam flow beneficially and
prevent high velocity jets of steam penetrating straight
through into the air cooling section.
Air blanketing and stagnation in the tubenest Since
air is a poor conductor of heat, it is essential to
ventilate the tubenest adequately if a thermal per-
formance, close to theoretical, is going to be achieved.
Some air blanketing in the air cooling section is ac-
ceptable, but good ventilation will ensure that blanket-
ing is minimised within the main condensing section.
Briefly, the main function of the air cooling section,
apart from cooling the vapour/air mixture passing to
the air extraction equipment, is to ensure that the
condensing section is properly ventilated. Therefore,
the total pressure drop between the turbine exhaust
 Thermal design

EXHAUST STEAM

f T T t T T T T

\^ry
(a) Axial underslung condenser for 500MW unit

EXHAUST STEAM

AIR SUCTION

(b) Transverse underslung condenser for 660MW unit (one of two condensers)

FIG. 4.20 Comparison of tubenest designs to improve use of the incident velocity of the steam

353
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

and the condenser air extraction point can be envi-

saged as being divided into two parts; one across
the main condensing section, the other across the air
cooling section. This concept is complicated by three- EXHAUST STEAM

dimensional effects which are discussed later, but are

the basis of two important general principles (see
Fig 4.21):
1 I I 1 II
The resistance to steam flow along all actual flow
paths between the turbine exhaust and the entry
to the air cooling section should be equal. High
resistance paths tend to cause stagnation, resulting
in the poor thermal performance of associated
tubes.

There should be no major routes whereby steam can

reach the air cooling section directly, without first
passing through the main condensing section. If
this occurs, it may become impossible to maintain
a satisfactory pressure difference across the con-
densing section and it will tend to stagnate as a
whole. Also the air cooling section will become
overloaded with steam, and will itself manifest a
high pressure drop.
(a) Before modification

Inundation of tubes This is a problem which is

directly related to the number of tubes in the tube-
TUBES REMOVED TO FORM
nest. Reduce the number of tubes in each bank NEW AIR SUCTION PASSAGES
TUBES REMOVED TO FORM (ORIGINAL SUCTION PASSAGES
(particularly in the vertical plane) and inundation NEW STEAM LANE BLANKED OFF)

is reduced.
An alternative is to place collecting trays at key
positions within the tubenest which will catch the
condensate and divert it directly into the bottom of
the condenser (condenser hotwell) through a system
of gutters.
Condensate drainage can cause undercooling. Al-
though this is not generally a serious problem, it can
be avoided by allowing a small amount of steam to
enter below the tubenest to reheat the condensate
before it finally falls into the condenser hotwell.

1 I C

'Three-dimensional' effects These effects have a sig-

nificant detrimental effect on the performance of
large condensers. The problem arises from the fact
that, theoretically, the amount of steam which con-
denses at the cold end of the condenser is greater
than the amount which condenses at the hot end.
(b) After modification

However, in practice this frequently cannot exist, be-

cause it requires that the pressure drop through the
tubenest should be greater at the cold end than at
the hot end, and this is not possible if the air ex- FIG. 4.21 Alternative arrangements for steam-flow/air-
suction in underslung condensers
traction point pressures are the same at both the
cold end and the hot end.
Although this phenomenon is sometimes accepted
as a fundamental factor in condenser performance, Use of a low CW temperature rise, and avoidance
various measures can be taken to minimise its effect: of close approach between CW outlet temperature
354

and vacuum temperature. This means the difference
between the theoretical cold and hot end perform-
ances is not large, and the three-dimensional ef-
fect is therefore inherently small.
Use of compartmented condensers. As already
briefly mentioned, this is a variation where the
condenser is divided up into two or three com-
partments, one corresponding to each double-flow
LP turbine, the total CW temperature rise is,
therefore, divided into a number of separate steps.
The various compartments operate at different
vacua, and to achieve balance in the air extraction
rates, it is usual to connect the air pumps directly
to the cold end compartment, and then allow the
other compartments to vent into the air suction
line via restriction orifices.
Use of three-dimensional design Figure 4.22 shows
an example of the use of three-dimensional air
cooling sections.
In addition, 'disc' baffles can be installed in the
central axial passage. Steam which is flowing axial-
ly from the hot end of the condenser is forced
back into the tubebank, thereby increasing the
resistance of the steam flow path from the hot end,
and helping to achieve correct balance of pressure
drops.
Section 10 of this chapter, looks at the position
and functional requirements of the air cooling sec-
tion in more detail, and describes its influence on
the design of the air extraction equipment.
5.3.2 Computer assisted design evaluation
The second and more recent design evaluation meth-
od uses computer techniques to assess the perform-
ance of steam condensers. The computer program
simulates the fluid flow, heat transfer and air con-
centration processes locally through the condenser.
Since the interaction of these processes is very com-
plex, the program begins by representing the con-
denser as a series of parallel slices perpendicular to
the CW flow. Each slice is divided into a number of
control volumes so as to represent both the tubenest
and the steam access lanes. The program first finds
the steam flow pattern, and calculates the local con-
densation rates starting at the CW inlet. The laws
of conservation of mass, momentum and energy are
applied to each control volume to produce a large
number of simultaneous equations for each slice.
The program also calculates whether air pockets exist
in the tubenest, and identifies where they will form.
The sizes of the air pockets are determined by the
pressure at the air vent points the higher the vent
pressure, the larger the air pockets. From the solu-
tion the condenser vacuum can be predicted for given
rates of steam flow, air leakage, condenser surface
Mechanical design
configuration, and cooling water flow, together with the
CW inlet temperature.
For a more detailed understanding of the com-
puter techniques currently being researched, the reader
should refer to a paper presented at the International
Symposium on Condensers: Theory and Practice [8].
6 Mechanical design
6.1 Introduction
Present day power station steam turbines require very
large condensers: the basic problems are those asso-
ciated with translating conceptual ideas into func-
tional mechanical designs. As already discussed in
previous sections, the disposition of condensers has
largely been influenced by the generic development
of turbines. This has made it impractical to specify
a unique set of design rules which will completely
cover the diversity in constructional designs. How-
ever, there are many features common to all designs,
and these will be discussed in detail with reference,
where applicable, to relevant design codes, standards
and specifications.
6.2 Constructional development
The main areas of mechanical design are discussed
under three main headings, these are:
Construction materials.
Design forces and stresses.
Methods of manufacture and construction.
6.2.1 Construction materials
The construction materials may be conveniently di-
vided into those used in contact with the steam, and
those used in contact with the cooling water. Gen-
erally, plate materials, hollows and bars comply with
BS4360: 1972 [9] and BS1501: 1964 [10].
Details of materials for components, such as con-
denser tubes and tubeplates which are in contact with
the cooling water, are thoroughly discussed in Section
4 of this chapter. In addition, an interface clearly
exists between selection of tube material and struc-
tural design. It is important, therefore, to select these
materials early in the design stage in order that tube
support arrangements and the effects on structural
stiffness may be finalised.
On conventional power stations, condensing plant
components which are in contact with steam are nor-
355
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

EXHAUST STEAM

pipi AIR SUCTION ZONE

as ^ E

CW INLET
CW OUTLET

EXHAUST STEAM

I I I 1
AIR EXTRACTION DUCTS

(NOTE ALL ROUND STEAM ACCESS TO THE TUBE BANK, AND THE
SIMILARITY OF THIS ARRANGEMENT WITH THE MODIFIED
CONDENSER SHOWN IN FIG. 4.21b)

FIG. 4.22 Transverse underslung condenser for 660 MW unit showing three-dimensional air cooling sections

356

mally constructed from either ferrous or non-ferrous
materials. Recent specifications for a Pressurised Water
Reactor (PWR) power station have indicated that
non-ferrous metals should not be used, since the
build-up of deposits from corrosion/erosion effects
associated with non-ferrous materials, could be passed
through the feedheating plant, and jeopardise the
inverted tube bundle of the steam generator. The
steam generator, unlike conventional boilers, has much
greater restrictions on the frequency of blowdown
operations.
6.2.2 Design forces and stresses
The main forces acting on condensers are shown in
Fig 4.23 for various condenser configurations.
A = anchor point
Fv = force due to vacuum loading, N
Fw = force due to cooling water static loading, N
Ft = reaction force on turbine exhaust flange, N
Fc = Sc = reaction force on condenser foundation
steelwork, N
Frw = reaction force due to static and dynamic
loadings from flowing cooling water, N
Ftc = Stc = reaction force on turbine/condenser
foundation steelwork, N
Fs = reaction force due to springs, N
Fws = force on waterbox support, N
mc = mass of condenser, N
mt = mass of LP turbine, N
mtc = combined mass of LP turbine/condenser
mw = mass of waterboxes
As can be seen from Fig 4.23, the largest single force
which ultimately affects the design of the condenser
shell is that which results from the vacuum, Fv. In
addition to the forces illustrated in Fig 4.23, there
are external loads which are also taken into con-
Mechanical design
sideration. These include forces resulting from various
connections, such as CW connections to the water-
boxes, and operational loads of the condenser struc-
ture which must be considered when designing the
LP turbine mountings and support foundations. These
latter loads are of particular importance in the design
of integral and side-mounted condensers, where struc-
tural stability is necessary to secure turbine alignment.
Design stresses for the structures are given in BS1501:
1964 [10]. In practice, however, these stress levels are
rarely realised, since the plate thicknesses are usually
optimised well within the limits of stress to satisfy
minimum deflection criteria, and to comply with the
economics of manufacture.
6.2.3 Methods of manufacture and construction
The methods used in the manufacture and assembly
of large condensers are outlined, and the factors
influencing the extent of manufacture carried out at
works and site are discussed.
Traditionally, condensers for British turbines of
120 MW rating and above have always been shop
manufactured as a multitude of components which
are transported to site for final assembly and tubing.
As already highlighted in Section 3 of this chapter,
however, economic considerations have recently led to
a preferred arrangement in which each LP turbine is
combined with its own transversely-tubed underslung
condenser. This has allowed the development of a
modular condenser design so that one, two or three
modules can be combined to cover a large range of
possible turbine ratings. This modular concept has
a high attraction for turbine manufacturers, parti-
cularly where they are competing in world markets.
Now, before dispatch from the works, the condenser
shell sections, tubeplates, support plates, baffles and
waterboxes are temporarily assembled and carefully
aligned so that final welding of the shell sections can
proceed rapidly and efficiently in the power station
prior to tubing.
There are a number of advantages to be gained
from maximum fabrication and assembly of condensers
at the manufacturer's works:
It enables fabrication and erection to be carried
out in favourable environmental conditions, with
ready access to specialised machinery, welding, fitting,
inspection and test facilities.
It provides a location where there is a high density
of skilled labour and supervision in the various
disciplines.
Conflicting requirements between contractors for
space, access, cranage, etc., do not exist. These can
lead to reduced productivity which is detrimental to
the overall station construction programme.
357
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

Ft

4- J
Fs
(a) Axial underslung configuration
ui, Fs
Ft
Y

Fws Fws * W -
f Fw

me
mm me mc

i mw I
mc
^ Fws Fws
mc mc mc

T / ) /1 T T fnr^|/TJ77|/TfT7|l F
Fs Fs Fs Fs

(b) Transverse underslung configuration

-I i "*
Ftc

o
Ftc Ftc

f T

mc,
lp 11
VTSJ
(c) Integral configuration

__? IfLlfLlfl l,(

tH?tI14(

Fv
t t t t t t t
Fs Fs Fs Fs Fs Fs Fs

(d) Side-mounted configuration

FlG. 4.23 Major forces acting on condenser shells

358

Manufacturers have not only lifted workshop limita-
tions, which once restricted a modular method of
manufacture, but have also overcome problems con-
cerning transport to site. Figure 4.24 shows an ex-
ample where the modular concept of condenser de-
sign has been successfully employed at Heysham 2
power station.
Methods used in the manufacture and assembly of
the individual major components which form a com-
pleted transverse underslung condenser will now be
outlined under the headings listed earlier.
General structural design
The transverse underslung (bridge) condenser design
FIG. 4.24 Heysham 2 condenser modular construction
(see also colour photograph between pp 482 and 483)
Mechanical design
(Fig 4.25) turns the top half of the condenser into a
stiff bridge structure incorporating the LP cylinders
and bearings, the turbine weight being carried by the
bridge to the foundation piers at either end. The con-
denser is supported upon coil springs, and to avoid the
weight of the condenser or its contents being trans-
mitted to the turbine exhaust casing, the waterboxes
and tubes are filled with water and the springs ad-
justed to their normal operating position by levelling
bolts before welding the main exhaust joint.
The tubenest is arranged so that the tubes are
transverse to the turbine axis. The operational weight
of the integral bridge structure exceeds 2200 tonnes.
The shell is stiffened against the vacuum load using
plates and ribs which are optimised for strength and
economics of fabrication.
359
360
TRANSVERSE
BEARING BEAM
CANTILEVER
KEY STRUCTURE
MAIN LONGITUDINAL BEAM BEAM BEARING BEAM
(GLAND STEAM SIDE) SUPPORT PADS MAIN LONGITUDINAL BEAM
(BEARING OIL SIDE)
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant

WATER BOX
DRAIN

AIR AND CONDENSATE FLASH BOX

BAFFLES PLATE
CONDENSER FLASH BOX , - 1_ , /
TUBES WEIR PLATE FLASH BOX
WATER BOX DOUBLE TUBE PLATE WtlHMLAlb H E A D ER
INSPECTION ASSEMBLY
WATER BOX
MANHOLE DRAIN

(a)

FIG. 4.25 Transverse underslung (bridge) condensers, showing main constructional features of single
and two-pass configurations
Chapter 4
 EXPANSION BELLOWS BLED STEAM OUTLET
CONNECTION TO No. 3 L P HEATER
TO L P CYLINDER

NECK SIDE PLATE BLED STEAM OUTLET

SUPPORT STRUTS TO No. 2 L P HEATER

NECK END PLATE BLED STEAM OUTLET

SUPPORT STRUTS TO No. 1 L P HEATER

STEAM SPACE INSPECTION DOOR

VENT FROM IP. DRAINS
VESSEL

AIR EXTRACTION PIPES

OUTLET WATER BOX

CONDENSER

MAIN C.W. OUTLET PIPE

L P TURBINE SUPPORT COLUMNS

SAFETY GRID

VENT FROM HP. DRAINS VESSEL

EXPANSION JOINT

SAGGING PLATES (15 PAIRS) DOUBLE TUBEPLATE

ASSEMBLY
CONDUCTIVITY PROBE
C.W. CONNECTING PIPE

DEAERATING PLATE BUTTERFLY TYPE ISOLATING VALVE

WEIR PLATE MAIN C.W. INLET PIPE

AIR SUCTION SUPPORTING ISOLATING VALVE
OUTLET DUCTING STEELWORK MOTORISED ACTUATOR

(b)

FIG. 4.25 {cont'd) Transverse underslung (bridge) condensers, showing main constructional features of single

361
Mechanical design

and two-pass configurations

Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
Waterboxes
Depending on the number of passes, transverse
underslung condensers may have inlet, outlet and re-
turn waterboxes. In every case the waterbox dimensions
are sufficient to allow easy access for inspection via
bolted and hinged manhole covers. The major design
objectives to be realised in their construction, in ad-
dition to access, are those of pressure and vacuum
loading, and support.
The static and dynamic forces generated by the
flowing cooling water are taken by the waterbox struc-
ture (Fig. 4.23), which is shaped to promote a smooth
flow of water through the tubeplate and tubes, and
prevent erosion at the inlet. Flange rotation is pre-
vented by selecting plate sizes of adequate stiffness
or, alternatively, the plates are stiffened by external
reinforcement, usually in the form of ribs.
The waterbox flanges are jig or template drilled to
ensure matching with the tubeplate and shell flange.
Earlier waterboxes were generally protected against
corrosion in service by cathodic protection, with pro-
tection bosses provided to receive anodes. It is now
normal practice to offer protection against iron oxide
scale by means of a rubberised coat, applied to grit-
blasted surfaces prior to dispatch to site.
Condenser shell
The condenser shell forms the boundary of the steam
envelope. The structure comprises a floor, two side-
walls, and end plates with provision for expansion
and location of tubeplates. The build-up of a con-
denser shell varies between manufacturers. British
experience has shown, however, that the various
manufacturing practices produce end products which
are comparable in quality, cost and construction time.
The sections making up the condenser shell are
invariably built up from steel plates welded together,
the only exception to this being the tubeplate attach-
ment, which is arranged for bolting or studding to
shell and flanges. The shell is sometimes stiffened for
vacuum and structural loading by separate stiffening
members, but more generally the necessary support
is provided by welding the intermediate tube support
plates direct to the shell. After welding, all shell
envelope and major structural welds are crack-detected,
using magnetic particle non-destructive testing or an
equivalent check.
Tubenests
The design and layout of tubenests is extensively
covered in Section 5 of this chapter, which empha-
sises how the disposition of the tubes within the shell
is the heart of any condenser design. The present
tubenest arrangement consists of an upper and lower
tubenest, each taking the form of a 'folded band*
of tubes (Fig 4.20 (b)). This design draws not only
on the experience gained during many years of manu-
362
Chapter 4
facture of condensers, but also on knowledge derived
from model tests and from tests on other large con-
densers in Britain, and overseas.
Clean conditions are established within the conden-
ser shell prior to commencement of tubing. Tubing
is usually started at the bottom rows, working pro-
gressively upwards. When the bottom rows are com-
plete, it is possible to remove personnel as these rows
then act as supporting guides when inserting subsequent
rows of tubes. Guide bullets in the leading end of the
tube greatly assist the tubing operation.
Tubeplates
The provision for double tubeplates has been mandatory
for UK power station contracts over the past years to
eliminate any possibility of cooling water entering the
steam space of the condenser. Each tubeplate inter-
space is drained to a low level drain vessel which is
maintained at the condenser absolute pressure by
means of a connection to the air pump suction line. This
equalisation of pressure on either side of the inner
tubeplate ensures that no leakage occurs across it.
Therefore, any leakage into the interspace will be
cooling water, which is drained to waste. The tubeplate
interspace can be hydraulically tested to a pressure
of 0.7 bar during maintenance overhaul via 25 mm
water connections on the tubeplate periphery. A vent
is fitted at the top of the tubeplate interspace to
ensure that it is full of water.
The formulae and rules governing the sizing of
tubeplates have been based on the following standards
and codes which have been progressively amended in
line with tubeplate developments:
BS1500 [11].
BS1515 Parts 1 and 2 [12].
TEMA Standards: Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association Standards, Fourth Edition 1959, Fifth
Edition 1968 [13].
ASME VIII Standards: American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code Section 8, Divisions 1 and 2 [14].
The wider use of computer techniques in the design
of tubeplates is presently being researched. An ex-
ample which has been used is a beam element program
which is based on the theory of beams on elastic
foundations, and analyses the effects of pressure and
edge loading from the waterboxes.
The methods of manufacturing of the tubeplates
vary. The steel (inner) tubeplate is often drilled first
and used as the jig for drilling the non-ferrous (outer)
tubeplate. Sometimes, however, inner and outer tube-
plates are drilled together, even where they are of
dissimilar materials, to ensure accurate tube-hole
matching between the two tubeplates. The reason for

using dissimilar materials is purely one of economy;
however, as already mentioned, it is a requirement
that non-ferrous materials are not to be used for the
inner tubeplate of a PWR design. Bolt hole drilling of
the tubeplate is carried out either by a jig or template
to ensure matching with the waterbox and shell flange
holes.
The joint between the inner steel tubeplate and
the condenser shell is crucial and requires particular
care as it cannot be easily renewed once tubing is
complete. Figure 4.26 shows a typical detail of a
bellows and flange joint. This joint is sealed with a
neoprene-proofed fibre cloth and cord-filled dumb-bell
gasket which is manufactured in one piece. The bolt
holes in the tubeplate are jointed up with a water test
groove, and a drilling from the hydraulic connection
on the tubeplate periphery breaks into this groove,
enabling the joint to be hydraulically tested prior to
tubing. Access for tubeplate inspection may be gained
from the waterbox, which is fitted after all tube fixings
are complete. After complete erection, when all tube
ends have been expanded and packed, the space be-
tween the tubeplates is filled with a fluorescent solution
under pressure, and the tubeplates examined from both
sides under ultraviolet light to prove the absence of
leakage.
Tube/tubeplate joints
The method selected for securing tubes to the tube-
plates provides leak-tightness and strength as a sup-
SINGLE CONVOLUTION
EXPANSION BELLOWS
SHELL SHELL
MILD STEEL
(INNER) TUBEPLATE-
FIG. 4.26 Details of bellows and flange joints
Mechanical design
porting structure for the plate. Leak-tight sliding
joints are used to compensate for expansion. Various
methods may be used in combination to provide
characteristics consistent with the design requirements
and specific service conditions. Details of configura-
tions commonly used on large condensers are shown
on Fig 4.27. Figure 4.27 (a) shows a typical double
tubeplate arrangement, using a combination of the
fixed and sliding joint, the inner and outer tubeplates
being of the same material. This design was extensively
used on the 500 MW condensing plant.
Figure 4.27 (b) shows another typical double tube-
plate arrangement, using rolled fixings at each joint;
the tubeplates are of dissimilar metals, hence the need
for the wide interspace gap to accommodate bending
movements and to reduce shear stress in the tubes.
This is the method proposed for the PWR design.
Figure 4.27 (c) shows a double tubeplate arrange-
ment of similar design to Fig 4.27 (b), but here the
tubeplates are of similar materials and the need for
the wide interspace gap is eased.
Figure 4.27 (d) shows a typical double tubeplate ar-
rangement, using a combination of fixed and sliding
joints, with dissimilar metals for the inner and outer
plates, as used on the more recent Heysham 2 and
Torness power station designs.
Each of the above arrangements has been employed
successfully. Typical tube sizes are 25.4 mm OD and
1.2 mm wall thickness; tubeplate materials are mild
steel and rolled naval brass, Muntz metal or aluminum
bronze for the outer plates (see Table 4.2). Titanium
JOINTS
m\\\ w
r
k WATER BOX
3
ALUMINIUM
- BRONZE (OUTER)
TUBEPLATE
363
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

EXPANDED PACKED GLANDS

-^" -<**
INLET - OUTLET

(a) Double tubeplate assembly using single tubeplate technology

BRASS OUTER BRASS OUTER

INLET OUTLET

(b) Double tubeplate assembly using plates of dissimilar metals

EXPANDED EXPANDED

INLET OUTLET

(c) Double tubeplate assembly using tubeplates of similar metals

MILD STEEL MILD STEEL

v
BRASS OUTER INNER INNER BRASS OUTER

PACKED GLANDS
r~H PACKED GLANDS

OUTLET

(d) Double tubeplate assembly using a combination of fixing types and metals

FIG. 4.27 Tube-to-tubeplate fixing arrangements for large condensers

364

tubes of 25.4 mm OD and 0.7 mm wall thickness
have been fixed successfully into a similar configura-
tion to that shown in Fig 4.27 (d).
Properly made joints provide the necessary integrity
to meet the design criteria for remaining leak-free in
service; however, the uniformity of holding strength
will vary between the methods used and it is diffi-
cult to see how this can be readily compensated in
the design of the tubeplates unless some other form of
fixing which possesses inherent uniformity, such as
welding, can be adopted.
Tube expansion is carried out at the inlet end inner
tubeplate first, using electrically-controlled roller ex-
panders. Particular care is taken in setting up the
expanders to ensure that over-expansion beyond the
edge of the tubeplate does not occur. On completion
of the inner tubeplate, the inlet end outer tubeplate
is then packed, or expanded and belled as appro-
priate. The procedure for the outlet end is similar,
except that the tubes are not belled. Manufacturers
adopt different expanding patterns for the outlet end
based on individual experience; however, a predeter-
mined sequence is always adopted in order to minimise
tubeplate distortion at the outlet end.
Shell/tube expansion
The shell and tube material thermal expansion co-
efficients can be markedly different, except where
titanium tubes are used. Collectively, under normal
operating conditions, the cumulative effects aie suf-
ficiently large to generate theoretical stresses high
enough to cause failure of the tube joint. The differ-
ential movement between shell and tubes on a large
single-pass condenser can be as high as 22 mm. A
tube-to-tubeplate fixing arrangement similar to Fig 4.27
(d), but using only packed gland joints, along with
tube bowing, was examined as a possible solution to
this tube movement problem, but has been abandoned
due to inherent unreliability. The practical solution
has been to rely on the use of expansion bellows
between the shell and tubeplate carrier at one end, usually
of the single convolution type (Fig 4.26).
Condenser/turbine joint
A transverse underslung condenser is attached to the
turbine by welding.
A typical closing weld is shown in Fig 4.28; this is
a single-sided butt weld, welded from the inside, with
an external backing strip. After completion, the weld is
usually magnetically crack-detected for soundness.
Side-mounted condensers are bolted to the turbine
exhaust flanges via flexible bellows joints.
Support plates
Condenser tube support plates serve a number of
Mechanical design
TURBINE
CONDENSER
-CONDENSER
NECK
FIG. 4.28 Turbine to condenser joint (for underslung
condensers)
purposes. They support the tubes in order to control
vibration, and provide means for bowing the tubes
to assist drainage. Also, they provide a convenient
method of reinforcing the shell against the external
pressure forces.
The spacing of support plates is controlled by the
criteria governing tube vibration, but usually the maxi-
mum dimension does not exceed 60 tube diameters.
With the introduction of titanium tubing, the spacing
can be as low as 35 tube diameters which satisfies
the criteria of freedom from fundamental frequency
vibration from both machine and steam-flow-induced
sources.
Where support plates are used as inherent stiffness
members for shell reinforcement, the plate strength
and attachments receive consideration as edge-loaded
perforated diaphragms and are stiffened to avoid
buckling, if required. The plate thicknesses can vary
from 16 mm to 38 mm, depending on the design cri-
teria. The tube hole drilling is carried out by multi-
spindle numerically-controlled drilling machines, and
it is common practice to 'stack drill' up to seven
support plates at a time.
Branches, connections and reinforcement
Ordinarily, reinforcement may be dispensed with be-
cause plate thicknesses are in excess of those that
require compensation. Details of any opening or branch
connection to the shell which requires compensation
and reinforcement must comply with the standards
set out in BS1500 [11].
365
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
Hydraulic tests
There are mandatory requirements for hydraulic tests
on the components of the condensing plant, and these
are summarised in Table 4.4.
TABLE 4.4
Condensing plant component tests
Component Test pressure, bar
Waterboxes 4.1 (hydraulic)
Tubes 3.4 (pneumatic)
Pumps, pipework 1.5 times max. working
and valves pressure
Condenser structures, NDT, dye penetrant
welds testing
6.3 Protection and cleanliness of condensers
During plant manufacture, storage, transport to site
and site erection, special precautions are taken to
ensure that all plant items remain clean and reasonably
protected. To achieve this, condenser internal surfaces
are usually grit-blasted at the works and a temporary
protective coating applied, i.e., a type of coating which
does not require to be removed prior to the unit enter-
ing service. Tube holes are protected by a lacquer
which is removed immediately prior to condenser
tubing. External ferrous surfaces are either grit-blasted
or wire-brushed and degreased, and a suitable primer
is applied to the cleaned surface.
In the post-erection period, until commissioning,
deterioration of internal surfaces is minimised by
keeping the condenser surfaces dry. If the condenser
is used and has to be put into storage again before
commissioning, steps are taken to ensure that all water
is removed from the condenser.
In order to operate a condenser at its optimum
level, on-load cleaning methods are used which ensure
the high availability of condensing plant (Fig 4.29).
6.3.1 Debris filter
Coastal power station condensers are more vulnerable
to the intake of debris such as mussels, fish, wood, plas-
tic and fibrous materials, than inland power station
condensers. One solution to prevent the blockage of
condenser tubes is the installation of a debris filter in
the CW inlet side of the condenser.
All particles in the cooling water larger than 10 mm
are kept in the filter and rinsed away through the
debris discharge. Throttling of the filter inlet isolating
valve causes a change in flow direction near the screen,
creating a rinsing effect. The discharge water quantity
366
Chapter 4
from the filter ranges from 3 to 10% of the main
CW flow, over a rinsing period of 5 to 10 minutes.
6.3.2 Condenser tube cleaning system
Figure 4.29 shows how oversized rubber balls are
continuously pressed through the condenser tubes by
the water flow. Screens located downstream of the
condenser waterboxes extract the balls from the main
CW discharge flow. They are then drawn off and
pumped through a collector to be subsequently dis-
charged into the CW inlet to the condenser.
This system removes fouling and even hard deposits
from the internal surface of the tubes, which would
otherwise lower the heat transfer characteristics of
the tubes, with a resulting loss in condenser efficiency.
6.4 Special considerations
In addition to the normal function of condensing
the steam which is discharged from the LP turbines,
condensers on nuclear power stations are designed to
provide a heat sink for the removal of heat from the
reactors. These condensers are fitted with steam and
water dumping facilities of the pressure breakdown
type. The condenser structures are suitably reinforced
to take the reaction forces and erosion effects of high
velocity flows from the steam dump diffusers. Con-
densing tube surfaces are protected by impingement
plates and desuperheating sprays. A more detailed
account of the steam and water dumping requirements
on nuclear power stations is covered in Chapters 1 and
2 of this volume.
7 Operational life limiting constraints
The main constraints which limit the operational life
of a condenser are summarised under the following
headings:
Condenser air inleakage.
Cooling water inleakage.
Condenser fouling and cleaning.
An awareness of these problems at the design stage can
significantly reduce lifetime running costs and
maintenance costs. Operational experience of the var-
ious techniques employed for each of the three con-
straints listed are now discussed.
7.1 Condenser air inleakage
Techniques used for the location of leaks are outlined,
and methods for measuring the rate of air inleakage in
condensers are described.
 Operational life limiting constraints

CONDENSER TUBES

SPONGE RUBBER
BALLS DISTRIBUTED
IN CIRCULATING WATER
; 4 . *
-tlft-t 1-

f t* t * t f 4 *^\ .
___Z_________________J V !
BALL
INJECTION
POINT
DEBRIS FILTER
SCREENS FOR
BALL RECOVERY

WPmm 1
. DEBRIS
OUT

cw X
3-
OUT '
CW
IN

BALL
COLLECTOR
BALL
RECIRCULATING
PUMP DRAIN

MAP'

FIG. 4.29 On-load condenser cleaning system

The reasons why it is desirable to minimise air
inleakage are:
To improve condenser heat transfer performance.
To reduce the capital cost of the air extraction
equipment required.
To reduce air extraction plant running costs.
Tests have indicated that with well ventilated con-
denser tubenests, air inleakage within the capability
of the air extraction plant installed (100-200 kg/h
for 500 MW units) does not adversely affect the
condenser heat transfer performance. The objectives
for minimising air inleakage rates on new condensing
plant are, therefore, aimed at reducing capital costs
and running costs.
Operational levels of air inleakage, however, vary
between different station designs. For example, stations
with underslung condensers and indirect feedheating
plant have an advantage over stations with pannier
condensers and direct-contact feedheating plant.
7.1.1 Locating air leaks
Air leakage can occur in any part of the condensing
system which operates near or below atmospheric
pressure, and is often caused by failure of joints, at
flanges, and also by weld and material failures. When
the turbine is off-load, detection of air leakage is
made in some parts of the system by flooding with
water. Water seepage from sections normally under
vacuum indicate leakage areas.
When the turbine is on-load, however, different
techniques must be employed. These include: audible
methods (if the leak is large enough and the back-
ground noise low); visible means, by observing the
action of a lighted taper when in the proximity of air
flowing towards a leakage point; and the spraying of
suspect areas of plant with a tracer gas which is
easily detected by careful monitoring of the air ex-
traction equipment. The last method is the most
common technique employed today.
The tracer gas detectors generally used in power
stations are the RILO, AEI and LEYBOLD types.
These are known as halogen leak detectors as they
are capable of detecting low concentrations of halo-

367
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
genated compounds in an air stream. For minimum
toxicity and maximim sensitivity the halogenated com-
pounds chlorofluorocarbon and dichlorofluoro-
methane (trade names Freon 12, Isceon 12 or Arcton
12) are used.
Of the leak detectors mentioned above, only the
LEYBOLD equipment has a detector probe which can
be immersed in the gas to be tested. This equipment
is used by installing the probe in the air extraction
pipe from the condenser, whereas the other detectors
sample from the air extraction system discharge.
Most leakage points are found at flanges and joints,
and are usually small cracks or holes. These can nor-
mally be sealed with any of a number of proprietary
metallic resin or rubber-based sealing compounds.
7.1.2 Measurement of air leakage rate
Apart from the air extraction system (see Section 10
of this chapter), air leakage measuring equipment is
generally not installed as permanent instrumentation
on British power stations. As in locating the air leaks,
there are several techniques available to measure the
rate of air leakage.
Operational techniques are used to determine whether
a reduction in condenser performance is due to con-
denser fouling, or air inleakage overloading the air
extraction equipment. The operations carried out, which
only require measurement of condenser back pressure,
are:
Isolation of the air extraction equipment from the
condenser on-load, and monitoring the subsequent
rate of vacuum decay.
Changing the number of vacuum pumps in service,
and establishing the effect of this on the vacuum.
Typical unacceptable vacuum decay rates are 4 mbar/
min and above, as compared with expected rates of
approximately 1 mbar/min.
Where these techniques are not either favoured
or practical, other diagnostic techniques are often
employed which require measurement of:
Air temperature in the air extraction line from the
condenser; increase in air quantity handled reduces
the mixture temperature because of low water vapour
partial pressure.
Undercooling of the condensate outlet from the
condenser; high air partial pressures give increased
undercooling in some condensers.
Differential pressure between LP cylinder exhaust
and air extraction plant; low differential pressures
indicate that the air extraction plant is controlling
the vacuum and not the condenser heat transfer
performance.
368
Chapter 4
The final technique relies on temporary instrumenta-
tion to make direct measurements of air leakage on
a periodic basis, or when a condenser performance
problem exists. The methods employed include the
use of Pitot tubes, anemometers, hot wire anemo-
meters, rotameters and orifice plate assemblies.
Measurements are made both on the air suction
pipe and at the air extraction plant discharge. Care is
needed at both locations. The assumption made when
measuring in the condenser air suction pipe is that the
water vapour present is saturated. When measuring at
the air extraction plant, if more than one pump is
operating, the flow between the pumps is not always
evenly distributed.
7.2 Cooling water leakage in condensers
The methods employed in British power stations for
the detection of leakage of cooling water into the
condenser, and of the consequent pollution of the
condensate are:
Condensate conductivity.
Sodium contamination.
Location of condenser leakage is influenced by the
following factors:
CW supply, i.e., fresh, estuarine or seawater.
Condenser design, i.e., underslung or pannier.
Experience has shown that the techniques used to
locate the region of leakage in fresh water condensers
are not sufficiently sensitive to locate leakages in
seawater condensers. Also, the introduction of pannier
type condensers for the 500 MW units meant that
flooding the steamside with fluorescein solution, the
most popular method of off-load detection with
underslung types, was no longer possible. Underslung
transverse condensers, however, have an advantage in
that they can have up to six separate sections which
can be isolated and monitored using condensate con-
ductivity probes. This means that on-load location and
elimination of leaks is considerably simplified, often
without output loss.
The method of locating condenser CW leakage with
a unit on-load has three separate stages:
Location of the affected tubenest by condensate
conductivity measurement (desirable conductivity of
condensate approximately 0.1 /iS/cm).
Location of the physical level of the leakage within
the waterbox.
Location of the leaking tube or joint.

The first stage is carried out using conductivity probes
with the unit on-load. The tubenest causing the pro-
blem is identified by an increase in condensate con-
ductivity. This is simplified in transverse underslung
condensers, where multi-sectioning means that local
increases in condensate conductivity will be signifi-
cant at the location of the leak, and therefore easily
detectable.
Having identified which condenser tubenest is at
fault, the second stage is to determine the level of
the leakage in that nest. This can be found either by
altering the cooling water level in the waterbox and
monitoring the condensate conductivity or by intro-
ducing a tracer gas into the waterbox, dropping the
cooling water level, and monitoring at the air extrac-
tion plant for the appearance of the gas as the leak is
uncovered.
It is interesting to note that these two methods are
not suitable for all power stations, e.g., the former
method is satisfactory at sea-cooled stations, but, it is
unsuitable for freshwater-cooled stations where the
latter method is adopted.
These procedures are adequate for narrowing the
field of search to within two or three rows of tubes,
but stage three provides techniques which will precise-
ly locate the source of the leak.
The techniques used include:
Fluorescein method; the steam side of the condenser
is flooded with a fluorescein solution.
Foam or film methods; the condenser tubeplates
are covered with a foam or thin film material whilst
a vacuum is maintained on the steam side.
Bubbler devices; air bubbling through a jar of water
is used to detect a tube leak.
Tracer gas methods; a halogen gas detector is
situated at the air extraction equipment and the
suspect tubes sprayed with gas.
VACUUM
^ \ / ^ TUBE LEAK
FIG. 4.30 Tube leak detection by foam/film method
Operational life limiting constraints
Flame and smoke techniques; the flame from a
taper (or smoke) is used to indicate a flow of air
into a leaking tube.
Ultrasonics; the noise generated by air passing through
a leak is detected.
The sensitivity and application of these techniques
are discussed below.
7.2.1 Fluorescein method
The steam side of the condenser is flooded to above
the tubenest with a 10 mg/kg solution of the sodium
salt of fluorescein. A search is carried out in the
waterbox using ultra-violet light to detect traces of
fluorescein. The tube which is leaking is therefore
identified. There are, however, disadvantages of this
method:
It is restricted to underslung condensers off-load.
The revers'e action of water pressure on the tubes
compared with normal operation is known to close
up the leak in some cases.
The water pressure is low at the top of the condenser
and small leaks may escape detection.
Residual fluorescein can affect feedwater and boiler
water analysis, and impair judgement as to whether
repair of the leak was successful.
This method requires an operator to carry it out.
7.2.2 Foam or film methods
The principle of this method (Fig 4.30) relies on the
development of a vacuum in a leaking tube. If the
tube is then sealed at each end, the vacuum draws in
a foam blanket or a film of polythene or paper, and
thus identifies the location of the leak.
FOAM
WATERBOX
TUBE PLATE
369
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
Generally two operators, each with a foam generator,
are required. Pin-hole leaks with a leakage rate of
400 ml/h can be located, and 5000 tubes/hour can be
tested.
The success of this method relies on being able to
establish a vacuum of 330 mbar.
7.2.3 Bubbler devices
Figure 4.31 shows the two different types of bubbler
which are used for tube leak detection.
Figure 4.31 (a), the conventional bubbler, monitors
the flow of air through a hole when the leaking tube
is under vacuum. The method will detect leaks down
to 175 ml/h, and an arrangement is adopted where
10 tubes are monitored simultaneously, enabling 700
tubes/hour to be checked. Two operators are required
for this method which is suitable for off-load use
providing a vacuum of 330 mbar can be obtained.
Figure 4.31 (b), the MEL bubbler, is similar in prin-
ciple to the conventional bubbler except that the
suspect tube is evacuated with atmospheric pressure
on the outside of the tube. This method can locate
leakage rates of only 35 ml/h, the test rate being up
to 200 tubes/hour.
7.2.4 Tracer gas methods
Detectors for halogen organic gases are extensively
used for both air and cooling water leakage loca-
tion; Section 7.1 of this chapter gives details of the
method.
Generally leakage rates of around 1000 ml/h can
be detected with the unit on-load or off-load, as long
as a vacuum can be obtained. One operator can carry
out a search using a transmitter/detector, although
more normally two operators are employed.
7.2.5 Flame and smoke methods
These methods are fairly insensitive and involve the
use of lighted tapers or smoke tubes. Due to their
insensitivity, these are generally used as primary meth-
ods of detection when massive leaks are suspected.
7.2.6 Ultrasonic method
Again, this is a fairly insensitive method which is
not generally used. It involves the use of ultrasonic
detectors to pick up turbulence effects of the air
near a pin-hole. Owing to the noise from the steam
flow, and to an extent tube vibration, only leaks
close to the ends of the tube can be detected.
7.3 Condenser fouling and cleaning
The types of fouling encountered in condensers, and
370
Chapter 4
methods of on-load and off-load cleaning of con-
densers are now described.
7.3.1 Condenser fouling
Various forms of fouling have already been covered
in detail in Section 4 of this chapter, which looked
at the erosion/corrosion of condenser tubes from
impingement attack.
Basically there are three aspects of fouling which
are beyond the scope of the CW screening plant
installed:
Blockage by debris.
Biological slimes.
Scaling.
Blockage by debris of tube and tubeplates was ex-
tensively covered in Section 4 of this chapter.
Biological fouling refers to marine life which con-
tribute to the formation of the slimy deposits on the
heat transfer surfaces of condensers. These include
bacteria, fungi and algae. The slimes formed by these
micro-organisms adhere to the metallic surface, resist
heat flow and form a layer to which other suspended
matter can adhere to reduce condenser performance
further. Some forms of marine life, such as mussels
and barnacles, can cause problems by restricting flow
and blocking tubes.
Scale formation is caused by the deposition or
reaction of inorganic material on heat transfer sur-
faces. It usually occurs at inland river-cooled stations,
using cooling tower systems. The scales are usually
calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate, or mixtures
of both, and arise from variations in their solubility
products with temperature and pH changes (Fig 4.32).
The temperature effect is due to the inverse solubility
characteristics of calcium salts. The pH changes arise
by carbon dioxide stripping in the cooling towers.
7.3.2 On-load condenser cleaning
Two principal methods of on-load fouling prevention
are employed to avoid unnecessary costly shutdown
of condenser plant, in order that efficient throughlife
costs are realised:
Chlorination of the cooling water.
Fine filtration, plus tube cleaning using rubber balls.
Intermittent chlorination of the cooling water entering
the condenser is carried out on all British power
stations, and forms the accepted on-load fouling
preventive technique. It is effective in controlling the
growth of mussels in seawater systems, and the forma-
tion of slime in freshwater systems.
 Operational life limiting constraints

r^i

VACUUM
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

/
m
m mm -PLUG
^ =3^=

/
AIR
FLOW

TUBE PLATE

(a) Conventional bubbler

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

AIR FLOW

DC

TO VACUUM //A\\
PUMP

BUBBLER

RESERVOIR

TUBE PLATE

(b) M.E.L. bubbler

FIG. 4.31 Tube leak detection using bubblers

371
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
100 H
50 H
20 H
PHOSPHATE
P0 4 1<H
mg/kg
FIG. 4.32 Graph of solubility of calcium phosphate with changes in temperature and pH
At coastal sites, marine fouling is significantly
reduced by continuous chlorination of the cooling
water. The degree of chlorination required is in-
versely proportional to the CW flowrate, a chlorine
concentration of 0.5 mg/kg of CW being required at
1.5 m/s.
At inland sites, slime control is maintained by
intermittent dosing of chlorine (a few minutes every
four to eight hours) at a level which leaves a resi-
dual of chlorine of 2 mg/kg at the condenser CW
outlet.
Fine filtration plus tube cleaning, however, is in-
stalled in some 10% of all locations, and is becoming
more widely used following experience on power sta-
tions with recirculating systems. A detailed account
of this method is given in Section 6 of this chapter.
Other methods, including the use of flocculants,
acid dosing, and toxic paints have all been considered
as possible remedies, but so far none has proved to
be a viable alternative to those outlined above.
7.3.3 Off-load condenser cleaning
Although improvements in the on-load techniques
continue to be made, off-load cleaning is frequently
required for various reasons.
Failure to cope (or breakdown) of the on-load
equipment, may cause a fouling condition to develop
372
Chapter 4
CONSTANT
200 mg/kg
which becomes irrecoverable when the plant is re-
commissioned.
Late filling of the fine debris filters immediately
upstream of condenser waterboxes may allow marine
fouling to occur, necessitating tubeplate picking to
remove debris.
Except in a few exceptional circumstances, off-
load condenser cleaning is done during outages. The
techniques used are now discussed.
Bulleting
This is the most extensively used method of cleaning
the inside surface of condenser tubes, and involves
forcing bullets down the tubes to brush off surface
deposits. Depending on the form of deposit to be
removed, the bullets vary from hollow and solid rub-
ber balls, to nylon and steel bristle designs.
Compressed air or water pressure, or a combination
of both, forces the bullets down the tubes from
lightweight guns which are designed to develop a seal
at the tubeplate without effort from the operator.
Acid cleaning
This method is restricted to condensers suffering
from scaling problems, e.g., Midland stations which
draw their make-up water from the River Trent. Cal-
cium carbonate and phosphate scales form the de-

posits and have been cleaned using a variety of acids,
including hydrochloric, citric, acetic, and EDTA
(ethylene diamine tetra-acetate).
It is important when adopting this technique that
the condenser steam space is subsequently flooded
with demineralised water to prevent acid entering the
condensate when the unit is recommissioned.
Some stations have experienced stress-corrosion crack-
ing of expanded tube ends from acid cleaning.
Grit cleaning
An alternative to bulleting, this method is known
as sinusoidal grit blasting; it involves blasting graded
silica-free mineral grit through the condenser tubes.
A special grit blasting nozzle incorporates a venturi
which accelerates the grit and causes it to follow a
sinusoidal path through the tube, stripping off deposits
which have accumulated. This method has a 90%
effectiveness in cleaning tubes, and requires a charge
of grit at approximately 1 m/s.
Water washing
This method uses either high or low water pressure,
depending on the application.
To remove surface deposits, a high pressure lance
with forward and side-facing jets is passed down
each tube, blasting water at a pressure of 700 bar.
This method has an advantage over acid or grit
cleaning method, since its action does not have a
detrimental effect on the tube surface. However, its
operation is awkward within the confines of the water-
boxes, and is therefore generally not used.
Low pressure water washing is effectively used to
remove loose sludge and sediment deposits prior to
leaving the condenser dry during overhaul. Often a
combined water/compressed air gun (similar to the
type used in bulleting) is employed, having a dis-
charge pressure of 7 bar.
Thermal methods
These have been used to control mussel growth in
seawater station CW culverts, and to clean condenser
tubes by drying internal deposits prior to flushing
with water.
The former application controls marine fouling by
raising the temperature to 40C for one hour every
six weeks. This restricts mussel growth to sizes which
will not lodge in condenser tubes. The heating is
achieved either by introducing an auxiliary steam
source in the CW culvert, or by reversing the flow of
CW through the condenser.
Drying the deposits in condenser tubes prior to
flushing has also been successful: fan heaters are used
to blow warm air through the condenser waterbox
access doors.
Plant testing
8 Plant testing
8.1 Introduction
Condenser thermal performance tests are carried out
for two reasons:
As acceptance tests to establish that a condenser
meets its specified performance, and is capable
of producing the desired condenser steam inlet pres-
sure when operating under specified conditions.
As routine operational tests to monitor the con-
denser performance periodically, and to verify that
station thermal efficiency is not being adversely
affected by a deterioration in the condensing plant
heat transfer coefficient.
In both acceptance tests and routine tests, a high
standard of instrumentation is required, particularly
in the measurement of the condenser steam inlet pres-
sure, and the cooling water temperatures. Routine
tests generally use less instrumentation than acceptance
tests, but only when it is certain that this is not
detrimental to accuracy.
8.1.1 Test codes and practices
Condensing plant is the only major item of power
plant which is at present not covered by a British
Standard code for thermal performance testing.
For this reason, the CEGB has compiled its own
test code, entitled 'Performance of surface-type steam
condensers' Site Test Code No. 3, 1981 [15].
Scope
This Code covers requirements for acceptance, routine
and diagnostic testing of water-cooled surface-type
steam condensing plant, including multi-pressure de-
signs. It specifies procedures for testing condensers,
and for calculating and reporting the results, so that
the condenser performance may be checked against
contractual obligations. In addition, the performance
of different condensers may be readily compared, and
the operational performance of condensing plant may
be assessed.
Within this Code, reference is made in particular
to the BEAMA design code [6] and to BS752: 1974
Test Code for Acceptance of Steam Turbines' [16].
General outline
The assessment as to whether a condenser meets its
guaranteed performance is based on comparison of
the condenser inlet pressure measured on the accept-
ance test (corrected to specified conditions of CW
373
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
inlet temperature and flow, heat load, tube cleanliness
and tube surface area) with the guaranteed condenser
pressure.
When the test conditions differ from those speci-
fied, the Code describes a correction procedure which
relies on validated curves or formulae and imposes
close limits for permitted deviations when these are
not available. The corrections are applied to the test
logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) and
allowance is made for variation in steam temperature
through the tubenest.
A method is also given for the routine assessment
of condenser performance, in which the actual con-
denser inlet pressure is compared with that recorded
during the acceptance test and corrected for the
changes from acceptance test conditions to those
obtaining at the time of the routine test.
A section dealing with test accuracy is included.
The assessment of accuracy is based on the effect
of systematic errors only, the random errors being
effectively eliminated by the proposed frequency of
readings.
Acceptance test procedures
Before testing, a meeting is held between all parties
involved to discuss the testing programme, and to
make arrangements for any necessary preliminary work.
For example, discussions include reaching agreement
with the manufacturer on:
Interpretation of contractual guarantees.
Location, type, and calibration of test instruments
(Fig 4.33).
Means of obtaining the desired operating conditions.
Isolation of the plant for test purposes.
The procedures to be followed for calculating results.
By agreement, the official report of an acceptance
test may be produced by either party to the test, or
by representatives of the parties working together.
Test measurements
(a) Pressure measurement The test pressure mea-
suring system must give the mean static pressure
at the condenser inlet from each individual LP
turbine cylinder to within 0.3 mbar, Fig 4.33.
It usually consists of separate sets of pressure
sensing holes linked by manifolds to which the
test manometers or transducers are connected.
The same plane should be used for measuring
both the condenser pressure and the turbine LP
cylinder exhaust pressure, Fig 4.34.
In addition, the steamside pressure drop should
374
Chapter 4
be determined, as this is the most practical means
of obtaining the fall in temperature through the
tubenest, and also the air extraction pressures.
(b) Temperature measurement Temperatures re-
quired are those of CW inlet, CW outlet, con-
densation outlet, steam and air suction. All are
measured directly except that of steam, for which
it is preferable to assume saturation and to derive
the steam temperature from the corresponding
pressure.
The accuracy of the CW inlet temperature
measurement equipment is specified as 0.05C.
Cooling water inlet temperature to the condenser
is generally constant across the pipe section and
the temperature measurement is made either by a
thermometer in a pocket or by extracting a con-
tinuous flow of water through a vessel containing
a thermometer.
At the entry to the condenser CW outlet pipes,
however, the temperature of the water is stra-
tified. To allow mixing to occur, the temperature
measurement point is sited as far as possible
downstream.
Temperature sampling probes on two diameters
are used in each condenser outlet. The probes are
either thermopiles or multi-hole probes through
which water is drawn into a mixing vessel. The
holes or thermocouples are situated at centres
of equal areas, one hole or thermocouple to each
0.2 m2 of pipe area.
(c) Flow measurement The flowrates of cooling water,
condensate and extracted air may be required
when assessing condenser performance. Methods
of determining the CW flowrate include:
Condenser heat balance.
Velocity/area methods.
Differential pressure methods.
Tracer methods.
These are listed in descending order of preference,
and the Site Test Code No. 3 [15] should be
consulted for qualifications.
Several methods are available for measuring
the rate of air leakage into the condenser, and
reference should be made to Section 7 of this
chapter which covered these aspects. Generally,
the preferred position for measurement is at the
air pump discharge (Fig 4.33), because measure-
ments at the air pump suction require determina-
tion of the steam/air ratio, and are made difficult
by the low density of the steam/air mixture.
The measurement of condensate flowrate is
described in CEGB Site Test Code No. 2 [17].

c^4.
CWOUT
FIG. 4.33 Points of measurement for condenser test
(d) Condenser heat load determination Site Test Code
No. 3 recommends that condenser heat load should
be derived from a calculation of the heat rejected
by the turbine-generator, preferably using heat rate
data obtained concurrently with the condenser test.
(e) Tube cleanliness and air blanketing Both on-load
and off-load methods for the determination of
condenser tube cleanliness are required, and also
the occurrence and location of air blanketing need
to be identified.
Figure 4.35 illustrates the on-load method for
determining condenser tube cleanliness. Briefly,
sample tubes in groups of three or four are se-
lected such that operating conditions throughout
the condenser are represented. Separate supplies
of CW are provided for each sample tube by
means of insulated pipes passing through the
waterboxes, and one tube in each group is selected
as a clean tube which is acid-cleaned before
commencement of the test.
Cooling water is pumped through the clean
and corresponding fouled tubes at a flowrate si-
Plant testing
.+-
AIR SUCTION PIPE
4
CW IN
p) PRESSURE
fj) TEMPERATURE
(APJ DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
FLOW
milar to that on the rest of the condenser. The
common inlet temperature and individual tube out-
let temperatures and flowrates are measured, from
which the cleanliness factor of each sample fouled
tube is calculated according to Site Test Code
No. 3 [15], Appendices A and B.
The off-load method requires sample tubes to
be withdrawn from the condenser. In a laboratory,
the cleanliness factor is determined by measuring
the thermal resistance of the fouled tubes and
comparing this with the thermal resistance of some
of the tubes after acid cleaning.
Air leaking into an inadequately vented con-
denser will blanket the tubes, impede condensation
and increase the condenser pressure. The position
of air blanketing can often be inferred from mea-
surement of the CW outlet temperature distri-
bution at the tubeplate.
An abnormally low temperature rise indicates
the probability of air blanketing somewhere along
the condenser. A more precise indication of the
position of the air blanketing can be made by
inserting a small probe into the steam space to
375
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

<^ ^ 1 ^% 1
-
PLANE OF
PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT

^'
CONDENSATE
OUT
r CWOUT

(a) Transverse underslung condenser

PLANE OF
PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT

CWIN
CWOUT

(b) Axial underslung condenser

FIG. 4.34 Plane of pressure measurement for underslung condensers

measure the temperature and pressure within the (a) Minimise the size of the condenser.
tubenests, as shown in Fig 4.36.
(b) Maximise the thermal performance of the condenser.
(c) Secure reliability and availability.

9 Future developments
9.2 Research and development
In order to increase the specific condensing capacity
9.1 Aims and objectives (Q/m3) of future plant designs, research and develop-
In general, the aims and objectives for future designs ment work is being carried out to achieve a better
of condensing plant are to: understanding of the thermal performance of steam
376

TUBE EXTENSION (INSULATED)
cr^
FOULED
TUBE
CLEAN
TUBE
cw
INLET
j-XH
MX*
COOLING WATER
RECIRCULATING WATER FOR DETERMINATION
OF LOCAL STEAM TEMPERATURE
FIG. 4.35 On-load determination of cleanliness factor
condensers, and hence improve the overall heat
transfer coefficient (U).
Two areas where such work is being conducted,
include the layout of tubes in the tubenest, and the
thermal performance properties of the tubing.
9.2.1 Tubenest layout
All UK condenser manufacturers recognise the need
to optimise the design of condenser tubenest layouts
by computer analysis techniques, in order to realise
improvements in thermodynamic efficiency.
Details of a condenser optimisation programme
presently under development are outlined in Section
5 of this chapter, which also covers the design of
plant components to minimise air blanketing, and
steamside pressure losses in the tubenest.
9.2.2 Thermal performance properties of tubing
Tube material
Section 4 of this chapter covers condenser tube ma-
terial selection with regard to improving its resistance
against the effects of corrosion/erosion. In-service
titanium tubing trials were carried out at a number
of power stations under varying operating conditions,
see Table 4.3. As a result of the success of the trials
Future developments
TUBE EXTENSION (INSULATED)
MEASUREMENT POINTS
0 TEMPERATURE
FLOWRATE
and increasing economic competitiveness, titanium
tubing is now used in all new power stations where
impingement attack of the condenser is considered
possible.
Advanced geometry tubing
Another development in condenser tubing which is
currently being investigated is the use of advanced
geometry (roped) tubing, to satisfy items (a) and (b)
in the list of aims and objectives given in Section
9.1 of this chapter.
Figure 4.37 is an example of roped tubing. It has
a rolled helical ridge on both steam and water sides
of the tube. One effect of this advance design is
to augment the waterside heat transfer coefficient
by perturbing the water flowing in the tube, so that
boundary layers do not build up along the tube wall
and inhibit the transfer of heat. It also augments
the steamside heat transfer coefficient by assisting
condensate drainage.
The total increase in overall heat transfer coeffi-
cient is estimated to be approximately 30% above
plain tubing; however, waterside frictional losses are
increased.
By maximising tube performance, the design allows
the overall tube length and tubeplate size to be re-
duced, without incurring operational penalties.
377
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

PRESSURE MEASURING

THERMOCOUPLE
JUNCTION SLIGHTLY
WITHDRAWN INTO
TUBE

FIG. 4.36 Air blanketing surveys by inserting a probe into the condenser tubenest

Optimisation studies have been carried out on a A comparison of the mechanical behaviour between
transverse underslung condenser, using 25 mm OD roped and plain tubing is given in reference [18].
roped titanium tubing, and 25 mm OD plain tita- As far as reliability and availability are concerned,
nium tubing. Water velocities varied from 1.2 m/s research continues in the following areas:
to 2.2 m/s, and tube lengths varied from 12 m to
18 m. Tube maintenance.
Table 4.5 shows the minimum cost, optimum CW Tube cleanliness.
quantity and condenser parameters possible within
the constraints imposed on the system being studied, Modular construction.
i.e., a CW flowrate of not less than 1.68 m/s and
a CW temperature rise of less than 12C. In particular, the maintenance of condenser tubes
This suggests, for the two optima in Table 4.5, without access to the waterbox is being investigated.
savings of 200 000 by using roped tubes, however,
when compared to the existing condenser using conven-
tional tubing materials, savings in the order of 2.6 PUMPS
million are calculated.
An improvement in the overall heat transfer co- 10 Air extraction equipment
efficient of roped tubes is clearly illustrated by the
defined reduction in tube length and CW quantity,
and hence the size of tubeplate required to achieve 10.1 Introduction
these savings. The objectives of the air extraction plant are:
378
 Air extraction equipment

FIG. 4.37 Photograph of plain and roped tubing

TABLE 4.5
Optimisation study results for plain and roped titanium tubing

Total Heat Tube CW flowrate

Tube Tube optimum cost transfer velocity, per set CW
design length (3 sets), area/set, m/s kg/s ATC
m million m2

Plain 15.2 43.2 29590 1.68 17790 11.0

Roped 12.2 43.0 21786 1.68 16379 12.0

379
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
To remove air which has leaked into the condenser
via flanges and glands effectively.
To remove other incondensable gases that are pre-
sent in the steam exhausting from the LP turbines.
It is important that both are removed from the con-
denser, as their presence in any quantity impairs the
heat transfer performance of the condenser. Con-
versely, excessive air extraction capacity should be
avoided, and reasons for this are discussed later.
The air extraction plant must be capable of func-
tioning under two regimes: one during normal opera-
tion, the other when raising vacuum on the turbine-
generator unit.
When raising vacuum, the air extraction equipment
is faced with a large quantity of air which must be
removed, and must therefore have the capacity for
reducing the pressure in the condenser quickly to a
level which allows the turbine to be started.
10.2 Determination of air extraction quantity
To ensure adequate removal capacity under operating
conditions, the capacity of the air extraction plant
must be greater than the maximum amount of air
and non-condensable gases expected to be removed
from the condensate.
The main parameters which determine the quantity
of air to be extracted from the condenser and, hence,
the design of the condenser air cooling system and air
removal equipment are:
The design air leakage into the condenser.
The degree of sub-cooling of the air/steam mixture
leaving the air cooling section.
The limiting approach temperature difference
between the saturation temperature 0PcC cor-
responding to the absolute pressure p c in the
condenser, and the CW outlet temperature.
Table 4.6 indicates recommended values for typical
fossil-fired power stations of varying size.
TABLE 4.6
Design air leakage rates for typical fossil-fired
Turbine size, MW 300
Design air leakage rating, kg/h 73
Design air suction V - 4-2
temperature at outlet, C
Limiting CW outlet temperature V - 3.3
380
Chapter 4
The design air leakage rates presented in Table
4.4 are known to be higher than those adopted in
some other countries and, in many instances, are
considerably in excess of air leakage rates realised
on British plant in practice.
However, experience has shown that, on balance,
the adoption of these ratings has been economically
justified as a means of counteracting the following:
High air leakage, due to valve packing failures,
joint leaks, etc.
Higher than design pressure loss through the con-
denser and air extraction pipework.
Excessive steam penetration through the air cooling
system.
Adverse effects of part-load operation and low
cooling water temperature conditions.
The considerable experience gained, particularly
from 500 MW turbine condensers, has led to a much
greater understanding of the factors influencing air
inleakage and its effective removal from large con-
densers.
The limiting difference between the condensing
temperature and the cooling water deserves brief
mention. This limit is aimed at ensuring reasonable
CW outlet-end condensing zone and air cooling section
performance. Most large condensers in operation have
temperature differences in excess of this figure; latest
thinking suggests that a temperature difference closer
to 5C is desirable if pressure loss on the steamside
and/or excessive steam carryover to the air extraction
equipment is not to become a critical factor in deter-
mining condenser performance.
10.2.1 The mechanism of air extraction
The mechanism by which non-condensable gases are
transported between the points of entry to the con-
denser shell and the discharge to atmosphere can be
subdivided into three stages:
Transfer of incondensable gases from the main
condensing zone to the air cooling section of the
condenser.
Cooling of the incondensable gases and associated
stations
steam in the air cooling section.
500 600 Extraction and compression of the incondensable
gases from condenser vacuum to atmosphere.
120 161
In order to meet the objectives outlined earlier, it
is important that all three stages in the process are
carried out efficiently.

Details of how this is achieved are described, and the
different equipment types are reviewed.
10.2.2 The condenser air cooling section
In order for the air cooling section to perform ef-
ficiently, its position within the condenser and the
method of venting must be optimised, and the trans-
port of incondensable gases from the condensing zone
must be effective.
This ensures that the air cooling process is achieved
with minimum pressure loss through the condenser,
and without creating stagnation regions within the
main condensing zone or introducing excessive steam
penetration into the air cooling section.
Two different air cooling section designs have been
adopted in the UK. One extracts incondensable gases
and steam from the cooling water inlet end of the
condenser; the other uses multi-point extraction from
various points along the condenser length; these are
illustrated for a pannier condenser in Fig 4.38.
Air cooling sections designed on the first principle
have the basic features of a redistribution passage
for the steam and incondensable gas mixture in the
tube axial direction, together with a baffling arrange-
ment towards the cold end of the condenser to force
the mixture across the tubenest before final extraction.
In multi-point extraction condensers, the steam and
incondensable gas mixture usually make one trans-
verse pass of the air cooling section tubes, and no
facilities are provided for reintroduction of the mix-
ture into the air cooling section tubenest.
Condensers with single and multiple water passes,
and with single and multiple vacuum arrangements
have adopted both types of air cooling section, and
have generally operated satisfactorily.
The single-point air extraction concept generally
requires a higher pressure drop in the condenser to
ensure satisfactory flow through the air cooling section
than the multi-point arrangment, but it reduces the
probability of excessive steam carryover to the air
extraction equipment.
With the introduction of air extraction equipment
which incorporates a direct contact pre-condenser,
the carryover of steam is not such a critical factor
in determining the air extraction capacity.
10.3 Review of air extraction equipment
The main development of air extraction equipment
for large condensers has evolved through the use of
air extraction pumps. Steam-jet air ejectors were in
common use, but, for the higher pressure and
temperature cycles adopted today, these have proved
to be less economic than air pumps, both in capital
and running costs.
Many different air extraction equipment designs
have been developed, all of which combine the func-
Air extraction equipment
tions of vacuum maintaining and vacuum raising,
either in full or in part, depending upon the volume
to be evacuated and the time specified for synchro-
nising the machine.
It is interesting to note that the last-row blades
of a 660 MW turbine will overheat if they run at
speed and at low load in a poor vacuum. Therefore,
a vacuum of 677 mbar(a) must be obtained before
steam is admitted to the turbine, and a vacuum of
880 mbar(a) for full speed. It is important that the
time taken to bring boiler and turbine plant on-
load shall not be increased by insufficient extraction
capacity.
The main systems in use today are:
Rotary pumps (e.g., Le Blanc), which use water
as the motive fluid for vacuum maintaining duties,
with separate booster pumps for vacuum raising.
Hydraulic pumps, which work on the water-jet
principle, for vacuum maintaining. Pumps of this
type have reasonable vacuum raising characteristics,
but usually require to be supplemented by liquid-
ring pumps for vacuum raising duties.
A system which consists of an ejector and a pump.
The ejector provides the first stage of compression,
and a liquid-ring pump provides the final stage of
compression to atmospheric pressure. This system
uses both the ejector and the pump for vacuum
maintaining duties, but the pump is used in iso-
lation for vacuum raising.
A summary of the development of air extraction
equipment is given in Table 4.7, which indicates the
number of installations of each type of equipment
associated with 500-660 MW turbines in the UK.
It is quite clear from Table 4.7 that the use of
rotary and hydraulic air pumps has virtually been
phased out in the 660 MW designs. The reasons for
this change in policy are discussed below.
In the initial stages of the 500 MW programme,
orders were placed for two air pump systems on
which there was previous British experience; these
being Le Blanc pumps and hydraulic air pumps. Both
systems, however, could only offer a small contri-
bution during vacuum raising, and relied on supple-
mentary equipment to enable units to be loaded within
20 minutes.
The 'ejector plus pump' extraction system was
introduced into Britain during the early 1960s. Initially
this system only used atmospheric air as the motive
fluid in the ejector stage, and incorporated a liquid-
ring pump for second stage compression. This gave
better vacuum raising characteristics than the hy-
draulic air pump, which offset the slightly higher
operating costs of the system for vacuum maintain-
ing duties.
381
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

STEAM

AIR EXTRACTION
DUCTS
/ I\
AIR
SUCTION

L I I
/ZONE

H-T I'V'U''
* Pfl
SE
tfe
P^

CW
OUTLET

(a) Single-point air extraction

AIR
EXTRACTION
DUCTS

ONE PANNIER SHOWN ONLY

(b) Multi-point air extraction

FlG. 4.38 Single and multi-point air extraction

382

TABLE 4.7
Air extraction equipment associated with 500-660 MW
turbines in the UK
Unit size, MW 500 550 600 660
Rotary Le Blanc pumps 17 0 0
Hydraulic air pumps 16 2 4
Ejector/pump systems:
air ejector 18 0 0
steam ejector 0 0 0 21
Developments in ejectors have more recently pro-
duced an alternative design which uses low pressure
waste steam from the de-aerator vent. This system
has proved to be very competitive and has captured
a large percentage of the 660 MW market, largely
due to its low power requirement (about 0.727
kW/kg/h of air), which is approximately half that
of other systems.
A more detailed account of these systems follows,
with the exception of the rotary Le Blanc pumps
which are now of little relevance to modern UK
practice.
10.3.1 Hydraulic air pumps
A typical hydraulic air pump arrangement is shown
in Fig 4.39. The hydraulic pump unit is a water-
operated ejector, which uses a motor-driven single-
stage recirculating lift pump, and a covered water
seal and air separation tank.
The water tank serves the dual function of acting
as a heat sink for the air and vapour drawn from the
condenser and providing a suction supply for the lift
pump to recirculate the sealing water.
Make-up water is introduced to the tank at the
bottom to replace any losses, and maintain the tank at
a steady temperature. The tank overflow is controlled
by a weir, and is discharged to waste.
Sealing water from the tank is circulated to the
hydraulic air pump where it is fed into a series of
nozzles. Streams of water leaving the nozzles pass
over the blades of a spinner which is mounted on
the end of a shaft, and is free to rotate. The blades
are formed so that the sealing water propels the
spinner and, in doing so, is broken into slugs. The
water which discharges from the spinner seals poc-
kets of air in the diffuser, pressurises them, and
discharges the mixture into the tank. The tank is suit-
ably vented, and the sealing water is recirculated to
the lift pump.
The air suction line to the water-operated ejector
incorporates an electrically-operated isolation valve
and disc-type non-return valve to prevent backflow
of air and water to the condenser in the event of
pump failure. Some arrangements also include a
Air extraction equipment
barometric loop in the air suction line as a further
safeguard.
As already mentioned, the requirement of a 660
MW turbine to reach full speed at no-load within
20 minutes of start of vacuum raising is beyond the
capability of hydraulic air pumps alone; the installa-
0
tion of supplementary vacuum raising booster pumps
0 overcomes this problem. On their own, hydraulic air
pumps will take in excess of 40 minutes to achieve
desired vacuum levels. In some cases the booster
5
pumps are supplied on a unit basis, but it has become
increasingly popular to adopt common booster equip-
ment for two or more turbines, therefore reducing
capital costs.
Separate electrical control systems are provided for
the hydraulic air pumps and booster pumps. The op-
eration of the pumps and their ancillary equipment
is semi-automatic and sequence controlled to ensure
that start-up and shutdown procedures are correctly
implemented. When common booster pumps are in-
stalled, the system is interlocked to prevent the pumps
being connected to a running turbine. Booster pumps
are generally arranged to shut down automatically
when the condenser vacuum reaches a predetermined
level.
10.3.2 Liquid-ring type air pump
This is essentially a centrifugal displacement pump.
A multi-blade impeller revolves within an offset casing
which is partially full of water. The rotating impeller
throws the liquid outwards, resulting in a solid ring
of liquid revolving in the casing at the same speed
as the rotor, but following the shape of the casing.
Figure 4.40 shows how this alternately causes the
liquid to enter and recede from the interblade spaces
on the impeller. The provision of inlet and outlet
ports enables this pump action to be used for eva-
cuation of air from the condenser. The advantages
of this type of pump are that it is simple and reliable,
with large clearances on rotating parts, and no valves
or pistons.
10.3.3 Air ejector/pump systems
Figure 4.41 shows a typical arrangement, using air
as the motive to the ejector. The system comprises
an ejector stage and a liquid-ring pump stage, which
combines to give two stages of compression of the
condenser air/vapour mixture.
Figure 4.41 (a) illustrates the system when operating
to maintain vacuum in the condenser. The air/vapour
mixture from the condenser is first drawn through
the vapour cooler. This is a direct condenser which
receives recirculated seal water, of towns water qua-
lity. This cooler reduces the vapour quantity of the
mixture before compression by the ejector stage. The
ejector uses atmospheric air as the motive fluid and
compresses the air/vapour mixture to a pressure of
about 135-170 mbar.
383
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

NOZZLES

r\
SPINNER

BAROMETRIC
LOOP

CONDENSER
AIR
SUCTION

SEAL AND
AIR SEPERATION
TANK

RECIRCULATING
LIFT PUMP
bMMMMt^MM^MiUaMlHkt

DRAIN

COOLING AND MOTIVE WATER

AIR VAPOUR MIXTURE

USUAL NUMBER OF UNITS 3 x 50% OR 4 x 337,%

FIG. 4.39 Typical hydraulic air pump arrangement

384

PUMP INLET
INTERNAL INLET PORT
ALTERNATE PUMP DISCHARGE No. 1
C>
USE
FIG. 4.40 Typical liquid-ring type air pump
The condensate from the vapour cooler and the
compressed air/vapour mixture pass to the single-
stage liquid-ring pump, where the air is compressed
to atmospheric pressure and discharged to a separate
tank, along with the seal water. The tank is vented to
atmosphere, and there is also an air connection back
to the air ejector. Seal water in the tank is pumped
back to the vapour cooler and liquid-ring pump via a
CW-cooled heat exchanger.
For vacuum raising duties, the air ejector stage
is automatically isolated until a condenser pressure
of 85 mbar is attained. Figure 4.41 (b) illustrates the
flow paths necessary to achieve this duty.
If vacuum maintaining equipment is inadequate
for fast vacuum raising, booster pump arrangements
(similar to those described for hydraulic air pump
systems) are incorporated, these booster pumps are
arranged to shut down automatically at about 50
mbar.
Air extraction equipment
IMPELLER
ROTATION
INTERNAL DISCHARGE PORT
ALTERNATE PUMP DISCHARGE No. 2
AIR FLOW
WATER
10.3.4 Steam ejector/pump systems
Figure 4.42 shows a typical arrangement, using steam
as the motive fluid to the ejector. The system com-
prises an ejector stage and a two-stage liquid-ring
pump which combine to give three stages of com-
pression of the condenser air/vapour mixture for the
vacuum maintaining duty.
The condenser air/vapour mixture is first drawn
through a direct contact pre-condenser to reduce the
quantity of water vapour before compression by the
ejector. The pre-condenser uses main CW as the
cooling medium, which is drawn from a break tank
by the condenser vacuum, and sprayed into the
pre-condenser. The condensate from this condenser
is pumped to waste by a cooling water extractor
pump.
The motivating steam for the ejector is vent steam
from the de-aerator which would otherwise be dumped
to the main condenser. Since de-aerator pressure varies
385
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

VACUUM SWITCH

I5- VAPOUR
COOLER

hXW-
irfcs.'
CONDENSER

=fl
|
V VACUUM PUMP
\ STARTER SWITCH
1
BAROMETRIC
LOOP

VACUUM
PUMP

II ywvw\ ISEALWATER
J
RECIRCULATION
PUMP

CWOUT CWIN
(a) Vacuum maintaining operation

VACUUM SWITCH

A
I
I

-3- VAPOUR
COOLER

CONDENSER
HXtH-
WH >

-H
l _L
BAROMETRIC
LOOP

\ VACUUM PUMP
, STARTER SWITCH VACUUM
PUMP

II
COOLER
ISEALWATER
J RECIRCULATION
PUMP

COOLING WATER

TOWN WATER OR CONDENSATE

ELECTRICAL (b) Vacuum raising operation

AIR

AIR VAPOUR MIXTURE USUAL NUMBER OF UNITS 3 x 50% OR 4 x 33V3%

FIG. 4.41 Air ejector and liquid-ring pump vacuum systems

386
 Air extraction equipment

OVERFLOW
AND DRAIN

USUAL NUMBER OF UNITS 2 x 100%

COOLING WATER
DRAIN TOWNWATER OR CONDENSATE

STEAM

AIR VAPOUR MIXTURE

FIG. 4.42 Steam ejector and liquid-ring pump air extraction maintaining system

with load, a control valve maintains the steam pres-
sure to the ejector at a minimum pressure of 1.22 bar
which corresponds to the minimum operating pressure
of the de-aerator.
On leaving the ejector, the compressed condenser
air and ejector steam discharge to an inter-condenser
where the steam is condensed, and the remaining
air/vapour mixture passes to the liquid-ring pump.
The inter-condenser also uses the main CW as its
cooling medium which is drawn from a break tank
using the condenser vacuum. Condensate from the
inter-condenser is cascaded to the pre-condenser for
removal by the cooling water extraction pump. The
air/vapour mixture from the inter-condenser is passed
to the two-stage liquid-ring pump where it is com-
pressed to atmospheric pressure.
The liquid-ring pump operates with a recirculation
service water supply which comes from the service
387
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
tank. Water from the tank passes via a CW cooled
heat exchanger to the liquid-ring pump. For vacuum
raising duty, the ejector steam valve is isolated.
The advantages of this system are due to the
compression across the steam ejector, combined with
effective pre- and post-condensing which increases
the liquid-ring pump suction pressure. The reduced
mixture quantity handled by the pumps, therefore,
makes it economically attractive for vacuum holding
duties. However, the effect is to reduce the vacuum
raising capability of the liquid-ring stage, and larger
vacuum raising pumps are required with this system.
10.4 Quick-start plant requirements
10.4.1 Type of plant
More recently, a new design of liquid-ring pump has
led to improvements in the flexibility of air extraction
equipment by replacing the single-stage quick-start
CWIN
FIG. 4.43 Quick-start two-stage vacuum raising and maintaining unit
388
Chapter 4
unit with a two-stage vacuum raising and maintaining
unit.
This new unit (Fig 4.43) consists of two stages with
both rotors being mounted on a common shaft, a
seal water cooler, and an air/water separator. In the
hogging mode, only the first-stage vacuum pump op-
erates and it handles the entire system load, as con-
denser pressure is pulled down from atmospheric to
about 235 mbar(a). During hogging, the volume of
air handled by the first stage is greater than the inlet
capacity of the second stage, and is discharged through
a check valve into a separator and to atmosphere.
At approximately 235 mbar(a), the second-stage
vacuum pump handles the entire volume of gas dis-
charging from the first stage. Figure 4.43 illustrates
how the second-stage pump suction closes the check
valve, and the two-stage combination pulls the con-
denser down to operating pressure. The second stage
discharges into the separator and then to atmosphere
and, because the interstage pressure is sub-atmos-
pheric, the suction at the first stage of the pump can
be lower than 34 mbar(a).
AIR OUTLET
CONDENSATE
OVERFLOW
 Air extraction equipment

Other design differences incorporated in this sys- 5 yrs 15 yrs 25 yrs Totals
tem include stationary inlet and outlet ported cones /min
which fit inside a rotor, instead of suction and dis- Cost incurred (/min) 5000 15 000 40 000
charge end plates, and the provision of a plate-type
DCF at 5% 0.7835 0.4810 0.2950
titanium seal water cooler instead of a tubular cooler.
DCF at 10<Vo 0.6210 0.2394 0.0923

PV at 5% DCR (/min) 3918 7215 11 800 22 933

10.4.2 Starting times
The economics of sizing vacuum raising and main-
taining plant are described below, using an example
with figures taken from a typical power station study.
It identifies the possibility of vacuum raising and
maintaining plant size being determined by the quick-
start requirement referred to earlier. The costs per
start per machine incurred by holding the boiler in
the start condition whilst waiting for vacuum to be
raised are given as 600 per 20 minutes.
Expressed as cost per minute holding = 30/minute
Number of starts anticipated over
life of plant (25 years) = 2000
Assuming a typical distribution curve (Fig 4.44), deter-
mine the present value (PV) cost of quick-starting
over the 25 year life of the plant, for discounted
cash flow (DCF) discount rates (DCR) of 5% and
10%.
PV at 10% DCR (/min) 3105 3591 3692 10 388
At discount rates of 5% and 10%, the present value
costs of vacuum raising over 25 years is 22 933/min
and 10 388/min, respectively.
The options available are pumps A, B and C which
have corresponding pumping capacities in the ratio
of 3, 2 and 1. Table 4.8 indicates an evaluation which
was carried out on the three pump options and their
associated costs against pump A, which was chosen as
the datum design.
This study suggests that, by reducing the size of
the vacuum pumps, and hence the capacity available
for quick-starting, the vacuum raising time may be
increased without incurring an economic penalty.
Pump C, the lowest capacity pump option capable
of dealing with a leakage rate of 40 kg/h, appears
to be the best economic choice. However, no allow-
ance is made for the associated increases in turbine-
generator, feedheating, and condensing plant costs
necessary to ensure that a 40 kg/h air inleakage rate

HOLDING COSTS x 1 0 4
PER MINUTE

PLANT LIFE (YEARS)

FIG. 4.44 Typical 660 MW plant lifetime distribution costs incurred when holding boiler in start condition
during vacuum raising

389
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

TABLE 4.8
The economics of sizing vacuum raising and maintaining plant

Pump A B C

3 x 50% pump cost/unit, 148 500 132 000 81 000

Cost saving, DATUM - 1 6 500 - 6 7 500

Power per two pumps, kW 298.4 111.9 55.75

Power reduction, kW DATUM -74.6 -187
Cost saving at 1500/kW DATUM - 1 1 2 000 - 2 8 0 000
2
Space occupied, m DATUM -7.15 -12.54
Cost saving at 1260/m 2 DATUM -9010 -15800

Cost savings in terms of pump

size, power and space (1), DATUM 137 510 363 300

Quick start times, min 13 20 35

Additional times, min DATUM 7 22

For internal accounting

10% DCF is used, i.e.,
10 388/min

Cost of quick starting

(2), DATUM 72 716 228 536

Overall cost saving,

(1) - (2), DATUM 64 794 134 764

is not exceeded. These costs could offset the apparent
cost savings of 134 764.
It would appear that the intermediate vacuum
pump size (pump B) can meet the traditional vacuum
raising time of 20 minutes, and offers some cost
saving, although not as significant as pump C.
The extra pumping capacity of the option would
be more tolerant to any increases in air inleakage
above 40 kg/h, and therefore less emphasis would
need to be placed on achieving and sustaining low
air inleakage rates from the associated plant.
in pump design head, flow and speed. All geo-
metrically similar pumps have the same specific speed
which is calculated in non-dimensional units from
the following formula:
is = 27rn(q v ) 0 - 5 /60(gH) 0 7 5
where n = pump speed, r/min
Qv flowrate per impeller eye, m3/s
H generated head per impeller, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

There is no firm demarcation between the various

pump types. Each merges into the next, so that for
11 Hydraulic aspects of centrifugal
a given specific speed there can be two pumps of
pumps differing construction. However, specific speed can
be defined as falling into the following categories:

11.1 Specific speed Type of pump Specific speed range

Centrifugal pumps are traditionally divided into three (ISO notation)
basic types: radial flow, mixed flow and axial flow. Radial flow 0.2 to 1.8
The names indicate the direction of flow of liquid Mixed flow 1.8 to 3.0
through the impeller. The term specific speed (ns)
can be used as an aid to the classification of the Axial flow 2.8 to 8.0
pump type and is indicative of the shape of the im-
peller and the pump hydraulic characteristics (Figs It is evident from Fig 4.45 that to optimise the hy-
4.45 and 4.46), which are taken from Steponoff [19]. draulic selection on an efficiency basis, a specific
The expression involves the three fundamental factors speed around 0.8 is necessary. For high-head large
390

EFFICIENCY % 70
FIG. 4.45 Pump efficiency versus specific speed and pump size
flow pumps, optimum efficiency when using low
speed prime movers necessitates a large number of
stages.
By comparison, efficiency optimisation could be
achieved by using single-stage high speed machines.
Both these extreme options, however, can have their
own potential disadvantages. The high speed ma-
chine can lead to excessive impeller tip speeds and
consequential erosion problems, while the slow speed
arrangement results in a flexible shaft design unable
to cater for transient operational requirements. Thus
the pump hydraulic design is usually a compromise
to take account of all relevant factors, including
mechanical limitations and suction head considerations.
The effect of moving away from best efficiency can
be seen in Fig 4.46. A specific speed below optimum
reduces the peak level of efficiency, but there is a
consequential improvement in the spread of higher
efficiency. This can be of use when plant is required
to operate frequently over a large flow range.
Moving to high specific speeds is seen to produce
a steeper head/flow characteristic. This can be ad-
vantageous when operating pumps in parallel as it
minimises the risk of unstable operation. One dis-
advantage of the high specific speed designs is the
shape of the power/flow characteristic which can be
highest at closed valve. This results in excessive motor
ratings to cater for start-up requirements.
Hydraulic aspects of centrifugal pumps
Over 10OOOgpm
"lOOOOgpn^H
1
1.0
SPECIFIC SPEED n
11.2 Net positive suction head
The net positive suction head (NPSH) is an im-
portant concept in judging the suction behaviour of
a centrifugal pump. A distinction needs to be made
between the NPSH available to the pump and the
NPSH required by the pump.
The NPSH available is the difference between the
inlet head to the pump and the saturation pressure
of the liquid being handled. As the available NPSH
is reduced, cavitation commences, first at flowrates
away from best efficiency and eventually over the
complete operating range. This is a result of the local
pressure falling to the vapour pressure of the liquid
at the particular temperature condition. Operation
in a cavitating mode for extended periods results in
erosion damage, regardless of impeller material. Feed
pumps with a high head per stage are most liable to
cavitation damage because of the higher energy input
to the fluid.
Cavitation performance breakdown has been shown
to be directly proportional to (shaft speed)2 for a
centrifugal impeller. It has also been shown that the
head drop at which unacceptable cavitation damage
in pump impellers occurs, increases with pump speed.
From these findings, it is evident that the suction
head levels needed for high speed pumps are signi-
ficantly greater than those for lower speed machines.
391
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

200-
>w 6
\7

180-

160-
. 5
kW*2
140-
75 4
HEAD %
EFFICIENCY % U\5 OF NORMAL
OF NORMAL 16 120- 3
7 ?_ -
50
-^" ""
J
^3

7V '5
25 50 75 100 125 25 50 75 100 125

CAPACITY % OF NORMAL CAPACITY % OF NORMAL

EFFICIENCY HEAD-CAPACITY

250
.7
CURVE SPEED PUMP TYPE

u 1 0.33
2 0.55
150 3 0.80 DOUBLE
BRAKE 4 1.10 SUCTION
HORSEPOWER % 1 5 1.46
OF NORMAL
100
i3
lb 6 2.09 SINGLE
[4 ^ "^6 7 3.37 SUCTION
50 ->
7

X
50 75 100 125 150

CAPACITY % OF NORMAL

BRAKE-HORSEPOWER

FIG. 4.46 Effect of specific speed on head power and efficiency

The minimum NPSH required can be defined as that
value of NPSH needed by the pump under long term
load conditions to prevent the occurrence of harmful
cavitation effects, in particular that required to avoid
cavitation damage and ensure satisfactory operation.
Normal practice for determining the NPSH re-
quired to limit cavitation damage to an acceptable
level is based on head drop tests. For high duty feed
pumps, the assessment of visual test data is now also
used as an additional means of assessing the adequacy
of NPSH margins.
The NPSH head drop test can be included as
a standard proof of performance test, with mea-
surements being taken to establish the NPSH at
which a 3% drop in generated head occurs. From
data available, it is considered prudent to provide
for feed pumps at least 3 x 3 % head drop NPSH
392
to avoid cavitation problems [20].
Visual cavitation tests are carried out on a special
test facility, where, for example, a perspex window
allows an uninterrupted view of the impeller eye, and
enables visual observations to be made under
stroboscopic lighting. This is an important tool,
allowing the exact cavitation inception point to be
determined, which effectively defines the zero cavi-
tation damage line. Although observations of the
pressure face of the blade are difficult, this problem
can be overcome by using acoustic inception tech-
niques to establish the onset of cavitation. When
checking NPSH adequacy using the visual technique,
current practice requires the available NPSH to have
a margin over the visual appearance NPSH, which
itself is associated with bubble cavities having an
agreed maximum length.

11.3 Suction specific speed
The term suction specific speed (n ss ) expresses the
suction capability of the pump impeller and is defined
by:
n ss = 27rn(q v )' 5 /60(gNPSH) 0 75
where n = pump speed, r/min
qv = flowrate per impeller eye, m 3 /s
NPSH = net positive suction head, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s 2
High numerical values of n ss are associated with large
impeller diameters and improved suction capabilities
around pump best efficiency (BEP). The large eye
diameter can, however, lead to problems of inlet
flow recirculation under off-duty conditions, with
consequential pulsations in the pump and adjacent
pipework. At flowrates away from BEP, incidence
causes flow separation within the impeller. This se-
parated flow is then directed backwards out of the
eye. The larger the impeller eye, the nearer to the
BEP is the flow at which this recirculation occurs.
To prevent the damaging effects of inlet flow re-
circulation, leak-off flowrates need to be sized so as
to ensure that pump throughput is always in excess
of the amount at which recirculation commences.
This applies particularly to both feed pumps and
extraction pumps.
In the absence of detailed information of pump
capability at the tender stage, the CEGB normally
requires that the suction specific speed based on the
NPSH available to the pump should be limited to
2.4 (ISO).
12 Circulating water pumps
12.1 Introduction
The structural design of main circulating water pumps
in the CEGB has changed over the last 20 years from
horizontal split casing double-entry designs to the
vertical spindle bottom inlet single-entry type. The
horizontal pumps, while easy to maintain, require a
large floor space, and the weight problems on the
larger units necessitated the use of multiple casing
castings. The alternative vertical spindle pumps, now
generally specified, have been developed for both
metal casing and concrete volute applications, with
the choice depending on the overall economics of
the installation. They have significant advantages
compared with the horizontal designs in terms of the
compactness and cost of mechanical, electrical and
civil engineering work.
Circulating water pumps
CEGB experience has been generally based on
hydraulic designs where the specific speed has been
limited to 1.6. This reduces the risk of both head/
flow characteristic instability and high powers at low
flows. It also gives a good efficiency spread over
the range of operating flowrates. The head/flowrate
and absorbed power characteristics are now controlled
by the following specification:
Pumps are designed so that the discharge head
falls continuously as the flowrate is increased from
zero to rated capacity by a minimum of 1 /o for any
15% increase in discharge flow.
The pumps are capable of sustained running at
any point on their head/flow curve from 25% to
the maximum runout condition.
The input power rises continuously as the flow
is increased from zero to the rated flowrate.
Circulating water pump speeds are normally in the
range 150-300 r/min. Low speed motors, suitable
for direct coupling to the pumps, are expensive and
it is usually economically justifiable to include a
step-down gearbox between the pump and motor.
The combined efficiency of a 1000 r/min high speed
motor and associated gearbox can be similar to the
low speed multi-pole motor. When comparing capital
costs of the two options, the costs of extra cranage
equipment and the additional civil work to support
the heavier motor have to be added to the direct drive
pumpset costs. The two main advantages of the direct
drive option are its simplicity, which can lead to higher
availability, and the elimination of any noise control
requirements arising from the high speed motor/
gearbox combination.
For flowrates over 10 m 3 /s, main cooling water
pumps are now based on the concrete volute type.
Below around 6 m 3 /s, it is impractical to consider
concrete volutes because of physical access limitations
in the mechanical seal area, and metal casing designs
have been used. Between 6 and 10 mVs the CEGB
have so far installed only metal casing pumps, al-
though concrete volutes have been successfully used
elsewhere.
12.2 Horizontal split-casing pumps
Double-entry horizontal split-casing type pumps (Fig
4.47) have been installed on CEGB stations to cover
a wide range of duties up to 18 m 3 /s and 24 m gen-
erated head. This design of pump has the major
advantage that the top section of casing and the
rotating element can be removed without breaking
either the pipe joints or disturbing the alignment.
While this feature gives good accessibility for both
overhaul and maintenance work, the horizontal design
393
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

FIG. 4.47 Horizontal split-casing extraction pump at Dungeness B power station

394

has a number of disadvantages apart from the large
floor area required. In particular, the preference for
installing the unit with the impeller eye below mini-
mum water level, to eliminate the need for com-
plicated priming equipment, results in expensive civil
excavations. The physical size of the large metal
casings has also brought about both manufacturing
difficulties and flexing problems with the complicated
assembly.
12.3 Vertical pumps
12.3.1 Vertical metal-casing pumps
Volute casing designs have been used by the CEGB
for pumping duties up to around 8 m 3 /s. On low head
coastal applications, standard gear-driven units have
been installed, while on the higher head inland cooling
tower applications, it has been possible to use a direct
motor drive while still retaining the same equivalent
specific speed as the equivalent gear-driven units.
Alternative bowl pump designs have been used
extensively on overseas applications. With this design,
the pump forms part of the piping and its intake is
from a relatively unsophisticated suction chamber;
it generally has a smaller civil engineering cost than
the equivalent concrete volute design. There is no
complicated volute to construct, and as the pump has
a smaller overall diameter than the concrete volute,
the pumphouse floor area is smaller. On the debit
side, the bowl pump arrangement has a much higher
mechanical pumping equipment cost.
Maintenance of the bowl pump is also difficult and
the crane normally has to be sized to take the total
pump weight for installation and overhaul. As the
pump is withdrawn vertically for major overhaul
work, a suction isolating valve is not required. This
however leads to a relatively long pump to facilitate
vertical isolation. One major technical disadvantage
of the bowl pump is the need for submerged shaft
bearing bushes. These are not readily accessible and
can have a relatively short life in silt-laden water.
Casting problems have tended to limit the size of
both the volute and bowl pump designs. The standard
use of cast iron necessitates the inclusion of sub-
stantial allowances on coastal units to allow for
corrosion/erosion effects over the life of the station.
12.3.2 Concrete volute pumps
Figure 4.48 shows the sectional arrangement of a
typical concrete volute pump, which follows the
same hydraulic principles as the conventional metal
casing designs except for the volute which is formed
on-site on the concrete foundations. The pump casing
consists of permanently-embedded top and bottom
seating rings separated by the cutwater and stay
vanes. These are carefully positioned over the inlet
Circulating water pumps
duct. The assembly then acts as both a sealing ring
for the top cover and also as a central location
around which the precision-made volute shuttering
framework is assembled prior to concrete pouring.
The volute shuttering is normally provided by the
civil contractor to the pump manufacturer's dimen-
sions, and can be re-used on all pumps on the same
contract. Figure 4.49 shows the various stages of
construction of the volute. From experience, it has
been found that no special protective coating is re-
quired on the concrete to guard against the effects
of the water being pumped. Both wear and life
expectancy of the concrete are excellent and no pro-
blems have been reported on CEGB pumps at inland
or coastal stations over a 20 year operating period.
A fabricated steel bearing bracket is mounted on
top of the pump cover and bolted down and dowelled
into position to secure correct alignment. The speed-
reducing gearbox is mounted on top of the bearing
bracket, with the unit incorporating the pumpset
forced lubrication system. The rotating assembly is
supported by a combined thrust and journal bearing
which can be located within the gearbox. Access to
the bottom bearing and mechanical seal is gained
from within the tubing.
12.4 Gearboxes
Gearboxes, when included on vertical pump units,
must be of the coaxial type with the pump, motor
and gearbox centrelines positioned vertically above
each other to ensure an equal load distribution on
the support ring.
Coaxial gearboxes may be either of the multi-
layshaft or epicyclic designs. With recent epicyclic
designs, it has been possible to combine the gearbox
and the pump by mounting the impeller on the low
speed output shaft of the gear unit (Fig 4.50). This
arrangement eliminates the need for one journal
bearing, which in turn reduces the overall height of
the pumpset leading to a more compact arrangement.
A further reduction in pumpset length is achieved
by combining the thrust collar into the coupling hub,
as shown in Fig 4.50.
The gearbox is equipped with a complete forced-
lubricating oil system to provide a continuous flow
of oil to the gear internals and the thrust and journal
bearings throughout the pumpset. The oil system
includes both gear-driven and standby motor-driven
oil pumps, and the piping and non-return valve layout
allows delivery of oil to the bearings and gears,
whichever direction the pump is rotating.
12.5 Shaft seals
Mechanical seals are included to prevent water es-
caping from the casing along the pump shaft. Split
395
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

TACHOGENERATOR -
-THRUST AND JOURNAL
BEARING

STATOR TERMINAL BOX

-MECHANICAL SEAL

PUMP CASING COVER

DISCHARGE-
FLANGE
IMPELLER

GUIDE VANE

FIG. 4.48 Bottom inlet single-entry impeller concrete volute pump

396

CONCRETE-IN TO
TOP OF FLANGE
PACKING ALLOWANCE
STAGE 1
m*
FIG. 4.49 Construction of concrete volute
type seal designs are used (Fig 4.51). All the com-
ponents which are subject to wear, are split into two
sections to permit inspection and replacement of worn
components to be carried out without any major
dismantling of the pumpset.
The seal needs to be provided with a clean supply
of flushing water which can either be filtered water
taken from the pump discharge or a separate towns
water supply. Figure 4.52 shows a typical seal flushing
arrangement on a coastal station, where the filtered
water is normally taken from the pump discharge
for flushing purposes while the pump is running. A
separate towns water supply is integrated into the
system which enables the seals to be flushed prior to
start-up and following shutdown. The towns water
supply is also available as a back-up supply during
pump operation should the seawater system fail as
a result of excessive pressure losses across the fil-
tration system.
The seal assembly also includes an additional in-
flatable static seal. This is operated by air and forms
a watertight joint around the shaft to allow disman-
tling of the main seal unit without dewatering the
pump. A secure source of air is required and the
use of a standby accumulator eliminates the need for
the station air supply to be available at all times.
Any water which leaks into the access well of the
concrete volute pumps is removed to the drainage
sump by either a small submersible pump or an air-
operated ejector system. These can be controlled
from float switches or an adjustable timer.
12.6 Pump testing
It is accepted practice to construct and test a scale
model of any large new circulating water pump design.
This is an economic method of evaluating the likely
Circulating water pumps
MILD-STEEL TUBBING
UP TO MOTOR FLOOR
PACKING
INTERMEDIATE STEP
BOTTOM OF VOLUTE CAST
STAGE 2
BEFORE SHUTTERING IS
FINALLY POSITIONED BUT STAGE 3
ONLY IF VOLUTE BASE IS FLAT
performance of the full size pump and the cost of
any corrections or adjustments is negligible com-
pared with making modifications to the full size pump
itself. Model tests enable the hydraulic characteristics
of the full size pump to be accurately predicted. This
is particularly relevant to concrete volute pumps which
cannot be works tested.
Scale models are also used to verify design pro-
posals for the suction intake to the pumps. The model
normally comprises the forebay, intake screen cham-
ber, draft tube, volute and discharge pipework. Com-
prehensive tests are carried out to demonstrate the
acceptability of the intake system over the complete
range of operating conditions, taking account of the
combinations of pumps operating and the variation
in suction water levels.
In determining the full size pump performance
from the results of the model tests, the normal affinity
laws are applied to demonstrate that the guarantees
on head and efficiency at the rated flowrate, and the
shape of the head/flow and power/flow character-
istics are likely to be met when the full size pump is
eventually tested on site.
Site tests on circulating water pumps are carried
out in accordance with CEGB Site Test Code No. 6.
To overcome any contractual problems in determining
head losses at suction and discharge, the pump is
deemed to be that part of the system from the open
water level at draft tube inlet to the discharge mea-
surement point.
Flow measurement is considered the most difficult
aspect of circulating water pump site testing, and
various methods are currently employed. On stations
with long straight open culverts, the current meter-
traversing technique has been found to give satis-
factory results and is relatively easy to install and
use. For other stations where there are no suitable
open channels, the isotope dilution method is widely
397
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

HIGHSPEED
COUPLING HUB

MAIN OIL PUMP

OIL INLET

ANNULUS RINGS

SUN WHEEL

PLANET CARRIER
PLANET WHEEL-
LOW SPEED HUB

JOURNAL BEARING

THRUST BEARING

FIG. 4.50 CW pump gearbox

used. This involves the injection of a tracer of
known concentration at a constant rate upstream of
the pump and measurement of the concentration at
a point downstream of the injection point where
adequate mixing will have taken place. The dilution
technique is completely independent of the velocity
of the pumped fluid, or the dimensions of the pipe-
work, and yields highly accurate results. The principal
disadvantage arises from the strict safety precautions
necessary when using radioactive tracers and the re-
sulting inflexibility of the test programme.
An alternative flow measurement technique now
developed is the use of ultrasonic flowmeters, with
multiple transmission paths being included to take

398

FACE CARRIER
ADAPTER PLATE
BELLOWS
FIG. 4.51 Pump shaft seal
account of the velocity profile across the flow path.
Although the measurement transducers have to be
installed with a high degree of accuracy to ensure
correct flow readings, the facility is then available for
use throughout the life of the station.
12.7 Materials
For fresh water applications, grey cast iron is suitable
for pump casings and delivery mains. However, for
seawater and silt-laden water conditions, severe ero-
sion and corrosion of the cast iron occurs. Although
generous allowances can be included in the material
thickness, these may not prevent the need for re-
placement of the cast iron parts during the life of
the station.
The use of austenitic ni-resist cast irons for the
casing material of cooling water pumps where severe
conditions exist is now increasing rapidly. This ma-
terial, particularly in its spheroidal graphite form,
Circulating water pumps
DRIVE ALIGNMENT
BOLTS
SPLIT O-RINGS
SEALING
STRIP
CLAMP RING
offers proven superior resistance to attack, with negli-
gible wear after several years' operation.
On concrete volute pumps, the built-in metal parts
must be suitable for the life of the station. Again,
while grey cast iron can be used for inland fresh-
water sites, austenitic ni-resist cast iron is required
for seawater applications.
Circulating water pump impellers are supplied in
stainless steel with renewable eye rings to cater for
the erosion effects in this close clearance/high ve-
locity area. Both 13/4 chromium-nickel steel and
18/10 chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steel have
been used successfully in freshwater and seawater
applications.
Pump shafts are normally made of carbon steel and
are fully protected by stainless steel sleeves through
the waterways. Special attention is required at the
sleeve/sleeve and sleeve/impeller joints to prevent
ingress of water onto the shaft surface, which can
cause corrosion fatigue. On horizontal pump designs,
overlapping sleeves and radial O-rings have been
399
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
FIG. 4.52 Typical seal water flushing system
introduced to cater for the effects of shaft static
and dynamic deflections. Mounting the mechanical
seal on top of the shaft sleeve permits seal refur-
bishment without slackening the sleeve nuts, with
resultant loss of axial compression.
13 Condenser extraction p u m p s
Two 100%-duty condenser extraction pumps are nor-
400
Chapter 4
COUPLING
BEARING
COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY
TO INFLATABLE MAINTENANCE
SEAL
SUBMERSIBLE DRAINS
PUMP
PUMP
IMPELLER
mally provided with the standby being ready for
immediate operation, when required. The extraction
pumps are designed to pump condensate from the
condenser at a saturation temperature corresponding
to the sub-atmospheric pressure within the conden-
ser. Under these conditions, the available positive
suction head is very low and suction conditions are
very stringent. The rotational speed of the pump and
the flow of condensate into the first stage impeller
should be kept as low as possible and the impeller
eye must have the maximum capacity for handling
 Condenser extraction pumps

water in order to provide the minimum NPSH re-
quirements and thus avoid unnecessary depth of the
extraction pumps below the condenser.
For many years, the CEGB relied on horizontal
split-casing type extractions pumps (Fig 4.53) and
these have generally given satisfactory service. The
generated heads developed by these pumps were mod-
est at around 100 m on 500 MW and early 660 MW
stations with direct-contact heaters.
With horizontal extraction pump designs, one of
the most important factors is the avoidance of oxy-
gen ingress into the condensate through glands which
may be required to seal against sub-atmospheric pres-
sures. A secure supply of seal water is necessary
and this is usually provided from a common mani-
fold which is supplied by connections in each pump
volute. This caters for both running and standby
conditions. Water from the manifold can also be used

INTERNAL WATER
SEALING PIPE

SLEEVE NUTS
DRIVE END BEARING
ORING

^ ^ . GLAND PACKING
( <y> ^ C O U P L I N G GUARD
>
^ ^ = ^ SUPPORT
OUTER IMPELLER SLEEVE

KLINGERITE" JOINT

INTERMEDIATE BEARING BUSH

INTERMEDIATE SLEEVE

SUCTION BRANCH
STEADY PIN

OUTER IMPELLER
SLEEVE

FIRST STAGE
DOUBLE SUCTION
IMPELLER

FIG. 4.53 Horizontal split-casing extraction pump

401
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
as a supplementary supply to any interstage water-
lubricated bearings.
To prevent the accumulation of vapour at the
impeller inlet, the first stage impeller eye of a hori-
zontal extraction pump should be vented back to the
vapour space in the condenser, with the vent piping
having an upward slope to the condenser.
In recent CEGB stations, where surface tubular
LP feedheaters are used, the required pump gen-
erated head has risen significantly to over 250 m.
This increase in head produces design problems on
large split-casing pumps, particularly in sealing the
main joint and withstanding impeller radial loads.
An alternative caisson type pump (Fig 4.54) has now
been adopted. The multi-stage vertical pump design
has several attractions over the horizontal split casing
pump:
The NPSH available is increased by installing the
pump in a pit, thereby reducing the risk of cavita-
tion erosion.
An increase in the NPSH available allows the
speed to rise, resulting in a smaller pump for the
same NPSH margin.
There is no need to take static shaft deflections
into account on the vertical pump. Radial stresses
are reduced allowing a slimmer shaft to be used.
Only a single mechanical seal is required which
operates under pressure, providing less danger of
the oxygen ingress that was sometimes encountered
with the older traditional pumpsets. To prevent
oxygen ingress while the pump is on standby, the
inner seal chamber is filled at all times with pres-
surised water supplied either from the common
discharge manifold or from a back-up reserve feed-
water supply when both pumps are stopped.
There is a facility for a cartridge-type repair which
improves pumpset availability. The pumps are
designed so that, by disconnecting the pipework
at the discharge branch, the pump element can
be readily removed from the caisson in one piece
following removal of the electric motor.
A more compact layout can be achieved with the
vertical pumps which take less space than the hori-
zontal designs.
To ensure that the extraction pumps have stable
head/flow characteristics and are capable of operating
in parallel over the complete operating range, the
pumps are now designed so that the generated head
rises by at least 1% for every 15% reduction in
flowrate between the rated duty point and 25% rated
flowrate.
Extraction pumps on CEGB stations have been
operated on either free suction or recirculation control.
402
Chapter 4
The latter is now preferred, as it ensures an adequate
pump throughput even at low unit loads. This mini-
mises the risk of the cavitation erosion problems,
which can occur on the alternative arrangement if
the pumps are operated significantly away from their
duty points.
Pumps are specified with a requirement that cavita-
tion erosion does not produce mechanical failure or
loss of performance in less than 45 000 hours when
operating at 80% of rated flowrate. To ensure this
objective is achieved, the suction specific speed (nss)
is limited to 2.4 (ISO).
14 Boiler feed pumps
14.1 Introduction
The design and arrangement of boiler feed pumps
has a significant impact on overall unit availability.
In determining the optimum arrangement of feed-
pumping plant, the economic assessment needs to
take account of capital costs, capitalised running
costs, repair and maintenance costs, and the likely
effects of loss of availability. Other constraints which
should be considered are:
The need to ensure that failure of a single pumpset
does not impair the start-up of the main unit or
affect output capability. Standby capacity equiva-
lent to the largest duty pumpset is indicated with
a rapid start-up capability, sufficient to prevent
the loss of boiler drum level and consequent unit
trip.
The need to ensure that the plant is able to op-
erate satisfactorily during and after a large load
rejection by the turbine-generator unit. This re-
quires that the drives for the duty pumps and their
power supplies must be suitable for this operating
condition. Alternatively, a suitable rapid start/
standby pumpset is necessary.
The need to provide adequate NPSH margins,
taking into account that the pumps are supplied
from a direct contact heater (de-aerator), which can
be subject to pressure decay following a reduction
in turbine load.
There should be at least two pumpsets capable of
starting the unit. If a turbine drive is to fulfil this
function, then a steam supply independent of the
main boiler (i.e., an auxiliary boiler) is required.
If two or more pumps are required to operate
in parallel, then the pumpsets should be able to
accommodate run-out duties following loss of an
operating pump.
 Boiler feed pumps

MOTOR STOOL

CONE RING COUPLING LOCKNUT

FLEXIBLE COUPLING
COUPLING KEY

DETACHABLE PLATE VERTICAL THRUST AND

JOURNAL GUIDE BEARING

SPINDLE SEALING
ARRANGMENTAND
PUMP DELIVERY- LEAK-OFF SYSTEM

C_OF DELIVERY

MOTOR STOOL VENT PIPE

DRAIN
CAISSON

SOLEPLATE

TAPERED
PIPE

C_ OF SUCTION
DELIVERY
BODY

BUSH

DELIVERY
IMPELLER

TAPERED
DISTANCE PIECE

DISTANCE
PIECE

NUT

STUD

STEADY PINS

SUCTION BODY

BELL MOUTH

LOOSE BELLMOUTH

BEARING BUSH

FIG. 4.54 Vertical caisson extraction pump

403
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
The provision of sufficient pumping capacity to
meet flow requirements under all operational cir-
cumstances. It is normal practice to include a flow
margin to accommodate additional demand by the
turbine above its design rating during transient
flow disturbances. A margin on pump generated
head is also appropriate to cover for deterioration
resulting from internal wear during periods between
overhaul. In the interests of keeping pumpset sizes
and powers to a reasonable minimum, consistent with
maintaining the pump best efficiency close to the
duty point operation, these margins have been
optimised as 5% on flow and 3% on generated
head.
14.2 Feed pump developments
Boiler feed pumps installed on early 500 MW units
DELIVERY
GRAYLOC SEALING RING
COVER PLATE
MECHANICAL SEAL
BEARING HOUSING
BALANCE VALVE COVER
CARTRIDGE ALIGNMENT PAD
COOLING WATER CONNECTIONS
FIG. 4.55 500 MW main boiler feed pump
404
Chapter 4
were typically as shown in Fig 4.55; they included a
long flexible shaft with about six stages and the resi-
dual thrust from the impellers taken by a conven-
tional balance disc arrangement. The bearings were
mounted on separate pedestals which had to be re-
moved before the main pump internals could be with-
drawn. Glands were of the fixed labyrinth or floating
ring type, and the main bolted casing joint was sub-
jected to full discharge pressure.
With these designs, loss of water or reduction in
NPSH (even momentarily) is likely to lead to metallic
contact resulting in pump seizure. The bolted casing
joint arrangement then results in a substantial outage
for replacement of the pump internals.
To overcome the shortcomings of the multi-stage
flexible shaft design of feed pump, and with an
awareness of overall economic considerations, a new
concept was developed with the emphasis on achieving
maximum availability coupled with a design life of
ANTI SWIRL VANE
SUCTION STOPPER ASSEMBLY
ROTATION
1st STAGE IMPELLER
DISTANCE RING
(MIDDLE BODY)
WATER COOLED
SUPPORT PAD

at least 45 000 h for all components. The essential
features were a rugged high speed unit capable of
surviving dry running and thermal shock operation
without damage, and having a cartridge construction
that permitted rapid replacement of the complete
rotor/stator assembly.
A dry running capability, which forms part of the
design specification, means that the pump must be
capable of accepting either of the following conditions
without damage:
A transient reduction in suction pressure for as
long as a pump continues to deliver and generate
a substantial head. After this the pump is expected
to accept, without distress, the re-establishment
of normal suction conditions with no necessity for
pump shutdown.
A complete loss of water due to incidents such
as the inadvertent complete closure of the suction
valve. In this extreme case, it is recognised that
the pump should be shut down and only restarted
after it has been fully reprimed.
These requirements have been met by the develop-
ment of an advanced class pump which incorporates
the following basic features:
A substantially stiffened shaft with the number of
stages reduced, preferably to two but not more
than three, giving improved rotor rigidity and lower
shaft deflections.
Internal clearances enlarged to ensure that the
pump is capable of dry running without damage.
Replacement of the heavy externally-bolted dis-
charge cover by an internal self-sealing high pressure
joint system.
Use of a balance drum to oppose the axial hydrau-
lic thrust, with residual unbalance being carried by
an external oil-lubricated thrust bearing.
Cartridge' design, permitting rapid replacement of
the pump internals with a spare element (an alter-
native design was also developed using the concept
of removal and replacement of the complete pump
unit, having a special bolted arrangement on the
adjacent suction and discharge pipework).
The result of the stiff shaft is that, even with the
maximum permitted worn internal clearances, the
rotor transverse critical speeds in water are well above
the operating speed range. This permits relatively high
rotational speeds (typically in the range 6500-8700
Boiler feed pumps
r/min) to achieve the necessary high head per stage.
Slow speed booster pumps are therefore required to
provide sufficient NPSH to limit cavitation problems
on the main pump.
With regard to NPSH, a conservative design ap-
proach was adopted. De-aerator storage tank height
and suction pipework layout were arranged to pro-
vide a substantial margin of NPSH over the measured
pump 3% head drop NPSH, even under the worst
transient situation.
14.3 Advanced class feed pump construction
The pump casing consists of a forged steel barrel to
which are welded the suction and discharge branches.
Extensive areas have stainless steel cladding to give
protection against erosion. Supporting feet are ar-
ranged at the centreline to give positive restraint to
movement upwards and downwards and yet allow-
ing for free thermal expansion. Sliding keys control
thermal movement and maintain alignment with the
drive.
The pumps have all their bearings, both thrust
and journal, in housings supported off the pump
casing or internal cartridge. This makes the pump
more immune to the effects of pipework loads and
minimises the effects of shaft misalignment.
The 'cartridge' inner pump assembly, complete with
integral bearings, is designed so that it can readily
be transported to a suitable maintenance area as a
package unit. The cartridge components are pre-
assembled on a manufacturing jig so that no subse-
quent adjustment is necessary to ensure component
concentricity, and minimal adjustment is required to
achieve the necessary degree of coupling alignment
after the cartridge is installed in the pump barrel.
On insertion into the barrel, the suction and dis-
charge ends are slid apart and located at their res-
pective ends of the barrel. Three joints are made
during this operation; the suction ring section and
main cover joints. Although different designs of
pump have been adopted (Figs 4.56 and 4.57), car-
tridge replacement follows the same strict methodical
procedure.
To ensure rapid cartridge changeover, the normally
heavy externally-bolted discharge cover arrangement
has been replaced by an internal self-sealing high
pressure joint system. Rapid replacement of the car-
tridge necessitates the use of specially designed with-
drawal gear as illustrated in Fig 4.58.
The impellers are of high quality precision-cast
stainless steel, with the castings subject to extensive
radiographie inspection and stringent dimensional
control to ensure repeatable cavitation performance.
The first stage impellers are designed to have a ca-
vitation life of 45 000 hours when operated in the
range 80-100% of the rated flow.
405
406
SEAL CLAMP
RING RING

SHEAR
RING

AXIAL
POSITION
INDICATOR
COILS
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant

DISCHARGE
COVER

FIG. 4.56 Advanced class feed pump (Drax Completion)

Chapter 4
 Boiler feed pumps

REAR
COVER

SUCTION
INLET T F|RS

\ ? FRONT GU.DEWHEEL

SEAL HOUSING AND

GLAND SLEEVE

INNER RING
BELLOWS
REAR COVER
CLAMP
BAFFLE PLATE

OIL DRAIN
CONNECTION

WATER DRAIN
CONNECTION

THRUST
PAD

PUMP FOOT
OIL
OUTLET

BALANCE
GLAND SEAL' BUSH
PLATE LAST
GUIDEWHEEL

FIG. 4.57 Advanced class feed pump (Heysham 2)

Diffusers can be either axial or radial; both ar-
rangements have been successfully used on advanced
class feed pumps. The inclusion of axial diffusers
avoids the generation of large pressure pulses between
the impeller and diffuser blades, which on these high
head per stage machines could constitute a fatigue
hazard. Alternatively, radial diffusers result in better
head/flow stability characteristics. They also give a
slightly higher peak efficiency than the axial design,
although this can be masked by the effects of gland
leakage losses.
Forced cooling of feed pumps has been provided
on stations where there is not full standby capacity,
and where power generation is lost following the
outage of the main 100% feed pump. Forced cool-
ing reduces pump downtime and enables the machine
to be returned to service and full generation to be
restored, as soon as possible.
14.4 Axial thrust
The balance drum and external thrust bearing has
proven to be a more reliable device than the balance
disc, and this has led to its widespread adoption on
large boiler feed pumps.
Normal practice is to react around 95 % of the
impeller axial load by the balance drum, leaving the
remaining 5% to be carried by the double-acting
tilting pad type oil-lubricated thrust bearing. This ar-
rangement gives the essential security against vapor-
isation or foreign matter compared with the balance
407
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
HYDRAULIC PUMPS
FIG. 4.58 Cartridge withdrawal equipment
disc device. The preferred practice is to ensure that
the residual thrust is unidirectional to avoid any pos-
sibility of axial shuttling. This is essential for pumps
with mechanical seals to prevent possible over/under
loading of the seal faces.
Theoretical formulae have been derived to calcu-
late the range of the individual components of the
axial thrust over the complete flow range. Although
there may not be any large errors in the calculation
of these individual thrusts, care is required by the
designer to ensure that there is not an exaggerated
overall error which could lead to an overloading of
the thrust assembly. For all new designs, the CEGB
requires axial thrust tests to confirm that the thrust
bearing catalogue rating is never exceeded over the
complete range of the pump operating envelope, tak-
ing into account both the effects of pump overspeed
and internal wear. Measurements are taken using a
simple load cell attached to the pad carrier within the
thrust assembly.
408
Chapter 4
SWING JIB-.
WITHDRAWAL TROLLEY
HYDRAULIC RAM WITH EXTENSION
HYDRAULIC RAM
Thrust bearings (Fig 4.59) can be of the 'flooded'
or 'directed' lubrication type. For high speed appli-
cations, the directed arrangement offers considerable
power savings by significantly reducing parasitic churn-
ing losses. In addition, the directed arrangement pro-
vides an increased oil wedge thickness, which leads to
greater operational margins against bearing failure.
14.5 Gland sealing
Glands on early advanced class feed pumps were of
the labyrinth type, with fixed bushes and leak-in/
leak-out connections (Fig 4.60). Consideration was
given to the use of floating ring glands as these
would be more efficient than the fixed bush type
when new. They were, however, rejected as being
vulnerable to loss of water supply, they would not
comply with the specified dry running requirement.
Under dry running conditions, the fixed bushes op-
 Boiler feed pumps

SHAFT NUT THRUST PAD

PAD STOP THRUST COLLAR

JOURNAL BEARING

THRUST PAD

JOINT RING

END COVER

LOCKING PLATE

OIL THROWER

OIL OUTLET

FIG. 4.59 Arrangement of thrust and journal bearing

erate satisfactorily without an external supply of
sealing water, and no significant erosion damage will
occur when accepting flashing flow for short periods
of time.
A secure supply of gland injection water for the
labyrinth seals can be provided in one of two ways.
In the first, feedwater is tapped from the discharge
of the suction stage pumps and passed through a
cooler, where it is cooled by condensate. In the sec-
ond, the low temperature gland injection water is
409
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
STANDSTILL SEAL
COVER
INTERMEDIATE
PLATE
HYDRO GLAND
BUSH
WATER THROWER
LOCK-NUT-
STANDSTILL SEAL
FIG. 4.60 Labyrinth gland and standstill seal
taken from the condenser extraction pump discharge
and fed direct to the feed pump glands. The injection
pressure would be controlled at approximately one
bar above the gland unloading pressure. To cater for
start-up conditions and interruptions in the supply
from the condenser extraction pump, a back-up sup-
ply is available from a standby injection pump which
takes its source of water from the reserve feedwater
tanks.
Since the leakages through labyrinth seals are
relatively high, it can be desirable to reduce the
leakage flow when the pumps are stationary. This
is particularly relevant to standby feed pumps. There-
fore standby seals are included which operate when
the pumps come to rest. The standby seals consist of
three segments which are held together on the shaft
to form a closed seal when the pump is stationary.
They are opened by centrifugal force at a predeter-
mined speed to minimise rubbing contact during pump
operation. For base-load feed pumps, it is possible
to replace the centrifugal seal arrangement with an
extended labyrinth. This reduces on-load leakage losses
at the expense of higher leakage while the pump is
stationary. A labyrinth bush outboard of the injection
point controls leakage of water to a clean drains
vessel, from where it can be recovered to the system.
Problems with labyrinth glands on some earlier
feed pump designs led to a programme of conversion
to mechanical seals. These reduced the risk of tem-
perature stratification problems in the labyrinth area
410
Chapter 4
INLET GUIDE
of these long slender shaft designs, in addition to
minimising running and standby leakage. As a result
of the early satisfactory performance of mechanical
seals, there has been a progressive development of
mechanical seal systems up to the high speed vapour
lock requirements of the advanced class feed pumps.
Recent CEGB policy for new stations has been to
install mechanical seals on the starting and standby
feed pumps, while retaining labyrinth arrangements
on the main feed pumps. For a 3 x 50% pump ar-
rangement, mechanical seals are accepted where it
can be demonstrated that the seals have a design life
of at least 15 000 h.
A typical high duty mechanical seal arrangement
is shown in Fig 4.61. The 'cartridge' design enables
it to be assembled as a complete unit into the pump,
thus minimising installation errors. A pumping ring
is incorporated into the rotating part of the seal,
which circulates water around a closed loop, through
a heat exchanger and returning to the seal face area.
This recirculation enables the correct seal face tem-
peratures and stable face conditions to be achieved.
The heat exchangers are normally positioned above
the seals in order to obtain a good thermal syphon
effect during hot standby conditions. An inner cool-
ing jacket is also included to reduce the heat flow
into the seal chamber. In certain designs, the effec-
tiveness of this inner barrier eliminates the need to
thermal syphoning. A simple magnetic separator is
also installed into the seal pumping loop to ensure
 Boiler feed pumps

LOCK PIN

SEAL FLANGE
GASKET

SHAFT SLEEVE

O' RING

' RING SEAL FLANGE

BUSHING

DRIVE COLLAR

SET SCREW

SHAFT SLEEVE
GASKET

ROTATING FACE SHAFT

STATIONARY FACE

LOCK RING COIL SPRING

SEAL FLANGE SPRING HOLDER

GASKET

INNER SEAL BACK-UP

FLANGE RING
OUTER SEAL
FLANGE

FIG. 4.61 Mechanical seal

that any magnetic particles, which could abrade the
seal faces, are removed.
The face materials used on early feed pump seals
were tungsten carbide rotating against a stationary
carbon face. While this combination proved very sat-
isfactory on low speed applications, on certain high
duty seals a selective corrosion/erosion process was
found to occur on the tungsten carbide binder ma-
terial. This process can lead to excessive face wear
and premature failure. The reliability of feed pump
seals was improved by the introduction of silicon
carbide in place of tungsten carbide. Since silicon
carbide is chemically inert against conventional feed-
water additives, use of this material eliminates this
potential failure mode.
14.6 Pump layout and drive
The increasing head per stage in the high head boiler
feed pumps has resulted in the need for an NPSH
well in excess of that available, even from high level
de-aerators. This can be provided by slow speed boost-
er pumps, driven either separately or in tandem with
the pressure stage pump.
Separately-driven booster pumps necessitate the
use of a common discharge manifold to ensure that
at all times the pressure stage pumps, with their
independent prime mover, have sufficient NPSH to
prevent vapour locking in the event of failure of
one of the working booster pumps. This arrangement
(Fig 4.62) also requires any stationary booster pumps
to be protected with non-return valves, and the pres-
sure stage pump leak-off valves to be closed when the
pump is standing to prevent recirculation back to the
de-aerator.
Tandem sets (Fig 4.63) require less complex pipe-
work arrangements, less complex feed systems and
take up less turbine hall space. Being dependent on
a single drive, they are also more reliable than the
411
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

TO
DEAERATOR

PRESSURE
REDUCER

Q LEAK OFF
VALVES

-Oh
MAIN PRESSURE
STAGE PUMP

D W-

D
50% STARTING
AND STANDBY PUMPS

W-

FIG. 4.62 Feed pump arrangement with separately-driven feed suction pumps

arrangement with separately-driven booster and pres-
sure stage pumps.
For part-load operation, a fixed-speed booster
pump is preferred as it enables the NPSH to be
maintained as the load is reduced. Where pumps are
to be capable of operation well in excess of the rated
duty, variable-speed booster pump would provide
better cover for the pressure stage pump, although
this may require some increase in the NPSH available
to the booster pump itself.
The choice of unit often dictates the basic type
of drive to be employed. On 660 MW units, be-
cause of start-up problems, motor drives (even when
supplied from an 11 kV supply) are unacceptable
on technical grounds for pump trains substantially
greater than 60% MCR duty. Thus any 100% pump
group has to be driven by a steam turbine.
412
In assessing the number and capacity of pumps to
be employed, normal CEGB practice on fossil-fired
units has been to ensure that failure of a single pump
train must not impair the start-up of a unit or affect
output. This has led to the installation on most sta-
tions of a 100% turbine-driven set, plus 2 x 50%
motor-driven sets.
Back pressure turbines have been standard on
CEGB stations for feed pumping duties and these
have proved very reliable (see Chapter 1 for tech-
nical description). Back pressure turbines permit the
feed pumps to be driven at speeds in excess of
7000 r/min. The alternative condensing steam turbine
drives, while offering a potential improvement in
heat rate, are limited to less than 6000 r/min to
prevent last-stage blade erosion. Their use with two-
stage advanced class feed pumps would therefore

FIG. 4.63 Typical tandem feed pump arrangement
necessitate the additional complication of a step-up
gearbox.
The electric motor drive is simpler than the steam
turbine drive from both physical and operational
requirements. The pump can be used during any phase
of operation and the control arrangements are more
straightforward. Initially, slipring induction motors
with liquid resistance controllers were used to drive
50% feed pumps on starting/standby duties. In ad-
dition to providing variable speed, the resistance
controller on these units also limits the starting cur-
rent, which has a direct effect on starting torque
and run-up time. Slipring induction motor drives
have now been replaced by the fixed speed motor/
fluid coupling arrangement which has the following
advantages:
Boiler feed pumps
Better speed control resolution.
Greater motor reliability by the elimination of the
sliprings, brushgear and the liquid resistance con-
troller.
Elimination of frequent outages for brushgear
maintenance.
When using the fluid coupling, the power developed
by the driving motor is transmitted by the kinetic
energy of the oil flowing between the input impeller
and the output turbine of the coupling. The output
speed is controlled by the operation of an adjustable
scoop tube, which varies the quantity of oil transmit-
ting the torque between the input and output elements.
413
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
The overall unit (Fig 4.64) comprises, within the
casing, a fluid coupling and step-up gears. For the
high output speeds required on advanced class pumps,
step-up gearing is included on both the input and
output sides of the coupling.
The fluid coupling incorporates two separate oil
systems drawing from a common sump. One system
provides lubricating oil to the fluid coupling and to
the bearings of the booster and pressure stage pumps
and the driving motor. The oil is drawn from the
sump by a gear-driven pump with a motor-driven
pump provided for start-up and standby duties. In
the second system, oil used as the working fluid is
circulated by the dynamic head generated at the scoop
tip in a closed loop. Make-up for this closed loop is
provided by a gear-driven centrifugal pump during
normal operation and a motor-driven gear type pump
for starting and standby duties. Both circuits include
oil coolers.
14.7 Light load protection
The temperature rise across a pump is caused by
two separate phenomena; the isentropic compression
temperature rise and the rise generated by the in-
efficiency of the pump. As throughput diminishes,
efficiency falls and the temperature rises. If a pump
runs for any length of time without an adequate
flow of water passing through it, overheating will
occur which can lead to vapour locking. To prevent
this, a leak-off system is provided which opens auto-
matically at the minimum safe flow and allows the
pump to discharge to the de-aerator. Pressure in the
leak-off piping is broken down through a pressure
reducing vessel, which consists of a series of orifice
plates, and finally with an orifice plate positioned at
the inlet to the de-aerator and sized to avoid flashing
in the leak-off pipework.
Low throughput can also lead to random pressure
pulsations being generated by the pump. These can
excite low frequency resonances in the adjacent feed
system pipework, leading to unacceptable pipework
vibration. The minimum leak-off flow is therefore
chosen to minimise the risk of these effects and,
hence, to protect both the pump and the feed system.
Experience with high speed feed pumps indicates that
the leak-off quantity should be set to at least 25%
of pump best efficiency flow to avoid any pipework
vibration problems.
The configuration commonly used on CEGB stations
(Fig 4.62) consists of 2 x 100% parallel slide leak-off
valves, arranged in parallel, with a separate pressure
reducing vessel downstream of the valves. The ini-
tiation signal for leak-off valve operation is taken
from an orifice plate located in either the suction
or discharge pipework. Installation in the suction
pipework is preferred since this location senses total
pump throughput, i.e., the summation of forward
414
Chapter 4
flow to the boiler and the leak-off flow. Also, high
pressure differential tappings are not required in this
position.
Electrically-operated valve actuators have been used
on many stations but as failure of the electrical sup-
plies would render them inoperative and pump pro-
tection would be lost, the electrical supply for each
valve is taken from separate station switchboards to
improve security. In recent years, improvements in
electropneumatic systems have resulted in a preference
for this fail-safe method of actuation, where the
valves open on loss of air supply. A further advantage
of the pneumatic system is that the speed of opera-
tion is readily adjustable.
To provide maximum protection to the pump and
piping system under all foreseen operating conditions,
the valves must be capable of opening rapidly. On
the other hand, very fast opening can lead to un-
acceptable shock loadings on the feed system. From
experience, valve opening times of up to 15 s have
been found acceptable, dependent on the feed system
layout. Consequently, valve actuators need to include
a facility for varying and resetting the opening/closing
times after installation, to suit local conditions and
operating practices.
To permit on-load maintenance of the leak-off
system, sufficient manual isolating valves are included
and any parts subject to in-service wear, for example,
leak-off valve seats, are designed to be readily re-
placeable without cutting or re welding the pipework.
All isolating valves should have a locking facility to
avoid malfunction.
14.8 Testing
CEGB specifications require that the 100% main
boiler feed pump is tested at a load corresponding
to turbine MCR to prove conformity with the guar-
antee, and also at part-load to confirm that the
pump performance characteristics are satisfactory.
Site tests, however, are of necessity late in the station
construction programme, so that any shortfalls in
pump performance found at this stage would cause
disproportionately large disturbances in the overall
construction target. Alternative works testing is there-
fore required to demonstrate that the pump perform-
ance is acceptable before any systematic site testing,
which is interrelated with the station as a whole, is
commenced.
For steam turbine driven pumps, it is not practical
to specify full works testing and instead part-speed
interim hydraulic performance tests are carried out at
the manufacturer's works to demonstrate that the
pumps have reasonable prospects of achieving their
specified requirements on site in terms of rated duty
and hydraulic characteristics. These interim tests are
followed by full-load acceptance tests on site with the
plant in service.
 BEARING
HOUSING

RUNNER
OUTPUT ASSEMBLY
SCOOP
ADJUSTMENT IMPELLER
SPEED CONTROL COVER LIFTING LUG
INPUT ASSEMBLY

VIEW ON ARROW'X OUTPUT SHAFT

STANDBY OIL
OIL LEVEL GAUGE PUMP FILTER

OIL FILLER CAP

MOTOR DRIVEN
STANDBY OIL PUMP

MAIN OIL
PUMP FILTER SCOOP
UNIT LIFITNG LUG

- _ - SCOOP CHAMBER
ff/yS OIL OUTLET
Uj TO COOLER
ALIGNMENT
JACKING SCREW

LUBRICATING
OIL FILTER

OIL SUMP LOW LEVEL

WARNING SWITCH

OIL SUMP TANK

OIL OUTLET
TO COOLER
ALIGNMENT
JACKING SCREW

415
Boiler feed pumps

FIG. 4.64 Fluid coupling construction

Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
Manufacturers works test facilities are generally
suitable for full-load acceptance testing of electrically-
driven feed pumps. The suction and pressure stage
pumps are first tested individually to confirm the
head/efficiency guarantees, the 3% head drop cavita-
tion performance guarantees, and the shape of their
hydraulic characteristics. These are followed by testing
of the complete pumpset, including the motor and
gearbox/fluid coupling assembly. In each case, hydraulic
performance tests are undertaken using the method
of measurement laid down in BS5316 [21].
Hydraulic output control tests are included on
electrically-driven pumpsets to determine the thres-
hold response, repeatability and input/output char-
acteristics of the fluid coupling arrangement. For
starting/standby feed pumps, tests may also be re-
quired to demonstrate compliance with run-up time
guarantees. These would include the time from test
to full-speed and also acceleration from part-speed
conditions.
For new pump designs, supporting tests are required
to demonstrate that the plant offered will satisfactorily
accommodate any possible thermal shock, vapour lock
or axial thrust condition that can arise during op-
eration. In addition, a visual cavitation test is carried
out on the pressure stage first-stage impeller to de-
monstrate compliance with NPSH visual cavitation
guarantees.
The thermodynamic method of determining pump
efficiency has now been successfully applied to CEGB
feed pumps. This method compares the isentropic
enthalpy rise across the pump with the measured
enthalpy rise, and has the advantage over the con-
ventional torquemeter method in that it is suitable
for continuous on-line monitoring of plant perform-
ance. Accurate measurements of the temperature and
pressure parameters at pump suction and discharge
are required, and suitable equipment is now installed
on new plant. In calculating the thermodynamic
efficiency, losses resulting from gland sealing, balance
water, bearing friction and heat transfer have all to
be taken into account. These secondary losses can
be derived at the initial commissioning test by com-
paring the conventional torquemeter acceptance test
results with those obtained from the thermodynamic
method.
14.9 PWR feed pumpsets
The feed pump generated head requirement on a
water reactor unit is in the region of 900 m. This is
considerably lower than that necessary on a fossil-
fired station and allows the use of a single-stage
double-entry pump. Changing to the simpler double-
entry design, eliminates the need for any balance
drum to react against large impeller loadings. This
leads to an improvement in pump hydraulic efficien-
cy compared with the equivalent multi-stage pump
416
Chapter 4
design, and a reduction in internal leakage losses.
The adoption of a 3 x 50% arrangement, with
booster pumps driven in tandem to provide the
necessary NPSH, is in line with overseas practice. The
use of fixed-speed motors and fluid couplings is well
within the experience of plant already operating on
starting/standby duties on CEGB fossil-fired stations.
Double-entry feed pumps (Fig 4.65) can retain all
the features of advanced class construction, i.e., a
stiff shaft, Cartridge' design, with vapour lock and
thermal shock capability. The provision of mechani-
cal seals is intended to minimise leakage in the
running and shutdown modes without prejudicing
pumpset reliability. The seals themselves are designed
to have a minimum life of 15 000 h between over-
haul. A Cartridge' seal assembly reduces downtime
for any seal maintenance and minimises installation
type faults.
To prevent any axial shuttling of the shaft, which
could damage the mechanical seals, a deliberate im-
peller wear-ring diameter differential is introduced
to create a known unbalanced unidirectional thrust
which is taken by an external thrust bearing. To cater
for radial loadings acting on the pump, the casing
designs can either include radial diffusers or are of
the double volute type.
14.10 Future trends
The CEGB has placed great emphasis in recent years
on design to achieve maximum availability. This has
led to the provision of robust advanced class pumps
with 10097 standby capacity and substantial spares
provisions. The alternative overseas policy, by com-
parison, has tended towards low pump costs and a
premium on high hydraulic efficiency. This has
necessitated very tight internal running clearances and
resulted in pumps having less margin against rubbing
and seizure than the advanced class design, and an
inability to withstand vapour lock or thermal transient
conditions.
A comparison of operating experience has demon-
strated the effectiveness of providing rugged reliable
feed pumps and highlighted the strong financial in-
centives of installing spare capacity to maximise feed
pump availability. It is now evident that overseas
ultilities are moving towards CEGB practice.
When determining standby requirements, the cur-
rent trend is to provide 3 x 50% pumpsets. This
arrangement meets the basic objectives listed in the
introduction to this section and achieves them on
larger fossil-fired plant without any excessive extra-
polations of existing technology, by taking maximum
advantage of UK manufacturer's international ex-
perience to produce reliable plant.
A 3 x 507o configuration with quick-start variable-
speed motor-driven units represents a low capital and
through life cost option for a practical plant arrange-

FIG. 4.65 PWR feed pump
ment. It also provides a simple layout with complete
interchangeability. The advantages of this form of
drive compared with the fixed speed motor/fluid
coupling package or the turbine drive options, are
fully discussed in Chapter 2.
In assessing feed pump designs for any new gen-
eration of larger fossil-fired units, it is envisaged
that feed pumps incorporating advanced class con-
cepts will be continued, but with a limitation on
impeller speed to minimise risks of impeller erosion
during off-duty operating conditions. A likely eco-
nomic solution is a three-stage machine with booster
pump, resulting in a speed where both condensing
steam turbines and inverter-fed variable-speed motor
drives become viable options. By reverting to a three-
stage design (Fig 4.66) and decreasing the head per
stage, there are further benefits to be gained in terms
of a relaxation of pumpset NPSH requirements. This
can lead to a drop in the necessary height of the
de-aerator with consequent reductions in station civil
costs.
The development of lightweight hydraulic ten-
sioning gear for high tensile bolting permits the re-
introduction of bolted cover joints in place of the
self-sealing joint arrangements, without significantly
affecting the time to change cartridges. An additional
benefit from the production viewpoint is that the
Miscellaneous pumps
THRUST
BEARING
SHAFT
SLEEVE
very tight control of axial tolerance build-up on all
components relating to the self-seal joint, which is
necessary to achieve complete interchangeability of
cartridges and barrels, is relaxed. There are also ma-
jor cost savings to be obtained from the simpler bolted
discharge cover incorporating spiral-wound sealing
gaskets.
15 Miscellaneous pumps
15.1 Service water pumps
In every power station, there are a large number of
pumps supplying service water to main plant items
and as part of auxiliary systems, e.g., water treatment
plant. These pumps can be classified under two se-
parate categories, pipeline-mounted pumps and sump
pumps.
Pipeline-mounted pumps up to around 0.1 m 3 /s
and 160 m head can be supplied as either horizontal
end suction or vertical in-line designs. In both in-
stances interchangeability is important and pumps are
manufactured to standard dimensions. End suction
designs are covered in BS5257 [22]. These pumps
417
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant
PULL-UP RING
SUCTION CLOSURE
SHAFT
SUCTION
BRANCH
FIG. 4.66 Modern feed pump construction
should include a back pull-out feature which greatly
assists maintenance activities with no disturbance of
pipework during dismantling. The use of spacer coupl-
ings eliminates the need for removal of the motor
during work on the pump.
Vertical in-line pumps are detailed in BS4082 [23].
All pumpsets in this range are close-coupled, with
the pump impeller mounted directly onto an extended
motor shaft (Fig 4.67). This arrangement requires a
special motor with a non-standard shaft and stronger
bearings to carry the pump hydraulic forces. Although
there is an initial cost penalty compared with the
equivalent end suction designs, the vertical pumpsets
take up less floor space and experience indicates
they are more reliable and require significantly less
maintenance. This is attributed to several factors,
including the elimination of coupling alignment pro-
blems which can result in a reduced seal life.
Larger pipeline pumps are of the horizontal split-
418
Chapter 4
BUILD RING
MAIN COVER
JOINT
casing type as described in Section 12 of this chapter.
In the past, sump pumps have been of a design in
which the pump casing was suspended into the sump
from columns, the impeller being driven from a high
level motor through a long multi-bearing shaft sys-
tem. This design caused severe problems when pump
failure occurred, particularly that of dismantling,
which is difficult and often very complicated.
Increasing use is now being made of submersible
sump pumps (Fig 4.68), particularly for low and me-
dium power outputs. Ease of withdrawal and replace-
ment are good and reliability excellent, considering
the arduous conditions often associated with sump
drainage work.
15.2 Chemical injection pumps
These are used to pump a measured quantity of

COMMON
MOTOR/PUMP SHAFT
RENEWABLE
SHAFT SLEEVE
FIG. 4.67 Vertical in-line pump construction
chemical into the boiler feed water. The pump must
retain repeatable accuracy over long periods and po-
sitive displacement designs are used for this pur-
pose, built with suitable corrosion-resistant materials.
The principle of operation of a normal metering
pump is that a plunger displaces a certain amount
of liquid with each stroke. Liquid is drawn into the
pump head through a non-return valve and displaced
out of another non-return valve. The gear drawing
the plunger has a mechanism for altering the stroke
length to effect a variation in pump delivery, there-
by allowing close control of the amount of chemical
injected. The positive displacement action results in
a series of pulsations of flow rather than a steady
feed. This can be smoothed out, if necessary, by the
Miscellaneous pumps
MECHANICAL SEAL
RENEWABLE
WEARING RINGS
use of an air vessel.
15.3 Fire pumps
Fire pumps are of simple robust construction to
ensure high reliability when called upon to operate
in an emergency. The pumpsets are usually self-
contained packages driven by diesel engines with the
start-up motors supplied from a local battery pack.
Water for engine cooling is taken from the pump
discharge. Shaft leakage is controlled by traditional
soft-packed glands rather than the more sophisticated
mechanical seals. This eliminates any risk of enforced
shutdown which could arise from failure of a me-
chanical seal.
419
Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Chapter 4

CAST IRON STATOR

HOUSING

CAST IRON
PUMP HOUSING

IMPELLER

FIG. 4.68 Submersible pump construction

16 References [7] Steel, T. F. (CEGB): 'The Thermal Design of Condensers

[1] CEGB:'Chemical control of boiler feedwater, boiler water and
saturated steam for drum-type and once-through boilers': Genera-
tion operation memorandum (GOM)72 Issue 4: 1975
[2] Popplewell and Bates: 'Corrosion Performance of some Copper
Alloy Condenser Tube Materials in Ammoniated Condensate':
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Paper 102, Cor-
rosion: 1974
[3] 'Titanium Information Bulletin': Imperial Metal Industries
(Kynoch) Ltd.: 1974
[4] Hanson, C. F.: 'Materials in Power Plant': Institute of
Metallurgists, 98-103: April 1975
[5] 'Standards for Steam Surface Condensers': The Heat Exchanger
Institute (HEI)
[6] 'Publication on the recommended practise for the design of
surface-type steam condensing plant': The British Electrical
and Allied Manufacturers Association (BEAMA)
from the users point of view'; taken from a report of a meet-
ing at NEL on the Thermal Design of Condensers: January
1966
[8] International Symposium on Condensers, Theory and Practice:
UMIST Manchester: March 1983.
[9] BS4360: Specification for Weldable Structural Steels: 1972
[10] BS1501: Specification for steels for fired and unfired pressure
vessels, Part 1 , Carbon and Carbon Manganese Steels: 1964
[11] BS1500 (Withdrawn), now BS5500: Specification for Unfired
Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels: 1976
[12] BS1515 (withdrawn), now BS5500: Specification for Unfired
Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels: 1976
[13] Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) Stand-
ards: Fourth Edition 1959, Fifth Edition 1968
[14] American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler

420
 References

and Pressure Vessel Code, Section 8, Divisions 1 and 2 of Specific Speed': Trans ASME: 1943
[15] CEGB: Performance of Surface-type Steam Condensers: Site [20] Grist, E.: 'Nett positive suction head requirements for avoid-
Test Code No. 3: 1981 ance of unacceptable cavitation erosion in centrifugal pumps':
[16] BS752: 'Test Code for Acceptance of Steam Turbines': 1974 IMechE C163: 1974

[17] CEGB: 'Steam Turbine-Generator Heat Rate Tests': Site Test [21] BS5316: 'Specification for Acceptance Tests for Centrifugal,
Code No. 2: 1978 Mixed Flow and Axial Pumps'
[18] American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME): 'Structural [22] BS5257: 'Specification for End-suction Centrifugal Pumps
Characteristics of Helical-Corrugated Heat Exchanger Tubes (16 bar)': 1975
by ASME': 1975 [23] BS4082: 'Specification for External Dimensions for Vertical
[19] Stepanoff, A. J.: 'Centrifugal Pump Performance as Function In-Line Centrifugal Pumps'

421
 C H A P T E R 5

Hydraulic turbines

1 Definitions and concepts 3 Pumped-storage

1.1 Output 3.1 IFfestiniog power station
1.2 Specific speed 3.2 The reversible pump-turbine
1.3 Cavitation 3.3 IDinorwig power station
1.4 Running speed 3.3.1 The site
3.3.2 Runner submergence
2 Types of turbine 3.3.3 Operational requirements
3.3.4 Design life
2.1 The Pelton turbine
3.3.5 Machine layout
2.2 The Francis turbine
3.3.6 Valves
2.3 The Kaplan turbine
3.3.7 Testing
2.4 Tubular turbines
3.3.8 Some details of the Dinorwig pumped-storage station
2.4.1 The bulb turbine
2.4.2 The tube turbine 4 References
2.4.3 The rim generator design 5 Additional references

1 Definitions and concepts 1.2 Specific speed

Turbines vary widely in form and application. At
one extreme is the pure impulse machine (such as
the Pelton turbine), where the flow is generally low
1.1 Output but the head is large. Reaction turbines, in which
The water turbine is a device which transforms the the pressure drop takes place in both fixed and ro-
potential energy of a head of water into mechanical tating parts of the machine, cover the remaining
work in accordance with the relationship: types. These range from radial flow turbines (such
as the Francis turbine), for medium heads and flows,
P = 0.0098lq m (H - h)e to axial or propeller types (such as the Kaplan turbine)
for low head, high flow application such as rivers.
The turbine operating parameters of head, flow
where P = turbine output, kW
and rotational speed thus cover a wide range of com-
Qm = water flow rate, kg/s binations. In order to characterise them for com-
H = head difference between upper and tail parison and selection purposes, the concept of specific
water levels, m (see Fig 5.1) speed (ns ) is used. This is defined as:

h = hydraulic losses in pipes, m

= turbine efficiency nc = n P 0 5 / Hr l . 2 5
e

Note: The value (H - h) is referred to as the net
head.
The efficiency varies considerably between various
turbine types and sizes but is in the range 0.9 to
0.94 for large machines.
where nP = turbine rotational speed, r/min
This quantity is of great importance in turbine
selection as it is found that, by its use, many of the
turbine's design and operating parameters can be
correlated.

422

y- T~
. UPPER WATER
LEVEL
f TAIL WATER
LEVEL
FIG. 5.1 Determination of available head
Figure 5.2 shows how specific speed and head are
related for turbines of good efficiency. Superimposed
is an indication of the range of application of each
of the types of turbine in use. It will be noted that,
although there is a consistent trend in the application
of these various types, there is considerable overlap.
1.3 Cavitation
Cavitation is a very complicated physical phenome-
non resulting from the water flow in the passages
of a turbine. It can occur whenever the local fluid
pressure falls below a value corresponding to the
water vapour pressure at the prevailing temperature.
Under these conditions, boiling and steam bubble
formation may occur. When these vapour bubbles
have travelled to some other point in the fluid path
where the pressure is higher, violent collapse of the
bubbles can take place. In such circumstances, severe
erosion and loss of metal in pump components and
blades can occur, even though materials such as stain-
less steel are employed which are resistant to cavita-
tion attack. Cavitation is often responsible also for
noisy operation and vibration within the set, and
may be associated with a reduction of output and
efficiency.
Avoidance of erosion damage is the aim of the
set design and may require restricting the range of
turbine operation. It is also important to ensure that
the water pressure is sufficiently above saturation.
This is particularly so at the turbine outlet where
the system pressure is lowest. Adjustment of this
Types of turbine
pressure may be affected by suitable location of the
turbine in relation to the tailwater level. This height
is called the suction head (H s ) and is governed by the
relation H s < B - .
where B = difference in head between barometer
and water saturation vapour pressure, m
= Thoma's cavitation parameter
H s is positive when the tailwater level is below the
pump runner as shown in Fig 5.1 and negative when
above. An indication of how varies with n s is given
in Fig 5.3.
From the information given in Figs 5.2 and 5.3 it
is evident that for a given n s , the type of turbine
employed can be influenced by the ability of the ap-
plication to accommodate the suction head require-
ments. These influences may result from physical,
performance or cost considerations.
1.4 Running speed
This should be as high as possible for economical
turbine design and the generator is the dominant
influence in its selection. In the event of disconnec-
tion of electrical load, the acceleration of the com-
plete turbine-generator rotor system is extremely rapid
and stabilises at a maximum called the runaway speed.
Since water hammer effects would, in most cases,
preclude shut-off of the water supply in sufficient
time to prevent the rotor reaching runaway, this speed
must therefore be acceptable to the generator which
is the most vulnerable component.
The ratio of runaway speed to normal speed varies
between different turbine types as follows:
Reversible pump turbines: 1.35 to 1.45
Francis turbines: 1.7 to 2.0
Kaplan turbines: 2.0 to 2.2 (guide blades/runner
blades linked)
2.4 to 3.0 (guide blades inde-
pendent of runner
blades)
Hence the normal running speed of the turbine can
be determined. The final turbine runaway speed is
usually determined from model tests.
2 Types of turbine
2.1 The Pelton turbine
The Pelton turbine (Fig 5.4) is generally used in
applications where there is a relatively small rate-
of-flow at a large head, typically above 250 m.
423
Hydraulic turbines Chapter 5

\ \

RANGE OF OPERATING
CONDITIONS FOR
FRANCIS AND KAPLAN
1 JET 4 JE"
TURBINES

PELTON TURBINES

PELTON TURBINES |
| FRANCIS TURBINES | \
KAPLAN AND PROPELLER TURBJNES |

n
10 50 100 200
500 u
1000

SPECIFIC SPEED n

PELTON TURBINES FRANCIS TURBINES KAPLAN AND PROPELLER TURBINES

\
1 JET 4 JET HIGH HEAD LOW HEAD

FIG. 5.2 Typical variation of specific speed with head for various turbine types

424
 Types of turbine

CAVITATION
PARAMETERS
(
-

2_

1 0-

/ OPERATING RA MGE

0 1

0.02 -

0.01 100 200 1000

10
SPECIFIC SPEED

FIG. 5.3 Relationship between cavitation parameters and specific speed (n s )

It is an example of the pure impulse machine in
which the whole of the pressure head is converted
to velocity in one or more nozzles in parallel, the
jets from them impinging on buckets mounted on
the runner. Each bucket consists of a pair of spoon-
shaped lobes; the central ridge which divides them
splits the water jet and guides each of the two flows
through an angle of about 165. Ideally, for maxi-
mum momentum transfer, the jet would be turned
180 but this is precluded by the need to direct the

425
Hydraulic turbines
HIGH PRESSURE
WATER INLET
FIG. 5.4 Pelton wheel turbine
discharged water away from the runner and from
the path of the following bucket. For similar reasons,
the central ridge is scalloped at the tip to give a clear
path to the jet impinging on the working bucket.
Theoretically the maximum efficiency of this type
of turbine occurs when the bucket peripheral speed
is one half that of the impinging jet. This is im-
practical, however, since it requires also that the
absolute velocity of the water leaving the bucket be
zero and so the fluid would not clear the runner as
required. In practice, the ratio of blade-to-jet speed lies
between 0.46 and 0.47.
The efficiency of the Pelton turbine can be of the
order of 92%.
Water is directed onto the buckets by means of
nozzles, the flow of water, and hence the output, being
controlled by a central needle, or spear, whose bulbed
head varies the flow area as it moves axially within
the nozzle. One of several nozzles may be used de-
pending upon the flow and output of the machine.
Rapid shutdown of the turbine, as would be re-
quired after loss of load from the driven machine,
cannot be effected by rapid closure of the spear
due to the water hammer effects referred to earlier.
Shutdown is therefore effected by inserting into the
jet either a cut-off to destroy its kinetic energy or a
deflector to direct the jet away from the bucket. The
jet of water is then shut off at suitably safe rate.
2.2 The Francis turbine
In this type of machine (Fig 5.5), the water is fed
radially to the runner from guide vanes which are
426
Chapter 5
RUNNER
disposed around the full circumference. The angle of
these vanes can be varied to control machine output
and the water is uniformly distributed to them by a
spiral casing.
After being directed onto the runner, the water
flows radially inwards, being turned by the runner
blades so that it discharges axially into the draft
tube. The purpose of the draft tube is to allow ef-
ficient recovery of the velocity energy leaving the
turbine so that turbine efficiency is maximised. The
maximum efficiency of Francis turbines is 9 4 - 9 5 % .
Both horizontal and vertical shaft mounting can be
employed.
Control of end thrust is important. This derives
largely from the different pressures between the front
and rear shrouds and their respective casings. For the
rear shroud, the source of pressurisation is solely the
high pressure at guide vane exit, whereas the front
shroud pressure is influenced by the guide vane exit
pressure at the outer diameter and by the draft tube
pressure at the inner (or front shroud seal) diameter.
As well as this varying pressure distribution, the
front face of the impeller also experiences draft tube
pressure over the whole eye (i.e., the area of the
impeller facing the draft tube).
Since the areas involved are often large, the thrust
resulting from even small pressure differences can be
considerable. It is usually reduced by control of the
pressures on the top and bottom shrouds, through
seals placed at the draft tube diameter and at a
suitable diameter on the rear shroud. The pressure
inboard of this latter seal is maintained at draft
tube pressure by the use of balance pipes connecting
these two regions and/or holes drilled in the rear

SPIRAL CASING
FRONT SHROUD &o . Jft^.t
FIG. 5.5 Francis turbine for low head applications
shroud. Complete elimination of the thrust is not
possible over the complete range of running conditions,
however, and the balance is taken out on a thrust
bearing. On large machines, this is usually of the
tilting pad variety.
On small machines, rolling bearings are often em-
ployed or may even be omitted altogether; in such
cases the runner is overhung from the generator
bearings. On larger machines, and particularly on
vertical shaft machines where bearing stability can
be a problem, tilting pad journal bearings are often
employed. These are usually self-contained units with
integral water cooled oil coolers, with oil circulation
maintained by the head generated from shaft rota-
tion. Water lubrication with rubber or wooden bear-
ing shells is also a feature.
Sealing of the shaft, where it emerges from the top
casing, must accommodate shaft axial movement. These
seals are either conventional packed glands or proprie-
Types of turbine
GUIDE VANE
OPERATING RAM
tary types of balanced axial seal, in which a sealing
ring is held by gravity against the conical face of a
shaft collar. A small seepage of water is desirable for
heat dissipation and the prevention of excessive wear
and this water is ducted away by the drain system.
Machine output is controlled by the guide vanes,
a typical number of 24 being employed. They are dis-
posed in a complete annulus surrounding the runner
and are variable in angle. When fully closed, each
vane touches its neighbour and effectively shuts off
all flow to the runner. The degree of opening con-
trols the quantity and direction of the water flow,
and hence the output. Very high loads can be ex-
perienced by guide vanes, especially during transient
changes of load or hydraulic conditions, substantial
bearings are therefore provided on the spindles pro-
jecting from each side of the vane.
Movement of the guide vanes is effected by a
crank attached to the end of one of the spindles,
427
Hydraulic turbines
the other end of the crank being located in a regu-
lating ring. Rotation of the regulating ring moves
the cranks, and hence the guide vanes, in synchronism
through the required angle. This rotation is pro-
duced by one or, more usually, two hydraulic rams
or servomotors acting at each end of a diameter of
the regulating ring. Some form of slipping device is
normally incorporated in the crank/guide vane con-
nection so that if a foreign body (such as a log)
gets jammed between two vanes, the remainder can
be closed normally. A warning device is often fitted
to indicate that the slipping device has operated.
2.3 The Kaplan turbine
The essential feature of the Kaplan turbine (Fig 5.6)
is that the water flow through the runner is in an
axial direction. The inlet spiral casing and the guide
vanes are similar in layout and operation to the
Francis turbine. After leaving the guide vanes, how-
ever, the water turns into the axial direction before
meeting the runner.
The runner resembles a ship's propeller whose
blades (typically four to six in number) are adjustable
in pitch to present the optimum angle of attack to
the water flow. It is this ability to optimise the
runner performance that enables the Kaplan turbine
to maintain its efficiency over a much greater range
of speeds and power outputs than the Francis type.
A peak efficiency of about 94% is achieved in large
machines.
The blades are most conveniently adjusted by means
of a lever arm within the hub. Axial movement of
a cross-head connecting with each of the lever arms
rotates the blades. The servomotor system which op-
erates the cross-head can be within the hub or outside
the machine, connecting with the cross-head by hy-
draulic means (Fig 5.6) or through a control rod
within the hollow shaft. The optimum relationship
between runner blades and guide vane angle is con-
trolled by a cam system in the operating mechanism.
Installation is usually as a vertical shaft machine.
This configuration has the following advantages:
Bearing and lubrication system layout is simple.
Electrical generator installation, access and
maintenance is made easier.
Turbine support and secure embedding of parts,
such as the inlet volute, in a heavy concrete mass
are facilitated.
Equipment can be mounted on the top cover and
is easily accessible for maintenance.
Submersion of the runner below the tailwater level
to obviate cavitation is achieved with minimum
civil costs, compared with submersion of the com-
plete set.
428
Chapter 5
2.4 Tubular turbines
The Kaplan turbine has been widely used in river
and tidal power schemes, where a comparatively low
head of water is available. However, there are dis-
advantages:
The submersion of the runner to avoid cavitation
requires excavation for the draft tube, with con-
sequent increased civil costs.
Several changes of direction occur in the intake
and draft tube system which raises hydraulic losses.
This led to the development of the tubular turbine
in which the Kaplan type of runner is used, with
fixed or variable blades, and installed with its axis
more or less horizontal. The water path thus de-
viates from the axial direction as little as possible.
The efficiency of the tubular turbine is similar to
that of the Kaplan machine.
The principal subdivisions of the tubular machine
are as follows:
The bulb turbine.
The tube turbine.
The rim generator.
2.4.1 The bulb turbine
This derives its name from the 'bulb' in the water
path which contains the electrical generator (Fig 5.7).
Normally the bulb is placed upstream of the turbine
and is supported in the water path by struts which,
since they are hollow and large enough to gain access
to the generator for maintenance, must be carefully
designed if unnecessary hydraulic losses and flow
disturbances are to be avoided.
Guide vanes, sometimes called wicket gates, are
located in the annulus between bulb and casing to
control the flow of water to the runner.
Several combinations of guide vane/runner blade
control are possible:
Variable guide vanes and runner blades
This combination provides the best efficiency over
the load range. It also allows a useful variant for
tidal power schemes. Thus, as well as operating as a
turbine in either the ebb or flow direction, there is
the capability for pumping in either direction to
improve the head available for the next generation
cycle.
Variable guide vanes, fixed runner blades
Load is satisfactorily controlled over the complete
operating range by varying the guide vane angle,
 Types of turbine

SPIRAL
CASING

VARIABLE ANGLE '^^

RUNNER BLADES

TURBINE SHAFT

HUB SERVOMOTOR PISTON

TORQUE PIN
PISTON ROD

TRUNNION
LEVER

RUNNER BLADE
(REMOVABLE)

LINK

BLADE BOLT

CROSS HEAD

THIS SPACE IS FILLED WITH OIL AT

STATIC PRESSURE FOR LUBRICATION HUB CONE
PURPOSES

FIG. 5.6 Kaplan turbine with detail of the hub mechanism for varying the blade angle shown on the inset

429
Hydraulic turbines
SUPPORTING STRUTS
AND SERVICES ACCESS SUPPORTING STRUTS
ELECTRICAL GENERATOR
FIG. 5.7 Bulb turbine
but the fixed runner blades cause a rapid fall-off
of efficiency with change of load on either side of the
design point.
Fixed guide vane, variable runner blades
It has been found that both efficiency and the way
that it is maintained over the power range is nearly
as good for this combination as for variable guide
vanes and runner blades. A disadvantage is that the
turbine cannot be shut down by closure of the guide
vanes and some form of flow shut-off, such as stop
gates, must therefore be provided.
2.4.2 The tube turbine
There are two major disadvantages of the bulb turbine:
430
Chapter 5
WICKET GATES RUNNER BLADES
Maintenance of the generator is hampered by the
limited space and access available within the bulb.
The low inertia of the rotating parts (small diameter
generator and runner made possible by the higher
specific speed) means that, on some generating
networks, there may be synchronising problems or
speed and frequency fluctuations.
For these reasons, the tube turbine has evolved,
mainly differing from the bulb turbine in transferring
the generator outside the water path and driving it
through an extended shaft. Suitable gearing can also
be interposed to allow generator speed or size to be
optimised. Access to the generator and gearbox is
considerably improved over the bulb design. Various
arrangements have been constructed: one such is

shown in Fig 5.8. The long drive shaft can, how-
ever, create shaft whirling and bearing arrangement
problems.
2.4.3 The rim generator design
In this type, the turbine and generator rotor form a
single unit in the same plane (Fig 5.9). The runner
blades are shrouded by a circumferential ring to which
the electric generator poles are attached and these,
in turn, are surrounded by the generator stator.
Bearings are housed in bulbs on either side of the
runner.
This design is marketed by Escher Wyss under the
name 'Straflo'. The efficiency of these units is com-
parable with other tubular turbines.
The concept has the following features:
Generator accessibility is very good and the large
diameter ensures high inertia, and hence stability.
Its design is, however, dictated by turbine rather
than electrical considerations and balancing must
be rigidly controlled on these large diameters.
Seals are required between the rotating shroud ring
of the turbine and the static casing of the water
passage to prevent ingress of water to the electrical
generator. These seals have been the subject of
intense development to enable them to perform
STOP
GATES
FIG. 5.8 Tube turbine
Pumped-storage
their vital task under the normal and transient
rotor movements associated with hydraulic con-
ditions and vibration.
Using fixed runner blades, the cost of these units is
extremely competitive with other types. The narrow
peak efficiency range of fixed blade designs, however,
may require that the total output be met by a
multiplicity of small units or that variable blade design
is used with its flatter efficiency. Employment of such
methods, does however, detract from the financial
competitiveness of this arrangement.
3 Pumped-storage
Pumped-storage offers a means of storing electricity
in the form of the potential energy of water held at
high level. The main advantages and reasons for its
installation can be stated as follows:
For electrical generation in the 'peak lopping' role.
Being comparatively simple, it can provide a rapid
start for peak lopping or emergency reserve, with a
higher reliability than thermal plant such as gas
turbines or diesel engines.
On a system containing thermal generating plant
it reduces the requirement for sets on 'hot standby'
or 'spinning reserve'.
431
Hydraulic turbines Chapter 5

GUIDE VANE
OPERATING RING ELECTRICAL
CUBICLE

VARIABLE ANGLE
INLET
GUIDE VANE

RUNNER BLADE

FlG. 5.9 Rim generator ('Straflo') turbine

It provides a convenient form of system frequen- pumping at periods of low system demand. A
cy regulation especially during periods of rapidly corollary of this is that margins on system capability
changing demand. can be reduced.

It facilitates load curve smoothing by using con- Operation of the system requires two lakes or water
ventional or nuclear plant to provide power for storage reservoirs. During generation, water is ad-
432

mitted to the turbines from the top lake, discharging
into the lower. The sets can be run in this mode
until demand is met or other plant can be started.
At off-peak periods the water is pumped up from
the lower into the upper lake ready to meet the next
demand.
The requirements of the set for both a turbine
and pumping role can be met in two ways; either by
using separate pumps and turbines or by a single
pump-turbine which combines both duties in one
rotor, and which reverses direction between roles.
3.1 Ffestiniog power station
This station, part of the CEGB system in England
and Wales, is an example of the separate pump and
turbine system and was completed in the 1960s. The
pump and turbine are mounted in tandem on coaxial
shafts, at one end of which is a unidirectional motor-
generator.
The upper reservoir operates between extreme levels
of 483 and 502 m above sea level and encloses a
storage volume of 1.7 million cubic metres giving a
generation time of some 4.5 hours. The lower reser-
voir level correspondingly fluctuates between 182 and
188 m.
The cross-sectional arrangement of the sets and
their relationship to the lower lake are shown in Fig
5.10. Four pump-turbines, each of 90 MW maximum
generating capacity, are arranged in an overground
building to reduce civil costs and to facilitate flood
water disposal in the remote event of a burst.
Each pump-turbine is arranged in a vertical con-
figuration with the pump mounted below the turbine
so that it may have maximum submergence for mini-
misation of cavitation. The piping system, connecting
to the upper lake, bifurcates, as shown in Fig 5.10.
The upper branch connects to the turbine inlet via
a hydraulically-operated inlet valve and the lower to
the pump outlet through a similar valve.
Each single-stage Francis turbine runs at 428 r/min
with a maximum efficiency of over 93%. The high-
tensile steel spiral casings are constructed in halves
with site-bolted flanged joints. The variable guide
vanes in cast stainless steel are operated through a
lever and link system which is automatically grease-
lubricated. The runner is in 13% chromium steel and
has a maximum diameter of 1.93 m.
The vertical two-stage pump is of double-entry
design. Thus the second-stage impellers are disposed
back-to-back as a single rotor and the first stages
must be mounted outboard of it (see Fig 5.11). Suc-
tion from the lower lake is therefore via a breeches
pipe which conveys water to the suction of each of
the first-stage impellers. Each of the two 2.5 m
diameter first-stage impellers and the 2.6 m diameter
double-entry second stage are manufactured in 13%
chromium steel and are keyed to the pump shaft.
Pumped-storage
Pump casings are in cast steel welded to a plate steel
volute.
Whilst pumping, the drive must take place from the
motor through the turbine, which is filled with air to
reduce pumping losses. The pump is disengaged whilst
the turbine is in operation in the generating mode
and a coupling is provided for this purpose. System
requirements did not justify the expense of a coupling
capable of engagement/disengagement at full speed
and so these operations are conducted whilst the ma-
chine is stationary. A toothed gear, sliding-muff type
of coupling is used, engagement being actuated by oil
pressure and a positive mechanical lock inserted during
periods of rotation.
3.2 The reversible pump-turbine
Such a machine enables both pumping and turbining
to be performed by the same runner or runners. It is
effectively a Francis turbine whose runner geometry is
a compromise between the optimum for pumping and
generation. During generation, the turbine output is
absorbed by the generator; whilst pumping, the gen-
erator acts as a motor, driving the runner in the
opposite direction.
A desirable feature of this design is that it is
considerably cheaper than a type employing a se-
parate pump and turbine and the necessity for a
clutch between the two is also eliminated. Also, since
the same runner is employed in both the turbining and
pumping directions, the need for separate suction and
discharge piping for the two components with the
associated mechanical and civil costs is similarly un-
necessary. The efficiency of such a unit as a pump or
turbine is usually some 1 /o lower than a corresponding
optimally designed machine of similar size. Typical
maximum values for very large machines might be
92 93% when pumping, and 93-94% when turbining.
Subsequent to the construction of Ffestiniog power
station, considerable worldwide experience had been
obtained with single-stage reversible pump-turbines.
Therefore, for their pumped-storage station at Dinor-
wig, the CEGB decided to install such machines. The
first sets were commissioned in 1982 and, since it
represents one of the world's major pumped-storage
schemes in terms of both unit capacity and operat-
ing head, it is used as an example of modern practice
in this field.
3.3 Dinorwig power station
3.3.1 The site
This station is located near Llanberis in Wales, in the
Snowdonia National Park; an area renowned for its
natural beauty. This fact dictated some of the design
features of the station.
433
Hydraulic turbines Chapter 5

TRANSFORMER SWITCHGEAR GENERATOR / MOTOR

RESERVOIR
WATER LEVEL

NORMAL MIN LEVEL 4 CONCRETE 4 STEEL 4 STEEL NORMAL MIN LEVEL

482.5 m LINED TUNNELS LINED TUNNELS PENSTOCK PIPES 182.3 m
3.25 m 2.8 m 2.3 m
INTERNAL DIAMETER INTERNAL DIAMETER INTERNAL DIAMETER

FIG. 5.10 Cutaway perspective of Ffestiniog power station showing the arrangement of the pump-turbine

434
 Pumped-storage

FIG. 5.11 Section through the two-stage double-entry pump used at Ffestiniog power station

The upper storage reservoir was created by the
construction of a low rockfill dam across a corrie
within the Elidir mountain, thus enlarging a natural
lake to contain a water volume of 6-7 million cubic
metres. The operating levels fluctuate between 633 m
and 600 m above sea level. The lower reservoir is
an enlargement of an existing lake at the foot of
the mountain with the level varying between 92 and
106 m above sea level.
The station, constructed within the mountain itself,
was designed on the basis of six machines, each pro-
ducing 300 MW at minimum net head and the ability
435
Hydraulic turbines
to refill the upper reservoir by pumping from the lower
in a six-hour period.
A schematic plan and elevation of the site is shown
in Fig 5.12 whilst a section through the underground
station itself is shown in Fig 5.13.
3.3.2 Runner submergence
As referred to in Section 1.4 of this chapter, the
economics of turbine design improve with increase
of speed. Since the runaway/normal speed ratio is
smallest for pump-turbines, the running speed be-
comes higher for a pump-turbine than for any other
type operating at similar output and head.
In the pumping mode, the increased speed coupled
with the high head, requires considerable submergence
of the impeller below tail water level to avoid cavi-
tation. Similarly, submersion was also required in
the turbining mode to obviate column separation a
condition in which inertia effects can cause cavities
within the water flow with severe water hammer on
recombination. For these reasons, a runner submer-
gence of some 60 m was required. This was obtained
by placing the machines in a machine hall below
ground and within the mountain itself. As well as
being environmentally desirable, it was found that the
small increase in civil costs was more than compen-
sated for by the lower machine costs through using
reversible pump-turbines.
3.3.3 Operational requirements
In order to meet CEGB system needs the pump-
turbine has a load regime which involves:
Generating in the range of zero to a full-load of 317
MW with up to five hours of continuous, constant
output generation.
Pumping, using one or more units at full-load.
Emergency reserve. This provides 1320 MW to the
system in the event that two of the largest units of
660 MW each are simultaneously lost to the grid.
Frequency regulation, which involves operation
over the range of zero to full-load to correct for
system frequency deviations as they occur.
Associated with the above is a requirement to meet
these system needs within certain time scales. Whilst
it was never envisaged that there would be any de-
mand for rapid adoption of the pumping role it is
essential that the machine is capable of changing
modes within very short time scales as follows:
Standstill to no-load generation 90 s
No-load synchronised to 1320 MW output 10 s
Emergency pumping to spinning-in-air (both
in the pumping direction) 10 s
436
Chapter 5
In order to meet such short loading times, it is ne-
cessary for the machine to be kept for long periods
at synchronous speed. In the generation direction,
this could be effected by allowing a small throughput
of water to generate sufficient power to overcome
machine losses. This is unattractive since:
It wastes water and its corresponding pumping
power.
At low flows, the water strikes the runner blades at
off-design angles, promoting erosion and wear.
There is the fear that, in a closed system, the
power losses could raise reservoir temperature in
the long term.
Similarly, in the pumping mode, the churning gen-
erated by running against closed guide vanes causes
a loss of power of about 70 MW.
The problem has been overcome, in both modes,
by filling the runner space with air at tailwater pres-
sure: the windage losses are then reduced to some
2 MW. With the main inlet valve (MIV) on the high
pressure side of the pump-turbine and the guide vanes
closed, air from air bottles is blown into the runner
space through a connection in the top cover and
automatically maintained by a level control valve in
the draft tube. The machine can then be held spin-
ning at synchronous speed indefinitely in either the
pumping or turbining direction (known as spin/pump
and spin/generation modes respectively). Whilst the
runner is spinning in air, a small supply of cooling
water is supplied to the seals at the top and bottom
shrouds, the centrifuged water being led away to drain
from a connection at the runner periphery. Reversion
to pump or turbine operation is initiated by simply
opening the MIV and guide vanes, and the air bubble
is quickly dispersed by the water flow.
3.3.4 Design life
Each machine is designed to undergo a number of
mode changes per year, viz:
Routine pumping starts and stops, up to three times
per day.
Routine generation starts and stops, up to four times
per day.
Change from spin-generation to generation and vice
versa, up to 13 times per day.
Emergency loading and change from pumping to
generation.
Pump and turbine trips.
In total, this represents 7500 loading/unloading cycles
per annum. A fundamental consideration is the fact
 HEADWORKS HEADGATES LOW PRESSURE TUNNEL SURGE SHAFT
TiAii co. \ INSTALLATION SURGE POND
TWL 634m
LWL 600m

UPPER RESERVOIR
MARCHLYN MAWR

TAILGATES
INSTALLATION TWL 106.25m
ALL HEIGHTS
LWL 92m
ABOVE ORDNANCE
DATUM
HIGH PRESSURE SHAFT

LOWER RESERVOIR
LYN PERIS
TAILRACE TUNNELS
700m 470m
HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM

STOP GATES

MAIN GATES

UPPER RESERVOIR SURGE POND & SHAFT HIGH PRESSURE

MARCHLYN MAWR INTERMEDIATE MAIN GATES STOP GATES
PENSTOCKS PENSTOCKS

HEADGATES
INSTALLATION

LOWER RESERVOIR
LYN PERIS

STATION COMPLEX y~.

TAILGATES INSTALLATION

BASCULE GATES INSTALLATION

437
FIG. 5.12 Dinorwig power station site plan and elevati.
Pumped-storage
438
MACHINE HALL UNIT 2 TRANSFORMER HALL
HEATING AND
Hydraulic turbines

VENTILATION PLANT 400 kV SWITCHGEAR

CABLE TUNNEL

CABLE FLAT

GENERATOR.
MOTOR
MIV GALLERY
OIL PLANT ACCESS
CONNECTIONS \ TUNNEL
PUMP
TURBINE GENERATOR - MOTOR
TRANSFORMER
MAIN
INLET v
VALVEN

INTERMEDIATE PENSTOCK
K

FROM TO TAILWORKS AND

UPPER LOWER RESERVOIR
RESERVOIR

DRAFT TUBE
No 1 MAIN SUMP
VT CUBICLE BUSBAR GALLERY

11 70 m AOD

FIG. 5.13 Section through Dinorwig power station

Chapter 5

that during each of these cycles the MIV shuts, thus
depressurising the penstock and turbine casing to the
tailwater pressure of some 6 bar, then re-opens to
pressurise them again to 50 bar. Over its 40-year design
life, the machine is thus subjected to 300 000 cycles
of pressurisation.
The requirement to design for a fatigue life is un-
usual in water turbines. In this instance, consequently,
it was thought necessary to use a fracture mechanics
approach to the design, adopting the ASME standards
applicable to nuclear pressure vessels. Essentially this
assumes that defects present in the steel, which are
smaller than those detected by non-destructive test
methods and consequently repaired during manufac-
ture, will grow under the varying stress field. Over
the plant life, these initial defects must not grow to
a size approaching the critical defect size, where the
crack can grow in an uncontrolled manner. Due to
the inherent uncertainties of crack detection during
manufacture, the design allows for inspection of cri-
tical areas during the life of the plant. As shown in
Fig 5.14, one such area is the spiral casing, which
has not been invested in concrete over critical welds
such as occur between the spiral casing and the
stayring. In turn, this has necessitated placing a rub-
ber membrane between spiral casing and concrete to
absorb panting and flexure of the spiral casing dur-
ing its pressure cycle whilst still providing adequate
restraint of the spiral by the concrete. Provision is
also made in the design for grout injection should
any gap develop with time.
Since the pump casing and inlet spiral are com-
plicated structures, the stresses in them were deter-
mined both by finite element methods and photoelastic
analysis of a plastic model.
3.3.5 Machine layout
The nine-bladed runner in cast stainless steel has a
maximum diameter of 3.8 m and an eye diameter of
2 m (see Fig 5.14). The vertical drive shaft is mounted
in a single guide bearing of tilting-pad design. Lu-
brication of the bearing is by a self-contained system with
an oil reservoir and integral water-cooled oil coolers
disposed within the bearing housing. Oil circulation
through the coolers is maintained by the head gen-
erated by shaft rotation. The thrust from the pump-
turbine runner and motor-generator to which it is
rigidly coupled is taken by a tilting pad thrust bearing
mounted in the motor casing. It must be sized to
accept the widely varying thrusts achieved during pump
and turbine operation and, in particular, those tran-
sients which occur during mode changes. Leakage of
high pressure water from the upper shroud of the
runner along the clearance between the shaft and
the pump inner top-cover is minimised by a balanced
seal of the type referred to in Section 2.2 of this
chapter.
Shown also in Fig 5.14 are the pipes between the
Pumped-storage
shaft and the upper shroud seal which admit blow-
down air into the system, together with the peripheral
drain pipes which are opened under these conditions to
discharge the cooling water supplied to the upper and
lower seals.
Figure 5.15 shows the guide vane apparatus, in-
dicating the substantial bearings employed and also
the manner in which the regulating ring rotates the
vane through the lever and locking assembly, which
incorporates a friction clutch. Seals are fitted on the
end faces of the guide vane blade to minimise water
leakage and both these and the guide vane bearings
are equipped with an automatic greasing system.
In the turbining direction, the guide vanes are
infinitely variable between fully closed and about 32
of opening rotation to achieve the required output.
In the pumping direction, however, the guide vanes
are opened to a nominally fixed postion, although
pump performance can be optimised for varying speed
and head by minor variations in the angle between
20 and 30 open.
3.3.6 Valves
The valves placed either side of the pump-turbine
are similar to those used in many types of turbine.
Those used at Dinorwig will be described in detail
as an example of modern practice.
The main inlet valve (MIV)
Each MIV is a 2.5 m bore rotary valve, interposed
between the main and intermediate penstocks, which
isolates the turbine from high pressure water at each
shutdown (see Fig 5.16). The valve rotor rotates
within the valve body on two trunnions to which are
attached the operating lever arms and closing weights.
The valve is held open by the upward thrust on the
lever arms from two servomotors (or rams) filled with
oil under pressure. The system is thus 'fail-safe' since
the valve closes under the action of the weight alone.
The rate of closing is controlled by restrictors in the
oil discharge line.
The MIV is closed each time the machine shuts
down and, in this condition, leakage between the
near-spherical valve rotor and body is prevented by
a service seal. This is in the form of a stepped ring
which slides axially in its stainless steel housing to
seat against a ring attached to the rotor on its inter-
mediate penstock face. The seal is operated, as well
as being held on and off, by penstock water pressure
acting on the appropriate face of the stepped ring.
The seals between stepped ring and valve body are
D-shaped to prevent rotation within their grooves:
they were the subject of considerable testing to ensure
that they met the six-year life required of them.
A similar seal is provided on the penstock face of
the valve rotor but it is only operated to provide
additional safety during maintenance. Under these
439
440
BLOW DOWN
GUIDE BEARING SHAFT AIR PIPE
Hydraulic turbines

GUIDE VANE
SERVOMOTOR

GUIDE
VANE
BLADE
PERIPHERAL DRAIN
SYSTEM OPERATED SHAFT SEAL BOTTOM COVER
BALANCE DURING SPINNING AND
PIPE OPERATIONS INNER COVER
Chapter 5

FlG. 5.14 Section through the pump-turbine used at Dinorwig power station
 Pumped-storage

FRICTION CLUTCH LEVER LINK

LOCKING ASSEMBLY

REGULATING RING

BEARING

" RING
SEAL

CHEEK PLATE

PACKING PIECE

GUIDE VANE
LOWER SPINDLE

FIG. 5.15 Guide vane assembly

441
Hydraulic turbines Chapter 5

BODY END

PENSTOCK FLANGED
STUB PIPE CONNECTORS STUB PIPE
FLANGED PIPE

LOOSE SEAL RING

FLANGE ^
MOVABLE ASSEMBLY STUD
FLANGE
FLANGED PIPE
SERVICE SEAL
SEATING RING /^
FLANGED PIPE

HOUSING ASSEMBLY SERVICE SEAL AND DISMANTLING JOINT ASSEMBLY

MAIN GUIDE
BUSH
MAINTENANCE
SEAL
MAINTENANCE SEAL
ASSEMBLY

SERVICE SEAL POSITION

INDICATOR

LOCKING PIN ASSEMBLY

FLOW
WHEN
PUMPING SERVICE SEAL
OPERATING
ASSEMBLY

SERVOMOTOR

FIG. 5.16 Main inlet valve at Dinorwig power station

conditions, a portion of the intermediate penstock insertion of packing pieces and the valve locking
can be removed and the valve blanked off with a pin applied.
bolted-on dome. When necessary, both service and Since the MIV operates each time the machine
maintenance seals can be positively locked shut by shuts down, it is subject to cyclic pressure variation.

442

These valves were therefore subjected to design by
fracture mechanics principles in the same manner as
the turbine. Stresses were determined by tests on a
photo-elastic model. The valve bodies are manufac-
tured in Carbon-Manganese steel.
Valve opening and closing times must be carefully
selected to avoid undesirable surges or hydraulic tran-
sients within the system. Such considerations formed
part of the hydraulic/water hammer analysis which
examined the interaction of factors such as the tunnel
system, surge shafts, valve and guide vane closing
rate and pump head/flow char act eristcs. Such cal-
MIV ANGLE 0
VALVE FULLY OPEN
GV ANGLE 0
TIME S
FIG. 5.17 Main inlet valve and guide vane opening and closing times at Dinorwig power station
Pumped-storage
culations are of the utmost importance in establishing
station safety during occurrences such as simultaneous
trip of all machines from full-load generation. A diagram
showing the valve opening and closing times is shown
in Fig 5.17.
At Dinorwig, transient machine and hydraulic char-
acteristics determined during tests of single and simul-
taneous trips of two, three and four machines were
so closely predicted by the theoretical hydraulic ana-
lyses, that it was not considered necessary to subject
the system to a practical demonstration of a simul-
taneous six-machine trip from full-load.
VALVE FULLY CLOSED
MAX GV ANGLE - TURBINING
MAX GV ANGLE - PUMPING
443
Hydraulic turbines Chapter 5

The draft tube valve 3.3.7 Testing

The draft tube valve (DTV) (see Fig 5.18), is placed
on the tailwater side of the pump-turbine and is
provided to isolate the machine from the lower re-
servoir during maintenance, and to close in the event
of a major burst to prevent station flooding. It is
normally left open and does not form part of any
automatic operating sequence.
Each DTV is a 3.75 m diameter butterfly valve,
the rotor being of the lattice type. Integral eccentric
trunnions ensure that should it be inadvertently left
shut during turbining, it will flip open under the tur-
bine flow. Opening and closing is performed by a
servomotor and lever and weight system, in a similar
manner to the MIV.
Full-size testing of the installed pump-turbine to
verify efficiency guarantees, requires measurement of
power, net head and water flow as detailed in Section
1.1 of this chapter. Difficulties and costs in provid-
ing for the accurate measurement of the large flows
involved make such an undertaking unattractive from
both practical and contractual considerations.
For this reason the comprehensive tests carried out
by the manufacturer on the one-eighth scale homo-
logous model of the pump-turbine and corrected to
full-sized machine values by established means [1] were
accepted by the CEGB as evidence of the machine's
ability to meet efficiency guarantees. However, as con-
firmation of this and to establish a reference point

BLADE
SLIDING JOINT

BODY

T*L
STUB PIPE

LEVER ARM

TO TAILWORKS
AND
LOWER
RESERVOIR
CLOSING WEIGHT

- LOCKING PIN

TO
PUMP * MANHOLE
TURBINE

s
BYPASS VALVE

BYPASS PIPE

BYPASS VALVE
BYPASS VALVES

CLOSING WEIGHT SERVOMOTOR

LEVER ARM

FIG. 5.18 Draft tube valve at Dinorwig power station

444
 Additional references

to enable performance deterioration to be monitored Station output

during service, each machine is equipped with tap- Average generated station output 1680 MW
ping points in the intermediate and lower penstocks
Generating period at constant output 5h
enabling thermodynamic testing of the machine ef-
ficiency to be undertaken. Average individual pump power input 283 MW
This method does not require any flow measure- Pumping period 6.3 h
ment. It measures the internal efficiency of the ma-
chine by comparing the actual enthalpy change of
the water due to the work done in passing through Pump-Turbines (six off)
the machine, with that which would be experienced Type Reversible Francis
if the water experienced an isentropic change from
its initial to final pressure or head. The ratio of these
Turbining (Generating)
values gives the machine efficiency. The main problem
of the method is that of accurate measurement of Maximum output/net head Up to 317 MW/535.8 m
the small temperature difference (typically 1 to 2C) Minimum output/net head Up to 280 MW/487.9 m
upon which enthalpy changes depend but for this, Maximum flow 70 m3/5
and other details of the method, see [2]. Synchronous speed 500 r/min
Maximum transient
runaway speed 735 r/min
3.3.8 Some details of the Dinorwig pumped-
storage station
Pumping
Upper reservoir Rated discharge/head 50 m3/523 m
Storage volume 6.7 million m3 Maximum power input 318 MW
Maximum water height 634 m Synchronous speed 500 r/min
Minimum water height 600 m Min/max frequency 49/51 Hz

Lower reservoir
Maximum tail water level 106 m
4 References
Minimum tailwater level 92 m
[1] 'International Code for Model Acceptance Tests of Hydraulic
Turbines': IEC Publication No. 193
Tunnel diameters (concrete lined) [2] Thorn, A. S.: Thermodynamic Testing of Turbines and Pumps'
IMechE Vol. 7 No. 3: 1965
Low pressure tunnel 10.5 m
Surge shaft 30 m
High pressure shaft 10 m
High pressure tunnel (manifold) 9.5 m
5 Additional references
Tailrace tunnels (three off) 8.25 m
Guthrie-Brown, J. (Ed): 'Hydro-Electric Engineering Practice':
Blackie & Son
Tunnel diameters (steel lined) Headland, H.: 'Blaenau Ffestiniog and other Medium-Head Pumped
Storage Schemes in Great Britain': IMechE Proc. Volume 175
High pressure penstock 2.5 m No. 6: 1961
Intermediate penstock 2.3 m The Dinorwig Power Station': Papers presented at a major achieve-
Draft tube (six off) 3.75 m ment symposium: IMechE: 1985

445
 C H A P T E R 6

The generator

1 Introduction 6.1.8 Main exciter protection

1.1 Types of generator 6.2 Brushless excitation systems
6.2.1 System description
1.2 Historical background
6.2.2 The rotating armature main exciter
1.3 Standards and specifications
6.2.3 Telemetry system
2 Synchronous generator theory 6.2.4 Instrument sliprings
6.2.5 Rotating rectifier protection
2.1 Electromagnetic induction
6.3 Static rectifier excitation equipment
2.2 Speed, frequency and pole-pairs
6.3.1 Introduction
2.3 Load, rating and power factor
6.3.2 General description of static diode rectifier equipment
2.4 MMF, flux and magnetic circuit
6.3.3 Rectifier protection
2.5 Rotating phasors
6.3.4 Static thyristor rectifier schemes
2.6 Phasor diagrams
6.4 The voltage regulator
2.6.1 Rated voltage, no stator current, open-circuit
6.4.1 Historical review
conditions
6.4.2 System description
2.6.2 Rated voltage, rated stator current and rated power
6.4.3 The regulator
factor
6.4.4 Auto follow-up circuit
2.7 Torque
6.4.5 Manual follow-up
2.8 Three-phase windings
6.4.6 Balance meter
2.9 Harmonics: distributed and chorded winding
6.4.7 AVR protection
3 Turbine-generator components: the rotor 6.4.8 Thyristor converter protection
6.4.9 Fuse failure detection unit
3.1 Rotor body and shaft
6.4.10 The digital AVR
3.2 Rotor winding
6.5 Excitation control
3.3 Rotor end rings 6.5.1 Rotor current limiter
3.4 Wedges and dampers
6.5.2 MVAr limiter
3.5 Sliprings, brushgear and shaft earthing 6.5.3 Overfluxing limit
3.6 Fans 6.5.4 Speed reference controller
3.7 Rotor threading and alignment 6.6 The power system stabiliser
3.8 Vibration 6.6.1 Basic concepts
3.9 Bearings and seals 6.6.2 Characteristics of GEP
3.10 Size and weight 6.6.3 System modes of oscillation
4 Turbine-generator components: the stator 6.6.4 Principles of PSS operation
6.6.5 The choice of stabiliser signal
4.1 Stator core
6.7 Excitation system analysis
4.2 Core frame
6.7.1 Frequency response analysis
4.3 Stator winding
6.7.2 State variable analysis
4.4 End winding support 6.7.3 Large signal performance investigations
4.5 Electrical connections and terminals
4.6 Stator winding cooling components 7 Generator operation
4.7 Hydrogen cooling components 7.1 Running-up to speed
4.8 Stator casing 7.2 Open-circuit conditions and synchronising
5 Cooling systems 7.3 The application of load
7.4 Steady state stability
5.1 Hydrogen cooling 7.5 Capability chart
5.2 Hydrogen cooling system 7.6 Steady short-circuit conditions, short-circuit ratio
5.3 Shaft seals and seal oil system 7.7 Synchronous compensation
5.3.1 Thrust type seal 7.8 Losses efficiency and temperature
5.3.2 Journal type seal 7.9 Electrically unbalanced conditions
5.3.3 Seal oil system 7.10 Transient conditions
5.4 Stator winding water cooling system 7.11 Neutral earthing
5.5 Other cooling systems 7.12 Shutting down
6 Excitation 8 Mechanical considerations
6.1 Exciters 8.1 Rotor torque
6.1.1 Historical review 8.2 Stress due to centrifugal force
6.1.2 AC excitation systems 8.3 Alternating stresses, fretting and fatigue
6.1.3 Exciter transient performance 8.4 'Slip-stick' of rotor windings
6.1.4 The pilot exciter 8.5 Noise
6.1.5 The main exciter
6.1.6 Exciter performance testing 9 Electrical and electromagnetic aspects
6.1.7 Pilot exciter protection 9.1 Flux distribution on load

446

9.2 Control and calculation of reactances
9.3 The cause and effect of harmonics
9.4 Magnetic pull
9.5 Shaft voltage and residual magnetism
9.6 Field suppression
9.7 Voltage in the rotor winding
9.8 Stator winding insulation
10 Operational measurement, control, monitoring and
protection
10.1 Routine instrumentation
10.1.1 Temperature
10.1.2 Pressure
10.1.3 Flow
10.1.4 Condition monitoring
10.1.5 Electrical
10.1.6 Vibration
10.2 Logging and display
10.3 Control
10.4 On-load monitoring, detection and diagnosis
10.4.1 Air gap flux coil
10.4.2 Core or condition monitor
10.4.3 Insulation discharge
10.4.4 Rotor winding earth fault indication
10.4.5 Shaft current insulation integrity
10.4.6 Stator winding water analysis
1 Introduction
1.1 Types of generator
The CEGB transmission system operates at a fre-
quency of 50 Hz: so do all the generators connected
synchronously to it. The larger generators are almost
all directly driven by steam turbines rotating at 3000
r/min; a few operate at 1500 r/min.
These high speed generators are commonly known
as turbine-generators, or cylindrical rotor generators;
in this chapter, such machines are implied unless
otherwise stated.
The CEGB has for many years standardised on
generating units of 500 and 660 MW electrical output.
At these ratings, there have been six different designs
of generator, each design incorporating minor changes
as time progressed. However, they are all sufficiently
similar for a generalised description to be applicable.
Where a design departs radically from that being de-
scribed, this will be noted (see Fig 6.1).
The bulk of this chapter deals with generators of
this size; the theory applies to all synchronous gen-
erators. Brief descriptions of other types of generator
in use on the CEGB system will be found at the end
of this chapter.
1.2 Historical background
The advantages of AC over DC as a means of elec-
tricity distribution were established towards the end
Introduction
10.5 Protection
10.5.1 Class 1 trips
10.5.2 Class 2 trips
11 Maintenance, testing and diagnosis
11.1 Maintenance and tests during operation
11.2 Maintenance and tests when shut down for a short
outage
11.3 Maintenance during a longer outage
11.4 Maintenance and tests with the machine dismantled
11.5 Reassembly
11.6 Diagnosis
12 Future developments
12.1 Extension of present designs
12.2 Extension of water cooling
12.3 Slotless generators
12.4 Superconducting generators
12.5 Auxiliary systems
13 Other types of generator
13.1 Turbine-type generators of lower rating
13.2 Water turbine driven salient-pole synchronous generators
13.2.1 Excitation and control
13.2.2 Other features
13.3 Diesel engine driven salient-pole generators
13.4 Induction generators
of the 19th century, and the rapid growth of AC
systems led to a demand for AC generators. At first,
these were slow speed machines driven by recipro-
cating engines but, by 1900, generators driven directly
by high speed steam turbines were being introduced
in what are recognisably the forerunners of modern
machines, the benefits being principally in the prime
mover.
The early turbine-generators were made both in
vertical and horizontal shaft configurations. The ver-
tical shaft design required a large thrust bearing, and
was quickly abandoned. The development of hori-
zontal shaft machines was rapid; unit outputs had
risen from a few hundred kW to 20 MW by 1912
(see Fig 6.2).
The rate of increase in output slowed subsequently,
but unit outputs had risen to 50 MW by the 1930s.
The 60 Hz frequency standardised in the USA re-
quired the speed of American two-pole generators
to be 3600 r/min, and the losses caused by air friction
at this speed made the much-less-dense gas hydrogen
attractive as a cooling medium. In the UK, hydrogen
cooling was used on 3000 r/min units of 50 MW and
above from about 1950.
Later, the search for increasingly effective means
of heat (loss) removal led first to the use of hydrogen
at higher pressure, then insulating oil, and finally,
pioneered in the UK, water in direct contact with the
winding conductors. By these means, generators with
the increasing outputs demanded were able to be
manufactured, transported and installed in a power
station as single units, which was both economically
and operationally attractive (see Fig 6.3).
447
448
The generator

STATOR WINDING STATOR ENDWINDING STATOR -CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

WATER INLET MANIFOLD SUPPORT BRACKET RETAINING RING

PTFE HOSES s -TERMINAL BUSHINGS NEUTRAL

STATOR ENDWINDING
GAS BAFFLE *
ENDSHIELD^ . STATOR END CONNECTORS
OUTER FAN
BAFFLE STATOR ENDWINDING
HOUSING COVER ROTOR FAN
OIL CATCHER BEARING TOP HALF CAP
SUPPORT RING * ; BEARING ASSEMBLY
SEAL CARRIER RING
SEAL CARRIER
, RING EXTENSION-

GENERATOR-TURBINE INNER
HALF COUPLING FAN BAFFLE

HYDROGEN COOLER -

FLANGE CONNECTIONS
TO CONDENSATE SYSTEM TERMINAL BUSHING MAIN
FLANGE CONNECTIONS TO
STATOR WINDING WATER SYSTEM

FIG. 6.1 Sectional view of a 660 MW generator

Chapter 6

FIG. 6.2 20 MW air cooled generator
Both the pace of development and the rate of
increase in unit output has slowed markedly in re-
cent years, as greater emphasis has been placed on
the reliability achieved by proven designs, and on
the advantages of interchangeability of major plant
components.
1.3 Standards and specifications
The British Standard covering generators is BS5000,
which refers to many parts of BS4999. The corre-
sponding international standard is IEC 34. Standards
specific for turbine-generators are BS5000 Part 2 and
IEC 34 Part 3. These standards specify acceptable
characteristics, values of temperature, vibration, noise,
phase unbalance, harmonic content, excitation control
limits and tolerances, and test conditions, e.g., high
voltage test levels.
Introduction
Other parameters, such as hydraulic pressure and
dielectric loss test values, are specified in various
CEGB Standards.
Specific requirements for a new generator are con-
tained within its own specification, which covers items
peculiar to its location or duty, for example, tem-
perature of cooling water, power factor and reactances.
Where necessary, these requirements may differ from
those in the appropriate Standard. The expected op-
erational life is quoted in the specification; this is
currently 200 000 hours, with 104 start/stop cycles.
These values are used in design calculations, e.g., crack
growth rate by fatigue.
The following Standards are relevant:
IEC 3 4 - 1 : Rotating electrical machines rating and performance.
IEC 34-2: Rotating electrical machines methods for determining
losses and efficiency from tests.
449
The generator Chapter 6

YEAR

1930 1940 1950 1960 1980

I

IN SERVICE

SUPERCONDUCTING

2.0 H
WEIGHT/RATING AIR
kg/kVA COOLED

1.5

DIRECT ROTOR
COOLING

DIRECT GAS OR LIQUID COOLING

OF STATOR AND DIRECT ROTOR COOLING '
0.5
LIQUID COOLING OF STATOR AND ROTOR -

SUPERCONDUCTING -
ROTOR
T-
10 20 100 200 2000 5000

MVA RATING

FIG. 6.3 Development of generator size, weight and cooling arrangements

IEC 34-3: Ratings and characteristics of 3-phase 50 Hz turbine 2 Synchronous generator theory
type machines. Some basic principles of theory and design are es-
IEC 34-4: Methods for determining synchronous machine quan-
tablished in this section in order that the descriptive
tities from tests. matter in later sections may be more easily understood.

IEC 34-6: Methods of cooling rotating machinery.

BS4999: General requirements for rotating electrical machines.
BS4999 Part 106: Classification of methods of cooling.
BS4999 Part 101: Specification for rating and performance.
BS4999 Part 142: Mechanical performance vibration.
2.1 Electromagnetic induction
In a synchronous generator with the rotor running
at constant speed, the instantaneous voltage induced
in a stator conductor is proportional to the magnetic
flux density experienced by the conductor.

BS4999 Part 109: Noise levels. dB

i n
e = k i
BS5000: Specification for rotating electrical machines of particular dt
types or for particular applications. where e = instantaneous voltage induced along the
BS5000 Part 2: Turbine type machines.
length of the conductor, V
dB
BS2757: Classification of insulating materials for electrical machinery. rate of change of magnetic flux density,
dt tesla/s
BS5500: Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
length of conductor exposed to the flux, m
BS601: Steel sheets for magnetic circuits of power electrical apparatus. k constant
BS1433: Copper for electrical purposes: rod and bar.

BS3906: Electrolytic compressed hydrogen. In order to operate synchronously with the inter-
connected AC transmission system, the generated
ESI Standard 44-7: Testing the insulation system of bars. voltage is required to vary sinusoidally. The magnetic
450

flux density experienced by the stator conductors must
therefore also vary sinusoidally. This is achieved by
arranging, on the rotor, excitation coils which produce
a flux whose density varies approximately sinusoidally
around the circumference.
As the rotor rotates inside the stator bore, a con-
ductor fixed in the stator will be subjected to an
approximately sinusoidally varying magnetic flux den-
sity, and will have an approximately sinusoidal voltage
generated along its length (Fig 6.4). The magnitude
of the flux density, which determines the magnitude
of the generated voltage, can be changed by varying
the direct current supplied to the excitation coils on
the rotor.
2.2 Speed, frequency and pole-pairs
The relationship between speed, number of pole-
pairs and the frequency of the generated voltage is:
f pn
where f frequency, Hz
n rotational speed, r/s
P number of pole-pairs
Cylindrical rotor 50 Hz generators have two poles
and operate at 3000 r/min, or less commonly four
CONDUCTOR
IN STATOR
MAGNETIC FLUX
PRODUCED BY
ROTOR WINDINGS
FIG. 6.4 Production of sinusoidal voltage
Synchronous generator theory
poles operating at 1500 r/min. Salient-pole generators
usually have more than four poles, for example, the
Dinorwig hydraulic turbine-generators have 12 poles
and operate at 500 r/min. Generators producing other
frequencies are used for special purposes; those whose
output is rectified for use as an excitation supply
commonly operate at 150 Hz or 400 Hz.
2.3 Load, rating and power factor
Root-mean-square (RMS) values of alternating volt-
ages and currents are implied in this chapter, unless
specifically noted otherwise.
A single AC generator supplying a load has its
voltage/current relationship dictated by the nature of
that load. For any load which is not purely resistive,
the sinusoidal voltage and current will not be in
phase.
The rated output of a single-phase generator is
the product of its rated voltage and its rated current,
expressed in volt-amps, kVA or MVA. The rated
power is the rated output times the rated power factor,
expressed in watts, kW or MW.
The rated power of a three-phase generator is three
times rated phase voltage times rated phase current
times power factor. Virtually all CEGB generators
have their three phases connected in star, so that:
line voltage = V3 x phase voltage
and line current = phase current.
451
The generator
The MVA rating is then:
V3 x rated line voltage x rated line current x 10 ~
The MW rating is then: rated MWA x rated power
factor.
The present CEGB rating for large turbine-generators is:
660 MW, 0.85 power factor lagging, 23 500 V, 3-
phase, 50 Hz
The MVA rating is therefore 660/0.85 776 MVA
and the rated line current is:
776 x 106
= 19 076 A
3 X 23 500
The output is specified as a maximum continuous
rating (MCR), which implies no guaranteed sustained
overload capacity. The standards specify very short
term overcurrent capability, and acceptable variations
in voltage and frequency. Some sustained overload
capability may be possible by operating at a hydrogen
pressure greater than the rated value, by agreement.
Although operation at 0.85 power factor (lagging)
is specified, generators on the CEGB network gen-
erally operate at power factors of 0.9 or higher, and
this allows operation at higher than rated MW if
this is available from the turbine, up to the limit of
rated MVA (see Fig 6.5).
2.4 MMF, flux and magnetic circuit
Direct current circulating in coils wound into the
rotor poles, causes them to act as electromagnets,
OPERATION ABOVE RATED MW
PERMISSIBLE IN THESE AREAS
0.85 POWER FACTOR
LAGGING
MVAR
FIG. 6.5 Operation at high MW and power factor
452
Chapter 6
which provide a source of magneto-motive force
6 (MMF); the driving force' behind the magnetic flux.
The value of MMF depends on the maximum flux
density required at the stator conductors to produce
the required voltage and on the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit. The magnetic circuit consists of
paths of low reluctance in the iron of the rotor and
stator, with an air gap of high reluctance between
them. The air gap reluctance is effectively constant,
but that of the iron paths increases at high values
of magnetic flux density, when the iron becomes
magnetically saturated.
2.5 Rotating phasors
A sinusoidally-varying voltage has an instantaneous
value v at time t expressed by:
v = V sin (27rf)t
where V = maximum value of v
f = frequency in Hz
The same relationship can be derived by rotating a
phasor of constant magnitude V at a constant speed
(Fig 6.6). At time t, when the phasor is at an angle
to the horizontal axis, v = V sin , i.e., the pro-
jection of V on to the vertical axis.
In a synchronous machine, all the sinusoidally-
varying quantities (voltage, current, etc.) can be re-
presented by phasors rotating together at synchronous
speed. The rotating phasor diagram can be thought
of as a snapshot of a set of phasors which all rotate
together while maintaining the relationships to each
other.
In a three-phase machine, with balanced electrical
output, conditions in one phase are repeated exactly
in the other two, with time delays of l/(3f) and 2/
(3f) For clarity, one phase is chosen, and its phasors
are taken as representative of the phase quantities
for all the other phases in a diagram of rotating
phasors.
2.6 Phasor diagrams
2.6.1 Rated voltage, no stator current, open-
circuit conditions
Let a phase voltage be represented by the phasor
V (Fig 6.7). Since it is the rate of change of flux
density which produces V, the phasor for flux den-
sity, B, is drawn 90 out-of-phase with V. The
MMF, F, producing this flux density is in phase
with B.
 Synchronous generator theory

INSTANTANEOUS
VOLTAGE

v = Vsin (2irf) t
= Vsin

FIG. 6.6 Rotating phasors

^ \ ^ - - ^ b = Bsin (100-TT) t

7* I f
X X \ \ ^ ^ ^ v = Vsin(100-rr)t

\ ~ \
L__--^~"" v
o / \ TIME I I

FIG. 6.7 Phasors for open-circuit conditions

453
The generator Chapter 6

2.6.2 Rated voltage, rated stator current and reactance. The term synchronous reactance (Xd + Xe)
rated power factor is used to express this effect, the IXd drop being
If the power factor is expressed as cos 0, is the added to the lXe drop in the diagrams.
angle between the voltage and current phasors, as As the lagging power factor of the load worsens,
shown in Fig 6.8 for a lagging power factor. i.e., cos is smaller and larger, the required MMF,
Current circulating in the stator winding results in F, increases, i.e., more current is required in the
voltage drops: IR due to the winding resistance R, in rotor winding (Fig 6.9 (a)). Conversely, if the lagging
phase with I, and IXf due to the winding 'leakage power factor increases or goes beyond unity into the
reactance', Xf, lagging I by 90. R is negligibly small, leading regime, the rotor current must be reduced
and the resistive voltage drop is neglected henceforth. (Fig 6.9 (b)).
An 'internal' voltage E must be generated in the
winding such that after subtracting (phasorially) the
leakage-reactance drop, the rated voltage V is pro-
duced at the terminals. 2.7 Torque
In order to generate E, flux density Be and MMF
The mechanical torque provided by the prime mover
Fe are required, such that the voltage, flux and MMF
is balanced by an electromagnetic torque caused by
phasor triangles are all similar. The physical meaning
the interaction of the magnetic flux and the current
of this is discussed later.
flowing in the stator windings.
Current in the three-phase stator winding produces
The rotor shaft must be designed to transmit rated
its own MMF, Fd, which acts in the same direction
torque, and the stator must be able to withstand a
as FX. An MMF, F, must be provided, such that,
similar torque reaction. In practice, the design must
when the Fd component is subtracted vectorially,
cope with the very much higher torques produced
the resultant is Fe. This is achieved by increasing the
during certain fault conditions.
rotor winding current and by the rotor moving ahead
of its open-circuit alignment, by the 'load angle', ,
as shown.
This demagnetising effect of the stator winding
current is known as armature reaction, and can be 2.8 Three-phase windings
seen from the diagram to be similar in effect (though The voltages and currents produced in each phase
much larger in magnitude) to that of the leakage must be identical, apart from their phase displace-

MMF PHASORS ROTATED BACK

THROUGH 90 TO SHOW
SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLE TO
VOLTAGE PHASORS

FIG. 6.8 Phasor diagram for load conditions

454

PROPORTIONAL
TO F
(a) Lagging current:
Excitation current on
load is proportional to F
FIG. 6.9 Phasor diagrams for lagging and leading loads
ments, in order to avoid the damaging effects of
unbalance.
In this and the next section, a complete two-pole
generator is considered, for simplicity. In a machine
with 2n poles, a two-pole segment is exactly repeated
n times, and can be considered as electromagnetically
equivalent to a two-pole machine.
An economic design of stator winding has many
conductors connected in series, so the individual con-
ductor voltages are additive. Each 'go' conductor is
connected to a Return' conductor, acted on by the
pole of opposite polarity, and thence to a third con-
ductor adjacent to the first, and so on through the
phase. The Return' conductors are disposed in a layer
displaced radially from the 'go' conductor, both in
the slots and in the end region.
The usual and most economic arrangement is for
the winding-of one phase to occupy one-sixth of the
circumference, with a parallel section of the same
phase occupying the position diametrically opposite
(see Fig 6.10).
2.9 Harmonics: distributed and chorded
winding
A cylindrical rotor generator has a circular rotor
Synchronous generator theory
PROPORTIONAL
TO F
(b) Leading current:
Rotor angle larger,
load excitation current smaller
profile which cannot be shaped to produce a sin-
usoidal flux density variation (as can, approximately,
a salient pole on a multi-polar slow speed generator).
The flux density variation in a turbine-generator is
of a stepped rectangular form (Fig 6.11), which con-
tains a fundamental with odd harmonics of significant
amplitude. The voltage induced in a single stator con-
ductor would contain similar unacceptable harmonic
components.
In a series-connected winding occupying several
adjacent slots in the stator, the voltage induced in
one conductor will be displaced from that induced
in its neighbour by the electrical angle subtended
by the two slots, a in Fig 6.12. The sum of n such
voltages is V + 2Vcos a + 2Vcos 2a + ... + 2Vcos
(n - -j )a if n is odd, or, 2Vcos a / 2 + 2Vcos 3 a / 2
+ ... 2V cos (2n - -y)cx, if n is even. The ratio of
this to nV is the distribution factor Kd ( < 1 ) .
The effect of distribution on the third harmonic
voltage is to triple the effective angle, so that the
summated voltage is:
V 3 + 2V 3 cos 3a + 2V3 cos 6a + etc.
and the resultant third harmonic voltage is very much
reduced. A similar argument applies even more effec-
tively to harmonics of higher order.
455
The generator
STATOR CONDUCTORS
NEAREST TO BORE
STATOR CONDUCTORS
FURTHEST FROM BORE
SPACES FOR
PARALLELED
PHASE A WINDING
CONNECTION OF PHASES
FIG. 6.10 Arrangement of stator conductors
A somewhat similar effect is produced by the
common practice of chording, or short-pitching. Here
the return conductor is at an angle less than 180
from its connected conductors. If is the angle by
which this falls short of 180 (Fig 6.13):
the ratio (1 - cos)/2 is the pitch factor, Kp (<1)
Hence, in the usual distributed short-pitched winding,
the generated voltage is nVKdKp, the harmonic con-
tent is acceptably small, and the stepped rectangular
flux density wave generates a substantially sinusoidal
voltage of fundamental frequency.
456
Chapter 6
3 Turbine-generator components: the
rotor
The rotor must carry the excitation winding, provide
a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux, and
transfer the rated torque from the turbine to the
electromagnetic reaction at the air gap. Steel is the
only material which meets these requirements
economically. A single steel forging is used, from
which the central cylindrical body and its supporting
shafts are machined.
3.1 Rotor body and shaft
The high rotational speed produces large centrifugal
forces in the rotor body, and a high-strength steel is
necessary. Typical alloying constituents are:
2.5% nickel 0.25% carbon
1.2% chrome 0.2% silicon
0.6% manganese 0.1% vanadium
0.5% molybdenum
The steel is vacuum-degassed, which minimises the
possibility of hydrogen-initiated cracking, and the
forging is hardened by reheating and quenching under
closely controlled conditions. Rough machining is
followed by a stress-relieving heat treatment.
Mechanical properties as high as 800 MN/m2 at 0.2%
proof stress, with 940 MN/m2 ultimate tensile strength,
are obtained in forgings for the largest
ratings. A reduction in area of 40%, elongation 15%,
Charpy V-notch impact level of 40 Joules, and a
fracture-appearance transition temperature of 20C,
are typical of this material, though specified pro-
perties are allowed to differ at different parts of the
forging and in different test piece orientations. Stresses
in a rotor at 3000 r/min limit the practicable diameter
to about 1150 mm.
The rotor is examined ultrasonically from the sur-
face at various stages, and any significant defects
are reported. These are most likely to occur near the
cylindrical axis, and may be cleared by machining a
central axial hole, not usually larger than 100 mm
diameter, through all or part of the rotor. The critical
defect size is established from considerations of crack
growth by fatigue, recognising that there will be a
small, but significant, once-per-revolution alternating
bending stress superimposed on the steady stress.
Magnetic permeability tests are carried out at flux
densities up to 2.2 tesla, i.e., well into magnetic
saturation.
The rough-turned forging is further turned by the
generator manufacturer. The winding slots are then
cut, using accurately indexed milling cutters working
at a controlled cut rate to minimise residual surface
stresses (see Fig 6.14).
 Turbine-generator components: the rotor

FUNDAMENTAL

DEVELOPED VIEW
SHOWING STEPPED MMF WAVE
AND FUNDAMENTAL SINE WAVE

FIG. 6.11 The stepped magneto motive force wave

The shape and size of the winding slots are deter-
mined by an optmisation process, taking into account
the following factors, and considering a radial cir-
cumferential section:
The more ampere-turns the rotor can carry, the
smaller the generator. Together with the need for
keeping a low current density to minimise the loss
and temperature, as much of the area as possible
must be allocated to the winding copper.
The winding insulation must be mechanically strong
to withstand centrifugal and bending stresses, and
stable to withstand load cycling. Adequate electrical
457
The generator
FIG. 6.12 The effect of distributing the stator winding over several slots
tracking distances from the winding to the rotor
body must be provided, since the winding is in
direct contact with the ventilating gas, and dirt
and oil may collect on insulation surfaces. The
insulation must therefore be more substantial than
the operating voltage of about 600 V would require
in other applications.
Passages for an appropriate flow of cooling gas
must be provided in the winding copper section,
and also in the steel body section in some designs,
to ensure that the specified temperature rise is
not exceeded.
The magnetic flux in the rotor is unidirectional
and normally substantially constant, so there is
no loss due to magnetic hysteresis or eddy currents,
but there must be an adequate magnetic section
particularly in the area of the winding slots. A
high degree of saturation in the teeth would result
in unacceptably high excitation requirements and
losses.
458
Chapter 6
THE EFFECT ON THE
FUNDAMENTAL VOLTAGES
THE EFFECT ON THE
THIRD HARMONIC VOLTAGES
The whole centrifugal force of the slot contents, the
retaining wedge and the tooth is resisted by the
narrowest section of the tooth, normally the tooth
root. There must be an adequate safety margin
between the maximum tooth stress at overspeed and
the proof stress of the steel.
The optimisation of these conflicting requirements
has led, in the latest designs, to a departure from
parallel-sided slots to slots of trapezoidal section (Fig
6.15).
The winding slots are cut in diametrically opposite
pairs, equally pitched over about two-thirds of the
periphery, leaving the pole faces without winding slots.
The resulting difference in stiffness in the two per-
pendicular axes would produce a twice-per-revolution
vibration; this is avoided by cutting equalising slots
in the pole faces (Fig 6.16). These are either similar to
the winding slots and are subsequently filled with short
steel blocks to restore the magnetic properties, or
slits cut with a large diameter cutter in the radial

FIG. 6.13 The effect of short-pitching the stator winding
circumferential plane, at intervals axially along the
pole faces.
During a three-phase sudden short-circut at the
generator terminals, torque peaks of four to five
times full-load torque are experienced between the
LP turbine and generator shafts. The generator rotor
shaft and coupling at the turbine end must be designed
to withstand this peak torque with an adequate safety
margin. The coupling is usually shrunk on and keyed
or dowelled, and has oil-injection grooves for removal.
A proportion of the coupling bolts are fitted, the
others have a clearance to the coupling holes.
Journal and journal-type shaft seal surfaces are
ground and polished to a high degree of circularity.
Overall, good surface finishes and absence of sharp
blemishes are called for. Radii are made as large as
practicable to minimise stress concentrations.
3.2 Rotor winding
Winding coils are assembled into pairs of rotor slots
symmetrically disposed about the pole axis, but in
opposite senses in the two poles, i.e., clockwise cur-
rent flow for the 'north' pole and counterclockwise
for the 'south' pole.
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
EFFECT ON
FUNDAMENTAL VOLTAGE
EFFECT ON
THIRD HARMONIC
VOLTAGE
EFFECT ON
FIFTH HARMONIC
VOLTAGE
Because the rotor winding slots are cut radially,
it is not possible to fit a preformed coil into the slots
since the span of a coil is smaller the lower down
the slot it is, and considerable distortion would be
required to get the coils in. Each turn is therefore
assembled separately, either as half-turns or in more
pieces, with joints either at the centres of the end-
turns or at the corners, being brazed together after
each turn is assembled, to form a series-connected
coil. Hard, high conductivity copper, with a small silver
content to improve its creep properties, is used for
the coils. Depending on the method of ventilation,
rectangular sections with grooves and/or slots, or
tubular rectangular sections are used. When a trape-
zoidal slot is used, the sections may be of several
different sizes. One or two turns in the width of the
slot are normally used. Radially-aligned slots provide
gas exit passages (see Fig 6.17).
The coils are not individually wrapped with insula-
tion. Instead, slot liners of moulded glassfibre, or a
composite of glassfibre and a more flexible insulating
material, insulate the coils from the sides and bottoms
of the slots, and a block of insulation separates the
top turn from the wedge. Between each turn, thin
separators of glassfibre or similar material, serve to
insulate against the 10 V or so between adjacent turns
459
The generator
FIG. 6.14 Cutting winding slots in a rotor
(Fig 6.18). Thick layers of insulation material on the
inside surfaces of the end ring and end disc insulate
them from the end windings. The spaces between
turns in the end windings are partially filled with
insulating blocks, which ensure that the coils do not
distort, and which contain holes and passages for
the transfer of ventilating gas.
Because direct current circulates in the winding,
there are no eddy current or other frequency related
losses in the rotor winding. The resistance (I2R) loss,
amounting to 2 MW at rated load, together with the
rotational (windage) loss, must be dissipated, and the
average winding temperature must not be allowed
to exceed 115C. A cooling system is used, in which
hydrogen is in direct contact with the copper con-
ductors, for optimum heat transfer. The high ro-
tational speed produces a pressure head through the
rotor slots which causes hydrogen to flow from both
ends, under the end windings and axially through sub-
slots in the rotor and channels in the coils, whence
it emerges radially through the wedges into the airgap.
460
Chapter 6
Fans mounted on the rotor, primarily to circulate
hydrogen through the stator, assist the natural flow
through the rotor (see Fig 6.19).
The ends of the winding are connected to flexible
leads, made from many thin copper strips, which run
radially inwards onto the shaft at the exciter end.
These leads are housed in two shallow slots in the
shaft and are retained by wedges. At a point axially
beyond the end windings, the leads connect with
radial copper studs and thence to D-shaped copper
bars housed in the shaft bore. Seals against hydrogen
leakage are provided on the radial studs. From the
D-leads, connections are taken either to sliprings
or to the shaft-mounted exciter connections in a
brushless machine (see Fig 6.17).
3.3 Rotor end rings
Thick end rings are used to restrain the rotor end
windings from flying out under the action of centri-

MAGNETIC
FLUX
FIG. 6.15 Optimisation of a rotor section
fugal force. For electromagnetic reasons, these rings
have traditionally been made from non-magnetic steel,
typically a 18% Mn, 4% Cr austenitic steel. A 0.2%
proof stress of 1000 MN/m2 is available to cope with
the high operating stresses. A ring is machined from
a single forging, and is attached to the end of the
rotor body with a shrink fit designed to provide a
small residual interference at 20% overspeed. The
material has proved to be liable to stress-corrosion
cracking at the stresses involved, and all the surfaces ex-
cept the shrink fit are given a protective finish to
ensure that hydrogen, water vapour, etc., does not
have access to the surfaces. Even so, it is recom-
mended that rings are removed occasionally for de-
tailed surface crack detection using a fluorescent
dye. Ultrasonic scanning is not entirely satisfactory,
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
GAS EXIT
CURRENT CARRYING
CONDUCTORS
COOLING GAS DUCTS
because of the coarse grain structure, particularly
where the shape is complex.
An austenitic steel, containing 18% Mn 18% Cr,
has recently been developed which has shown virtual im-
munity to stress-corrosion cracking in exhaustive
tests, while maintaining other properties at least as
good as the older material. This alloy is being used in
new machines and for replacement rings, eliminating
the need for periodic inspection.
The end ring is prevented from moving axially
either by means of lugs mating with similar lugs on
the rotor body, or by small spring-loaded plungers
locating into grooves (see Fig 6.20). In both these
designs, the ring must be rotated through a small
angle, when fully home axially, in order to lock. In
a different design, a screwed ring is used to pull the
461
The generator Chapter 6

SLIPRING
TERMINAL STUD
END BELL

POLE FACE

INERTIA SLITS SLIPRINGS

END BELL

ROTOR BLOWER

WINDING SLOTS
AND WEDGES

TURBINE
HALF COUPLING

FIG. 6.16 Stiffness compensation

462
 POLE FACE
POLE SLOT POLE FACE DAMPING WINDING
END WEDGE VENTILATION HOLE p 0 LE F A CE
POLE SLOT \ \ E N D CAP KEY PACKING R A D 1 AL
iK,-rCD -r, .DM BALANCING
WEDGE PACKING INTER TURN R ) NG END WINDING
POLE SLOT
ROTOR BODY INSULATION INSULATION SUPPORT BLOCK
/ FILLER BLOCK
BALANCE WEIGHT SLOT
BALANCE RING
LOCKING SCREW
SLIPRING LEAD WEDGE
BOLT
LOCKING PLATE
SLIPRING LEAD

INSULATING TUBE

RADIAL
CONNECTION BOLT

SLIPRING LEADS

WINDING
VENTILATION HOLES

TOOTH
PACKING INSULATING
BALANCING / WEDGE SEPARATOR
PLUG HOLES / PACKING
SLIPRING , n m ,
DAMPING 7
BAR AND TAG RADIAL
CONNECTING CONNECTION
RING

COOLING GAS FLOW

COMPENSATING END CAP
WEIGHT WITHDRAWAL HOLES

FIG. 6.17 Rotor winding

463
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
The generator Chapter 6

a small taper to facilitate assembly and removal. It

is insulated from the end winding with either a
moulded-in glass-based liner or a loose cylindrical
sleeve.
The outboard end of an end ring is partially closed
by a shrunk-on annular steel disc which encloses the
EPOXIDE GLASS STRIPS
end wnding. Clearance between the end winding and
the shaft allows hydrogen to pass into entry ports
in the winding copper. No contact between the out-
EPOXIDE GLASS
board end of the ring and the shaft is permissible,
CAPPING since the shaft flexure could promote fatigue and
fretting damage at the interfaces. The end disc com-
monly contains facilities for adjusting the mechanical
balance of the rotor.
DOUBLE STRAP
COPPER COIL TURNS

NYLON PAPER 3.4. Wedges and dampers

INSULATION STRIPS
BETWEEN TURNS The winding slot contents are retained by a wedge,
which must be designed to withstand the crushing
stress on its lands and the bending stress across its
width, bearing in mind that it contains holes or slots
through which hydrogen passes. It must also be non-
magnetic in order to minimise flux leakage around
the rotor circumference, and to ensure a reasonable reac-
EPOXIDE GLASS
tance value.
SLOT LINER Extruded aluminium section is generally used, ma-
chined in the regions of high stress. If short axial
lengths are used, the potentiality for localised crack
initiation in the rotor teeth exists. One continuous
wedge per slot is therefore commonly used, although
these are more difficult to fit.
During conditions of rapidly changing flux, for ex-
ample, during system faults, or when an alternat-
ing flux links the rotor during unbalanced electrical
loading, when negative phase sequence currents and
fluxes occur, current is induced in the surface of
the rotor. Because the 'skin depth' of the magnetic
rotor steel is about 1 mm whereas that of the non-
magnetic wedges is an order of magnitude greater,
current flows preferentially in the wedges, which
form a 'damper winding' analogous to the rotor cage
of an induction motor. The wedges are of suffi-
cient cross-sectional area to carry the current cor-
responding to the expected unbalanced load, without
FIG. 6.18 Rotor slot damage due to overheating, but the areas of current
transfer into the end rings (which act as the short-
circuiting rings) have to be carefully designed. Thin cop-
per sheets with 'tongues' fitting under the ends
ring through its final few millimetres, and this also of the wedges form an interleaved ring under the
locks it circumferentially. inboard end of the end ring, and assist in the avoid-
The ring must be heated to about 300C to expand ance of localised areas of preferential current transfer
it sufficiently for the shrink surface to pass over its and hot spots.
mating area on the rotor. The heat is applied by a In pole faces having axial compensating slots, a
special cylindrical electrical heater. If a gas heater is similar arrangement is provided. In those with cross-
used, the ring surface is protected from the direct pole slits, a few very shallow axial slots are cut to
flame by a thin metal cover. accommodate copper damper strips, which are re-
The inner diameter of the ring is machined with tained by wedges, to transfer the surface current across
464

STOP KEY
OUTBOARD
END
ROTOR SHAFT
FIG. 6.19 Rotor fan
the slits, and prevent hot spots at the ends of the
slits.
3.5 Sliprings, brushgear and shaft earthing
Connections are taken from the D-leads in the bore,
through radial copper connectors (which may have
back-up hydrogen seals) and flexible connections, onto
the sliprings (Fig 6.21). For a 660 MW generator,
the rated excitation current is about 5000 A, and
sliprings must have a large surface area and run cool
in order to transfer this current satisfactorily. One
design uses two sliprings of the same polarity in
parallel. The ring surface is grooved and drilled to im-
prove its surface cooling.
The brushgear shown in Fig 6.22 is arranged with
Turbine-generator components: the rotor
VANE BACK PLATE KEY
GAS
RESTRICTOR
VENTILATION
SLOT
several brushes and holders on one of several re-
movable brackets, each of which can be withdrawn
for brush replacement while running on-load, if spe-
cial precautions are observed (see Fig 6.22 inset).
Brush pressure is maintained by constant pressure
springs. A brush life of at least six months should
be obtained.
The brushgear is housed in a separate compartment
of the excitation housing, separately ventilated by a
shaft-mounted fan so that brush dust is not distri-
buted into other excitation components. Small leakages
of hydrogen past the connection seals which might
accumulate in the brushgear compartments during pro-
longed shutdown periods, are safely diluted by the
fan on start-up before excitation current is applied. Win-
dows in the cover permit easy inspection of the
brushgear.
465
The generator
FlG. 6.20 Rotor end ring
Monitoring of excitation current and voltage and
rotor winding temperature by resistance measurement,
is simply achieved in a generator with sliprings, using
a current shunt and voltage connections in one of
the excitation cubicles. Rotor earth fault detection,
and the application of tests such as the recurrent
surge method for shorted-turn detection, are also
simply arranged.
Where no main excitation sliprings are fitted (Fig
6.23), signal may be transmitted from the shaft, via
telemetry. Alternatively, a set of light current sliprings
and brushgear may be provided for signal monitoring
and protection purposes.
466
Chapter 6
It is normal for a large generator to produce an
on-load voltage of 10-50 V between its two shaft
ends, due to magnetic dissymmetry and other causes.
This voltage would drive current axially through the
rotor body, returning through bearings and journals,
causing damage to their surfaces, and insulation bar-
riers are provided to prevent such current circulation.
These need only be at one end, the exciter end, but
must be present wherever the shaft would otherwise con-
tact earthed metal, for example, at bearings, seals, oil
scrapers, oil pipes and gear-driven pumps. In
some designs, two layers of insulation are provided,
with a 'floating' metallic component between them,
 ' RING
LOCKING PLATE CLAMP NUT
RADIAL CONNECTION BOLT
COMPRESSION RING
LOCKPLATE
' RING / / SLIPRING CONNECTION STRIP
SLIPRING
CONNECTION TUBE SLIPRING CONNECTION RING

SEALING RINGS SLIPRING AXIAL LEAD

INSULATION UNDER SLIPRING

' RING

INSULATING BUSH

LOCKING SCREW

PLUG

ROTOR SHAFT

SLIPRING

SLIPRING AXIAL LEAD

TAPERED NUT
RETAINING PIN
INSULATING SEPARATOR

RETAINING DISC
INSULATING TUBE

SEALING GASKET

COMPRESSION PLATE
AXIAL LEAD TO
SLIPRING ' & '

AXIAL LEAD TO
SLIPRING 'B' & C

METHOD OF CONNECTING SLIPRINGS IN PARALLEL TO AXIAL LEADS

Turbine-generator components: the rotor

467
FIG. 6.21 Sliprings and connections
The generator Chapter 6

RUBBER GLOVE

INSULATED HANDLE

BRUSHGEAR SUPPORT BRACKET

PLASTIC RING
WASHER
BONDED INSULATING
TUBE
STEEL WASHER INSULATING CAP
INSULATING RING
TAPER PIN
BRUSHGEAR PALM
SPRING

INSULATING CAP TUBE SPANNER

LOCKING SCREW CONNECTING STUD

TUBE SPANNER

SPRING PROTECTION
COVER
RELEASE
STUD TRIGGER SECURING SCREW
METHOD OF SECURING BRUSHGEAR PALMS BRUSHARM
TO BRUSHGEAR SUPPORT BRACKET CRINKLE WASHER
CLAMPING BOLT- LOCKING PIN
GRUB SCREW
SPRING CLIP

FLEXIBLE
CONNECTION
DOWEL |-f- BRUSH BOX
LOCKING BAR' MILLED RECESS
CAIM
CARBON BRUSH
PLASTIC BUSH '
RIVET"
CONSTANT PRESSURE
SPRING

FLANGED INSULATING
BUSH

INSULATING CAP

EYEBOLT

MAIN GENERATOR
ROTOR SHAFT

SLIPRING

FIG. 6.22 Slipring brushgear and brushes

468
 Turbine-generator components: the rotor

RETAINING RING INSULATION SPRING LOADED EXTENSION BAFFLE

\PLUNGER

ROTOR SHAFT END

STUD CONNECTOR

SHAFT BORE
CONDUCTORS

FIG. 6.23 Brushless rotor connections

so that a simple resistance measurement between the
floating component and earth confirms the integrity
of the insulation.
While all the insulation remains clean and intact,
a voltage will exist between the shaft at the exciter
end and earth, and this provides another method
of confirming the integrity of the insulation. A shaft-
riding brush enables this shaft voltage to be moni-
tored, and an alarm is initiated when this falls below
a predetermined value.
It is important that the shaft at the turbine end
of the generator is maintained at earth potential,
and a pair of shaft-riding brushes connected to earth
through a resistor achieves this. Because carbon
brushes develop a high resistance glaze when op-
erated for long periods without current flow, a spe-
cial circuit passes a 'wetting' current into and out
of the shaft through the brushes; this circuit also
detects when brush contact is lost (Fig 6.24). A
different scheme, in which a current carrying contact

TURBINE
GENERATOR
MAIN EXCITER 0 IL P U MP A ND
PIIOTFXCITER
PILOT EXCITER BARRING GEAR

JUNCTION BOX VOLTAGE MONITOR BRUSH - _ ^

JUNCTION BOX J-* I

RESISTORS -
FUSE HOLDER
LINK 1 OHM
-ZD- STATION
EARTH

DIAGRAM OF EARTHING BRUSH CONNECTIONS

FIG. 6.24 Shaft earthing and monitoring

469
The generator
or rub anywhere along the turbine-generator shaft
system can be detected, has also been used.
3.6 Fans
Fans circulate hydrogen through the stator and coolers.
Identical fans are mounted at each end of the shaft,
each ventilating half the axial length of the generator.
Fans are either of the centrifugal type, with many
vanes in one annular assembly, or of the axial-flow
type in which the propeller vanes may be separate
bolted-on components (Fig 6.25). The diameter over
the blade tips may exceed that of the stator bore,
necessitating the fitting of one fan after the rotor
has been threaded through the stator. Inlet and outlet
conditions are far from ideal, and though stationary
guide vanes are used to reduce swirl, the fan effi-
ciency is low. Noise reduction is not a major concern,
since the massive stator casing is an effective acoustic
barrier.
3.7 Rotor threading and alignment
The rotor must be inserted into the stator bore, which
is about 250 mm larger than the rotor diameter. This
is accomplished by supporting the inserted end of
the rotor body on a thick steel skidplate which slides
in the stator bore, while supporting the outboard end
from a crane (Fig 6.26). The skidplate spreads the
load over its area and prevents high local pressures
being applied to the stator core laminations. The
rotor and skidplate are pulled in using jacking ar-
rangements until the inboard end emerges and can
also be supported in a sling.
Other methods are also in use; short lengths of
extension shaft which are successively bolted onto
the inboard end enable the rotor to be supported by
FIG. 6.25 Axial flow fans on rotor
470
Chapter 6
slings throughout the operation. The use of a support
trolley running on wheels of insulation material in
the bore is deprecated because of the core damage it
can cause. Adequate space for rotor insertion and
removal must be provided.
The whole turbine-generator line of rotors is non-
flexibly coupled together and must be allowed to
attain its natural catenary shape if the bearing load-
ings are to be satisfactory. The supports for the
generator (and exciter) rotors must be set up so that
these rotors form part of the catenary. Coupling
alignments are accurately set by the use of bridge
gauges and concentricity checks, and the stator is set
up so that the radial airgap is approximately constant.
The axial position of the rotor train is fixed by
the thrust bearing, which is located in the turbine.
Axial expansion of the turbine rotors downstream of
the thrust face, and of the generator rotor, due to
temperature changes, may amount to 25 mm or more,
and this must be accommodated in bearings, seals,
fan baffles, oil scrapers, etc.
3.8 Vibration
Rotors for generators of 500 and 660 MW operating
at 3000 r/min are relatively flexible, and pass through
two main critical speeds (natural resonances in bending)
during run-up to rated speed. Simple two-plane bal-
ancing techniques are not usually adequate to attain
the high degree of balance demanded at speed and
to maintain reasonable vibration levels during run-up
and run-down. Facilities for balancing are therefore
provided along the length of the rotor in the form
of tapped holes in the cylindrical surface, as well
as in the closing discs of the end rings, and in other
locations at the ends.
The rotor is balanced at speeds up to 3000 r/min
in the manufacturer's works. The winding is then
 Turbine-generator components: the rotor

STAGE 1

Tt
er
S
STAGE 2

X3
It^frM ttpjf QflOnswi

STAGE 3
5 STAGE 4

2X
STAGE 5 STAGE 6

FIG. 6.26 Rotor insertion and withdrawal

heated and the rotor is run at 20% overspeed. This
subjects the rotor to stresses greater than it would
experience in service, and also causes the winding
and end rings to settle into their final positions.
Trim balancing is then carried out, if found to be
necessary.
Some rotors exhibit a relationship between vibra-
tion amplitude and temperature. A few degrees dif-
ference in temperature between one pole and the
other, due to inequalities in ventilation, for example,
can cause this. If the effect is consistent, it can usu-
ally be partially offset by balancing, so that conditions
at operating temperature are optimised (see Fig 6.27).
Imperfect equalisation of the stiffnesses (see Section
3.1 of this chapter) will cause 100 Hz vibration to
occur, superimposed on the normal 50 Hz. It is im-
portant to distinguish between these components when
presenting or analysing vibration amplitude readings.
A significant crack in the rotor will have a com-
paratively greater effect on the double frequency vibra-
tion component; 'run-down' traces are recorded and
analysed, to provide assurance that no significant
471
The generator
1000
SPEED, r/min
(a) Typical speed-vibration curve
FIG. 6.27 Rotor vibration
change has occurred since the previous run down.
Oil whirl in bearings can cause vibration at 25 Hz.
Vibration amplitude and phase are recorded at
generator and exciter bearings by accelerometers
mounted on the bearing supports and by proximity
probes which respond to the shaft movements. Var-
ious degrees of sophistication, up to complete Fourier
analysis, are available.
The torsional resonance of the generator rotor
coupled to the turbine rotors is of the order of
13 Hz. It is important that this is significantly dif-
ferent from the frequency of torsional exciting in-
fluences, of which the excitation and steam governor
control (1-2 Hz), and transmission system resonances
are the most important.
Transient oscillations in torque occur during elec-
trical disturbances, e.g., during switching operations,
lightning strikes, imperfect synchronising events, etc.
Some of the torque cycles may be large enough to
cause plastic deformation in the turbine-end shaft
and at the generator/exciter coupling.
3.9 Bearings and seals
The turbine-end bearing is located in a common ped-
estal with the LP turbine outboard bearing. The ex-
citer-end bearing is either located in the endshield
or in a separate pedestal. The white-metalled bearings
are spherically seated for ease of alignment, are pres-
sure lubricated and are provided with jacking oil tap-
pings. They are similar to the turbine bearings (see
Chapter 1), except that the outboard and exciter bear-
ings are insulated (see Section 3.5 of this chapter),
472
Chapter 6
ORIGINAL HOT
OPERATING POINT
ORIGINAL
INCREASES
INCREASE WITH WITH TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
ORIGINAL COLD BALANCE
3000 AFTER OFFSET BALANCE, COLD
(b) Vector plot of offset balancing
VECTORS REPRESENT AMPLITUDE AND PHASE ANGLE OF
SHAFT DISPLACEMENT OR SINUSOIDAL VELOCITY
and are connected to the same lubricating oil system.
Seals are provided in both endshields to prevent
the escape of hydrogen along the shafts. Most of
these seals are like small thrust bearings, in which
a non-rotating white-metalled ring bears against a
collar on the shaft (Fig 6.28). Oil fed to an annular
groove in the ring flows radially inwards across the
face into a collection space at frame gas pressure,
while the radially outward flow is collected in an
atmospheric air compartment. The seal ring must be
held against the rotating collar, and must therefore
be able to move axially to accommodate the thermal
expansion of the shaft.
Some machines have seals which resemble small
journal bearings (Fig 6.29), in which oil is applied
centrally and flows axially inboard to encounter the
hydrogen pressure and axially outboard into an at-
mospheric compartment. Such a seal does not have
to move axially, since the shaft can move freely inside
it. Details of the seal oil system are given in Section
5.3 of this chapter.
3.10 Size and weight
A rotor for a 660 MW generator is up to 16.5 m
long and weighs up to 75 tonnes. It is provided with
a cradle for transport. The rotor must never be al-
lowed to be supported on its end rings; the weight
must be taken by the body surface leaving the end
rings free. Lifting slings must only be used over the
body length. It must be protected from water con-
tamination, while in transit or storage, by the use of
a weatherproof container with an effective moisture

OIL DEFLECTOR DIAPHRAGM OUTER
RING RETAINING RING
WHITE METAL
SEAL FACE
FIG. 6.28 Thrust-type shaft seal
absorbent. If left inside an open stator, dry air must
be circulated.
Protection applied to journals, sliprings, etc., must
be removed before operation. Blanking tape and
collars, designed to prevent ingress of foreign ma-
terial into the winding, must also be removed before
operation.
4 Turbine-generator components: the
stator
The stator must carry the output winding, provide a
low reluctance path for the magnetic flux, and with-
stand the torque produced, both at rated load and
during faults.
When generators rated 300 MW and above were
first specified, it was found that the smallest prac-
ticable stator core, assembled into the lightest pos-
sible casing was too heavy for transport by road
in the UK, within the statutory limitation of that
time. Since it is not practical to design a core in
sections for on-site assembly, and complete core
building and winding on site has disadvantages, a
design evolved in which the core and windings were
assembled into a skeletal core frame, which could
Turbine-generator components: the stator
INSULATING RINGS
be transported. The completed core and core frame
assembly was inserted into a substantial outer casing
for in-works testing and finally at site. Although
one-piece stators for 660 MW generators can now
be transported, the two-piece concept has been con-
tinued (see Fig 6.1).
4.1 Stator core
The core provides paths for the magnetic flux from
one rotor pole around the outside of the stator wind-
ing and back into the other pole.
As the rotor rotates, carrying its flux distribution
with it, all points in the stator core experience a
sinusoidally-varying 50 Hz flux density. This would
induce a 50 Hz voltage of about 700 V axially in a
solid core, and to prevent large circulating currents
with their associated losses, the core is made of thin
steel plates coated with an insulating material; the
voltage induced axially in each plate is about 50 mV.
The sheet steel from which core plates are cut
conforms to BS601, which specifies dimensional lim-
its, magnetic properties, silicon content (normally 3%)
and state of annealing, and test methods. Sheet thick-
nesses used are 0.35 and 0.5 mm, with a specific
473
The generator
GAS SIDE OIL
WIPERS
SEAL HOUSING
SEAL RETAINING RING
SEAL CARRIER RING
SEAL OIL DRAIN
(GAS SIDE)
AIR SIDE OIL FLOW
GAS SIDE OIL FLOW
FIG. 6.29 Double-flow ring seal
total loss value at 1.5 tesla and 50 Hz of 3.55 W/kg,
or better.
Core plates are cut to form segments of an annular
ring, twelve segments per ring being common. Wind-
ing slots, location notches and holes for ventilation
(if required) are cut in one pressing operation. The
use of dedicated dies is justified, since nearly a quar-
ter of a million core plates are used in each 660 MW
generator. The punched plates are ground to remove
edge burrs, and are then coated all over with one or
more thin layers of a baked-on insulating varnish.
With the core frame axis vertical, and one core
end plate in position at the lower end of the frame,
a ring of core plates is assembled, located on dove-
tail-shaped keys on the inside periphery of the frame.
The radial butt joint between plates has as small
a gap as possible to minimise magnetic flux distor-
tion. The next ring of core plates is assembled so
that its butt joints do not coincide with those of
adjacent rings (see Fig 6.30).
Gaps in the build-up of core plates are created,
474
Chapter 6
BEARING AND OIL
CATCHERS
where required, for the passage of cooling gas, by
building in a ring of thicker plates to which small
steel bars have been welded. These bars are aligned
in a mainly radial orientation, and serve to distribute
the gas through the ducts. Holes in the plates are
arranged to be in axial alignment and thus form axial
ventilation ducts in some designs. At intervals during
core building, heavy pressure is applied to consolidate
the assembly of plates.
When the build is almost complete, and with pres-
sure applied at the top end, the core is subjected to
a peripheral 50 Hz magnetic flux, which causes the
plates to shake down further, following which the
space created is filled with more core plates and the
top end plate is assembled and pulled down. Core
flux tests are also carried out on the completed core,
with a flux density in the back of the core 90-100%
of the rated value, in order to demonstrate freedom
from significant faults (Fig 6.31). If sufficient acci-
dental contacts between adjacent plates occur, it is
possible for current to flow, causing local hot spots.

FIG. 6.30 Stator core assembly
An infra-red camera is used to scan the stator bore
for areas of higher than normal temperature during
such a test.
Some designs include a bonding agent between
layers of core plates to ensure that individual plates,
and particularly the teeth, do not vibrate independ-
ently. Any wavyness in core build-up is corrected by
the use of suitable packing material.
Grain-oriented sheet steel, whose magnetic pro-
perties are deliberately made different in the two
perpendicular axes, is used in some designs (Fig 6.32).
Flux in a circumferential direction behind the winding
slots is arranged to coincide with the low loss orienta-
tion, which enables the back of the core to be op-
erated at a higher flux density than with non-oriented
core steel, for the same specific loss. The opposite is
true for the teeth, where the flux is radial and the
specific loss is higher than normal. A reduction in
outside diameter should be possible from magnetic
considerations, but the mechanical properties are ad-
versely affected. Core plates of grain-oriented steel
must be specially annealed after punching.
Turbine-generator components: the stator
The net axial length of magnetic steel presented to
the flux is less than the measured stacked length by
a factor between 0.9 and 0.95, known as the stacking
factor. This is because of the varnish layers (and
adhesive if present), and the air spaces between core
plate layers due to uneven plate thickness and im-
perfect consolidation.
Slots for the stator winding conductors (bars) extend
radially from the bore. These slots have parallel sides,
so that the deep bars can be inserted radially, the
teeth between them therefore increase in section with
increasing radial distance. The flux density in the
teeth is therefore greatest at the bore, at the tooth
tips, and is usually about 2 tesla for an acceptable
specific loss in the teeth. Since the slots and teeth
are roughly equally wide at the gap, the mean peak
flux density in the air gap is typically 1 tesla. The
peak flux density in the core back is typically 1.5
tesla. Some leakage flux in the end winding regions
penetrates into the ends of the core. The axial com-
ponent of this flux induces alternating voltages in the
teeth, and current flows around the teeth, as shown
475
The generator
FIG. 6.31 Flux test on completed core
(see also colour photograph between pp 482 and 483)
in Fig 6.33, causing unacceptable additional losses.
To reduce this effect, one or more radial slots are
punched in the teeth for a few centimetres at the
ends of the core, referred to as Pistoye slots.
The rotating magnetic field results in a rotating
radially-inward force being applied to the core across
a diameter, causing an ovalising distortion moving
synchronously. The strength of the core and core
frame assembly must be able to resist this force with
minimum strain, which is transmitted to the windings
and the outer casing as a 100 Hz vibration. It is also
important that the assembly has no resonances near
to the exciting frequency.
Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core form
a significant proportion of the total loss. In UK
designs, the heat produced by these losses is removed
by hydrogen circulating radially in the ducts and
axially through holes, where these are provided (Fig
6.34). Thermocouples are built into the core, parti-
cularly in regions expected to be hotter than average,
to ensure that the maximum detected core temperature
does not exceed the specified value. If a hot spot
exists, or develops in service, it is unlikely that there
will be a thermocouple sufficiently close to it to
provide an unambiguous alarm. An occasional flux
test, when opportunity occurs, offers a better chance
of hot spot detection. A deep-seated hot spot may
be detectable by observing the rate of rise of tem-
476
Chapter 6
perature at the bore, as well as the final steady
temperature.
As noted earlier, if accidental contacts occur (at
the tooth tips or due to burrs at, or damage to, the
slot surfaces), a circuit may possibly exist for a cir-
culating current. The current level depends, inter alia,
on the contact resistances between the back of the
core plates and the core frame bars on which the
plates are assembled. In some designs, all these bars
(except one which earths the core) are covered with
insulating material, minimising the chance of current
circulation (Fig 6.35). In others, there is no insu-
lation, and the contact resistance is not only random,
but may vary with load as the torque reaction is
transferred, causing a hot spot in the core to Switch*
on and off.
4.2 Core frame
The fabricated steel core frame is designed to be as
light as possible consistent with its required functions,
as previously explained. As well as the functions
already noted, it must be able to resist elastically the
axial pressure applied to the core.
A core end plate assembly consists of a thick disc
of non-magnetic steel, with (usually) separate non-
magnetic 'fingers' to support the teeth. Because bolts

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF MAGNETIC FLUX
IN STATOR CORE, OPEN-CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
AREA OF
MODERATE
FLUX DENSITY ROLLING DIRECTION
GRAIN-ORIENTED
CORE SEGMENT
FIG. 6.32 Flux in stator core
passing through the core would have high voltages
induced in them, the only permissible axial members
are located outside the core back; these include the
core plate assembly bars. In order to apply pressure
uniformly over the core ends with such an arrange-
ment, the end plates are machined with tapered inner
faces, so that when they are pulled towards each
other they distort until they present a truly plane
surface to the core, at which point the design pressure
is being applied to the core (Fig 6.36).
The core plate assembly bars are loose as the
core is assembled, and are progressively welded to
the frame as core building proceeds, using location
plates. Thus, although the core frame may be stress-
Turbine-generator components: the stator
relieved, these additional welds are not.
Even though the axial frame members are outside
the core diameter, they link with the low level of
leakage flux existing in this area, and voltages are in-
duced axially along them. Near to the ends, elec-
tromagnetic end-effects tend to force the resulting
currents into the core and, if the assembly bars are
not insulated, core back burning and welding can oc-
cur. To prevent this, copper short-circuiting connec-
tions are fitted between assembly bars at the core
ends. Where the bars are insulated, the currents flow
into and around the core end plate.
The outer surfaces of the core end plates are
covered by conducting screens of copper or alumi-
nium, about 10 mm thick (see Fig 6.37, end plate flux
shield). Leakage flux impinging onto these screens
sets up circulating currents within them which prevent
the penetration of an unacceptable amount of flux
into the core end plate or the ends of the core. The
high conductivity and good surface exposure to
cooling hydrogen ensures that screen temperatures are
not excessive. The leakage flux is produced by a
combination of stator and rotor MMFs, and there-
fore varies with load angle, or, roughly, with power
factor, the effect on the screens being most intense
at leading power factors.
The core end plate assembly carries the end winding
support structure, and the design must ensure that
axial forces due to differential thermal expansion be-
tween core and winding do not force the end plates
into a position where core pressure is significantly
reduced.
The completed core and core frame assembly must
be jacked into position inside the casing, where it is
supported on feet with resilient mountings, or by flat
vertical support plates, either of which provide some
attenuation of vibration. The holding down bolts must
be designed to withstand the overturning torque pro-
duced during a sudden three-phase fault at the ter-
minals, which may be four to six times the full-load
torque.
4.3 Stator winding
The stator winding must be able to carry the rated
current without exceeding specified temperatures and
be able to withstand the voltage to earth induced in
it. The currents and voltages in the three phases
must be exactly the same, but with a 2/3 time dis-
placement for balanced conditions, and so the wind-
ings associated with each phase must be identical
but separated by 27r/3 around the stator circumfer-
ence. It is convenient in large two-pole generators
to arrange each phase winding in two identical paral-
lel circuits, located diametrically opposite each other,
and, because they are influenced by rotor poles of
opposite senses, connected back-to-back with each
other (see Fig 6.10).
477
The generator Chapter 6

COOLANT MANIFOLD
WINDING FLANGED JOINT COOLANT INLET
CORE CORE FRAME CORE END LEAD W | N D | N G LEAD ' ' M A N I F 0 LD
P L A TE
/ CLAMP I

v
FLEXIBLE HOSE

-INSULATING SLEEVE

-INSULATING CAP

CONNECTING LINK

^CONDUCTOR NOZZLE

MAIN
FLUX

SUPPORT CYLINDRICAL GAS BAFFLE . PISTOYE

SADDLE FLASH SUPPORT RING SLOT
BARRIER

AXIAL VIEW OF
STATOR TEETH

FIG. 6.33 Pistoye slots in stator teeth

Slots must therefore accommodate six similar
winding circuits, differing only in phase displacement;
and 42, 48 or 54-slot arangements are commonly used.
A two-layer arrangement is adopted, in which a
winding progresses from a top conductor (bar nearest
the bore) in a slot, bending in two planes after it
emerges from the core to span nearly a quarter of
the circumference. At this point it is connected to a
similar bar which continues the span but on a larger
conical diameter, and re-enters the core as a bottom
conductor almost opposite the first (not exactly op-
posite because of short-pitching). This bottom bar is
then connected, at its other end, to the top bar in
478
the slot next to the previous one, and the winding
continues in this manner until one-sixth of the slots
are filled. Because of short-pitching, some slots con-
tain a top bar of one phase and a bottom bar of a
different phase.
A 776 MVA, 23.5 kV generator has a rated RMS
current of 19 080 A, i.e., a current of 9540 A per bar.
By cooling with water in contact with the conductor,
a current density of 8 A/mm2 of cross-sectional area
can be achieved. With a slot width of about 45 mm,
and allowing for insulation, the effective conductor
width is restricted to about 30 mm. Sufficient area
must be allocated for satisfactory water flow, and
 * DENOTES COLD GAS
~* DENOTES HOT GAS

FIG. 6.34 Stator ventilation

Turbine-generator components:
the stator

479
The generator Chapter 6

INSULATION

CLAMPING POSITION CLAMPING POSITION

EARTHING POSITION

CORE FRAME

CORE

DETAIL SHOWING CLAMPING AND EARTHING POSITIONS

VIEWED FROM TURBINE END OF CORE

FIG. 6.35 Insulated core frame bars

480

ANNULAR RIB
CORE SUPPORT
BARS
CORE
SIDE BEAMS
TRUNNION
MOUNTINGS
FRAME FEET
HOLDING-DOWN
BOLT HOLES
FIG. 6.36 Core frame
the radial conductor dimension becomes about 40 mm,
with the overall radial bar dimension about 80 mm.
A current carrying conductor embedded in a nar-
row slot in a magnetic material drives magnetic flux
around itself, mainly confined to the magnetic teeth,
but completing its circuit by crossing the 'airgap'
represented by the slot width, further up the slot than
the conductor (Fig 6.38). If the conductor is viewed
as an assembly of separate strips, it can be seen that
the leakage flux density experienced by each strip
increases linearly with distance from the bottom strip.
This alternating leakage flux induces alternating volt-
ages along the lengths of the strips, in quadrature with
the main voltage, and varying as the square of the
distance of the strip from the slot bottom. If a solid
conductor were used, or if the strips were connected
together at the core ends, these unequal voltages
would circulate current around the bar, causing un-
acceptable eddy current losses and heating.
In order to minimise this effect, the conductor
is divided into strips, which are lightly insulated,
arranged in two or four stacks in the bar width. The
strips are transposed along the length of the bar by
the Roebel method (Fig 6.39), in which each strip oc-
cupies every position in .the stack for an equal axial
length, so that the eddy current voltages are equalised
and no eddy currents circulate between strips. The
Turbine-generator components: the stator
LONGITUDINAL
BEAMS
CORE ENDPLATE
ENDPLATE FLUX
SHIELD
effect is not quite nullified since leakage fluxes occur
in the end winding areas also, and some designs use
a transposition of greater than 360 in order that these
end effects shall not be additive.
A differential eddy current voltage still exists bet-
ween the top and bottom of each strip, and current
will flow around it. The loss due to this current varies
as the fourth power of the radial dimension of the
strip, so the incentive is to make the strip very thin.
However, the space required for insulation then
becomes excessive and compromise is needed. Water
is circulated in rectangular section tube, which must
have a considerable depth, and in some designs an op-
timised mixture of tubes and thinner solid strips is
used (see Fig 6.40).
Conductors are made of high conductivity hard-
drawn copper. Each strip or tube has a thin coating
of glassfibre insulation, and is cranked to enable
all the strips in a bar to be assembled with the
Roebel transpositions correctly made. The bar ends
are bent using formers to give the required shape of
end winding. The strips are bound together and the
main insulation is applied; a tape of mica powder
loaded with a synthetic resin, with a glassfibre back-
ing, is wound without breaks along the length of
the bar. The straight part of the bar is pressed in
a heated mould to cure the resin and obtain the
481
The generator Chapter 6

lidated and free from significant voids, and electrical

tests confirm the integrity of the insulation. The
insulation is very hard and the insulated bar has
little flexibility.
The slot length of each bar is treated with semi-
conducting material to ensure that bar-to-slot elec-
trical discharges do not occur, and a high resistance
stress grading finish is applied to the ends to control
surface discharge, particularly during high voltage
tests.
Bars carrying such large currents experience large
forces; in the slots these are directed radially out-
wards towards the bottom (closed end) of the slot,
and alternate at 100 Hz. The closing wedges therefore
are not required to restrain the bars against these
forces, but it is important that the bars do not
vibrate, and the wedges are arranged to exert a radial
force, either by tapered packers or by a corrugated
glass spring member. Some designs use a corrugated
glass spring packer in the slot side to provide side-
ways restraint. Packers of insulation material, se-
CORE parators and drive strips, and layers of conformable
ENDPLATE
thermo-setting dough are also used in the slot fill
(see Fig 6.40). Support of the end windings and the
arrangement of connections are dealt with in later
sections.
The electrical loss due to the stator winding is
STATOR INNER FRAME RIB
traditionally separated into the I 2 R loss, using the
measured DC resistance of the winding phases at the
operating temperature, and the 'stray' loss, in which
FIG. 6.37 Core end-plate and screen are included components due to:

AC resistance being greater than DC resistance

design dimensions, while the curved ends are con- (skin effect).
solidated using heat-shrinkable tape. Tests are carried
out to ensure that the insulation is properly conso- Eddy currents, as already noted.

DISTANCE FROM
SLOT BOTTOM, X

SLOT (a) CURRENT BELOW X (a) FLUX LINKAGE AT X DISTRIBUTION OF

CONTAINING (b) MMFAT X (b) EDDY VOLTAGE AT X EDDY CURRENT
IDENTICAL
CONDUCTORS

FIG. 6.38 Illustrating the variation of eddy currents in stator conductors

482
FIG. 4.24 Heysham 2 condenser - modular construction

FIG. 6.31 Flux test on completed core

FIG. 6.41 View of a 660 MW generator stator end-windings
FIG. 6.90 Condition monitor (NEI Parsons Ltd)
FIG. 6.97 Dinorwig motor-generator during site winding

FIG. 6.39 Roebel transpositions
Currents induced in core end plates, screens, and
end teeth.
Harmonic currents induced in the rotor and end
ring surfaces.
Currents induced in frame, casing, endshields, fan
baffles, etc.
These individual losses have to be assessed so that
the appropriate cooling medium is directed to their
sources, in order to avoid unacceptable localised hot
spots.
4.4 End winding support
In the end windings, bands of conductors are arranged
side-by-side, all carrying the same current although
not all in phase, and considerable electromagnetic
Turbine-generator components: the stator
forces are produced, both at rated load and parti-
cularly when large current peaks occur during fault
conditions. The end turns must be strongly braced
to resist the peak forces and also to minimise the
100 Hz vibration.
The MMF produced in the end winding region by
the combined effect of the stator and rotor end wind-
ings produces a considerable magnetic flux in the
end regions. Paramagnetic material would tend to
concentrate the flux into itself, and electrically-con-
ducting material would have eddy currents induced
in it, causing both additional loss and potential hot
spots. Metallic inserts and fastening devices can be
caused to vibrate and loosen, or wear away their
surrounding medium. Consequently non-metallic com-
ponents are used, mainly moulded glassfibre.
Substantial support brackets are bolted to the core
end plate and provide a support for a massive glass-
fibre conical support ring. The outer layer of end
turns is pulled onto a bedding of thermosetting con-
483
The generator Chapter 6

EACH BAR COMPRISES

BOTTOM INSULATION
2 GROUPS OF
2 STACKS OF STRAPS PACKING STRIP AND
CONFORMABLE DOUGH
V t t t t t t ft///t /

CROSSOVER INSULATION

- PACKER

.STACK VERTICAL
SEPARATORS
ALTERNATE SOLID
AND HOLLOW
GROUP BINDING TAPE
COPPER CONDUCTORS

RIPPLE SPRING
-ASBESTOS FINISHING TAPE

BOTTOM COIL -

INSULATION PACKING STRIPS

AND CONFORMABLE DOUGH
BETWEEN COILS

GROUP VERTICAL
SEPARATOR

ALL HOLLOW - MAIN INSULATION WRAP

COPPER CONDUCTORS -

- STRAP INSULATION

TOP COIL

PROTECTIVE DRIVING STRIP

CLOSING WEDGE
- OPPOSED TAPER WEDGES
APPLYING RADIAL RESTRAINT

FIG. 6.40 Stator slot

484

formable material between it and the support cone,
and packers between the bars arch-bind the structure
circumferentially. The inner layer is treated similarly,
with a ring of blocks pulled down onto the cone
by through-bolts, completing the very rigid structure.
Some designs use sheets of insulation material to
enclose any spaces and prevent the accidental ingress
of any foreign material. Magnetic material is parti-
cularly unwelcome, since it can be caused to vibrate
and abrade, or be heated by eddy currents and de-
grade the adjacent insulation (see Fig 6.33). Vibration
of the end windings must be minimised, since it can
promote fatigue cracking in the winding copper. This
is particularly serious if it occurs in a water-carrying
tube, since hydrogen will leak into the water circuit.
Resonances close to 100 Hz must be avoided, since
both the core ovalising and the winding exciting force
occur at this frequency. Accelerometers in the end
winding structure allow any increase in vibration due
to support slackening to be monitored. Vibration am-
plitude is highly current dependent. Any looseness
developing after a period in operation can be cor-
rected by tightening the bolts, by inserting or tighten-
ing wedges, and/or by pumping a thermosetting resin
into rubber bags located between conductor bars.
Figure 6.41 shows the stator core and end windings
for a 660 MW generator.
4.5 Electrical connections and terminals
Electrical connections between one conductor bar and
the next in series are made differently in different
designs. In one, a common electrical and water con-
nector is formed by a copper tube bent into a U-shape,
and brazed onto small copper waterboxes into which
all the bar subconductors are brazed. In another, the
electrical joint is made by a solid copper bolted joint,
with the water connections separate. It is common
practice to insulate the joint or to enclose it in a
rubber housing.
The conductor bars at the high voltage end (line
end) and the low voltage end (neutral end) of a phase
band are electrically connected to tubular connectors
which run circumferentially behind the end windings
at the exciter end, to the outgoing terminals, usually
with line terminals at the bottom and neutral ter-
minals at the top, although other arrangements do
exist. These connectors are internally water cooled,
and must be insulated for line voltage.
Terminal bushings (Fig 6.42) are proprietary paper-
insulated items, with internal water cooling from the
stator winding water system. Their insulation must
be capable of withstanding the hydrogen pressure in
the casing, with no perceptible leakage. It is common
practice to flange-mount the terminals on a plate of
non-magnetic material, and to arrange for a terminal
to be withdrawable from outside the casing. Current
transformers for instrumentation and protection sig-
Turbine-generator components: the stator
nals are housed on the external stems of the bushings.
The connections from the generator terminals to the
generator transformer are described in Volume D.
Phase isolated connections are always adopted, so
that an electrical fault at the connections must start
as a line-to-earth fault, which is much less damaging
to the generator than a line-to-line fault.
4.6 Stator winding cooling components
Water is the best of the commonly available media
for cooling the stator winding, and imposes only one
condition that would not also apply to other fluids: it
must be pure enough to be effectively non-conducting
(electrically). It is continuously degassed and treated
in an ion exchanger, with the following target values
being aimed for:
Conductivity: 100 /*S/m
Dissolved oxygen: 200 /tg/litre max (in some
systems >2000 is acceptable)
Total copper: 150 /ig/litre max.
pH value: 9 max.
At these levels, no aggressive attack on the winding
copper has been noticed after very many years' ex-
perience. Any erosion of copper is detected by the
monitoring equipment.
Water is passed into one or more inlet manifolds,
which are copper or stainless steel pipes running cir-
cumferentially around the core end plate. From the
manifolds, flexible PTFE hoses are connected to all
the water inlet ports on the stator conductor joints.
In a two-pass design, water passes through both bars
in parallel and is transferred to the two connected
bars at the other end, returning through similar hoses
to the outlet manifold which adjoins the inlet mani-
fold. This design minimises the number of hoses,
but requires a larger pressure head of water across
the winding (see Fig 6.43). In a single-pass arrange-
ment, hoses connect both ends of a bar to the
manifolds, which are located at opposite ends.
Thin metallic-sleeved components are crimped in-
side and outside the ends of the PTFE hoses, and
these are then attached to bosses on the manifolds
and winding connectors, using sere wed-up olives,
O-rings or brazed joints. The casing hydrogen pressure
is everywhere greater than the water pressure in the
winding circuit, so that any leakage is of hydrogen
into water, rather than the reverse, which would be
damaging to the winding insulation.
The loss input into the water circuit at rated load
is designed to raise the water temperature by less
than 30C. With an inlet temperature of 40C, there
is plenty of margin before the\temperature at which
boiling would occur, 115-120C at the working pres-
485
The generator Chapter 6

FIG. 6.41 View of a 660 MW generator stator end-windings

(see also colour photograph between pp 482 and 483)

486
 Turbine-generator components: the stator

GAS SIDE

CONNECTION PALM

AIR SIDE

FIG. 6.42 Generator terminals

487
The generator
FIG. 6.43 Stator winding water cooling system components
sure. Monitoring the temperature of each bar by
thermocouples, either in the slots or in the water
outlets, enables a reduction or stoppage of water flow
in a bar to be detected.
4.7 Hydrogen cooling components
The advantages of hydrogen cooling, and its para-
meters, are described in Section 5 of this chapter.
Hydrogen enters the generator casing through an
axially-oriented distribution pipe at the top, carbon
dioxide for scavenging being admitted through a simi-
lar pipe at the bottom.
The rotor fans circulate hydrogen over the end
windings and through the stator core, while a parallel
flow passes through the rotor. At rated load, the
hydrogen temperature increases by about 25C during
the few seconds taken to complete this circuit. Two
or four hydrogen coolers are located vertically or
488
Chapter 6
^ EXCITER END
COIL-TO-PHASE
RING CONNECTIONS
COIL-TO-COIL
CONNECTIONS
horizontally inside the casing; they consist of banks
of finned or wire-wound tubes through which water
flows in one or two passes while hydrogen flows over
them. The coolers are arranged so that their headers
are accessible (for tube cleaning) without degassing
the casing. The tubes and the cooler frame must be
supported so as to avoid resonances close to the
principal exciting frequencies of 50 Hz and 100 Hz.
It is most important that moisture does not con-
dense on the stator end windings, since electrical
breakdown may then occur. The dewpoint of the hy-
drogen (at casing pressure) must be at least 20C
lower than the temperature of the cooled hydrogen
emerging from the coolers, and this is continuously
monitored by a hygrometer. In normal on-load op-
eration, the stator winding water maintains the wind-
ing temperature above 40C; if condensation occurred
it would be on the hydrogen coolers first. During
run-up, however, the stator winding water is likely
to be cold, and it is either pre-heated electrically, or

circulated for a lengthy period, to warm the winding
before the generator is excited.
4.8 Stator casing
The casing contains the stator core and core frame,
and must resist the load and fault torques. It must
also provide a pressure-tight enclosure for the hy-
drogen. Historically, casings have been made strong
enough to withstand the pressure developed by an
ignition of the most explosive mixture of hydrogen
and air, without catastrophic failure.
Because any mixture of hydrogen and air within
the explosive range is not allowed to occur, attain-
ment of explosion pressure is not a credible condition,
and to specify the casing on the basis of withstanding
such a pressure without leaks, as would be required
by BS5500, is unrealistic. Consequently, the full re-
quirements of the pressure vessel code are not invoked,
though some of them are applied. This pragmatic
approach has been justified by worldwide experience over
fifty years.
Casings are fabricated steel cylinders of up to
25 mm thickness, reinforced internally with annular rings
and axial members which strengthen the structure and
form passages for the flow of hydrogen (see
Figs 6.44 and 6.45). Internal spaces are provided with
COOLER ENCLOSURE
POCKET
TURBINE END
COOLER SEAL
BARS
INNER STATOR
SUPPORT PLATFORM
FRAME
FEET
FIG. 6.44 Outer stator casing
Turbine-generator components: the stator
runners to accommodate the hydrogen coolers. At
the ends, thick rings provide facings for the separate
end shields. Internal supports for the core frame, in
the form of horizontal footplates or spring plate fix-
ings, are provided, and external feet support the
complete assembly. Lifting trunnions are usually made
detachable.
The design of the welded joints is carefully con-
trolled to avoid the presence of unfused lands wherever
possible. The main welds have to be leak-tight against
hydrogen at 4 bar, which is a very exacting require-
ment. The complete casing may be too large to be
stress-relieved in an annealing oven, in which case
it must be assumed that stresses up to yield stress
exist in the welds. In one design, the casing is con-
structed in two halves, which are stress-relieved before
being welded together.
The end shields are thick circular fabricated steel
plates, ribbed to withstand the casing pressure with
minimal axial deflection. They house the shaft seal
stationary components and, in some designs, the out-
board bearing. Leak-free sealing of the end shield/
casing joints against the hydrogen pressure, as with
all other casing joints, is effected by gaskets, O-rings
and sealing compounds injected into grooves.
The completed casing assembly is hydraulically pres-
sure tested, and finally must be demonstrated to be
leak-tight to a level corresponding to a fall from
FRAME WRAPPER NEUTRAL TERMINAL
PLATE ENCLOSURE
RUBBER
SEALING RING
ROTOR
COOLING GAS
DUCTS
/
JACK SUPPORT
BRACKET
MAIN TERMINAL
ENCLOSURE
489
The generator Chapter 6

FIG. 6.45 Core frame being inserted into casing

490

rated hydrogen pressure of not more than 0.035 bar
in 24 h.
Some of the core vibration is transmitted to the
casing, and rotor vibration is transmitted through the
end shield and the foundations. The casing assembly
must be designed to avoid resonances in the range
of these exciting frequencies.
Drains are arranged so that any oil or water col-
lecting in the bottom of the casing is piped to liquid
leakage detectors, which initiate an alarm. Distri-
bution pipes for hydrogen and C 0 2 are built-in; a
temperature sensor at the C 0 2 inlet initiates an alarm
if the incoming gas has not been adequately heated
and could chill the fabricated casing locally. Electrical
heaters are fitted in the lower half of the casing to
maintain dry conditions during outages.
The casing is bolted down to the supporting steel-
work on packing plates which are machined after
trial erection to provide the correct alignment. Axial
and transverse keys prevent subsequent movement.
The weight of the casing, complete with core frame,
coolers and water, is up to 450 tonnes.
5 Cooling systems
A generator of this type has an efficiency of about
98.5%. Even though the losses are low in terms of
the output, they amount to some 10 MW, all of
which must be removed by the cooling systems; the
heat lost by convection and radiation from the casing
is not significant.
In some stations, most of the generator (and exciter)
losses are transferred into the boiler feedwater system
by using condensate in the heat exchangers. While
such an arrangement can be economic, there is a
penalty in the form of added complication, and the
most modern stations do not have this feature.
5.1 Hydrogen cooling
Hydrogen has several advantages over air as a means
of removing heat from turbine-generators:
The density of hydrogen is the lowest of all gases
and is one-fourteenth that of air. Even at the rated
pressure (4 or 5 bar) and with the allowable level
of gaseous impurities, it is still only half as dense
as air at normal temperature and pressure (NTP).
The large loss due to the gas being churned by
the rotor, and to its circulation through the fans
and cooling passages, is minimised by the use of
hydrogen as a coolant.
The heat transfer capability of hydrogen is up to
twice that of air in similar conditions, though, as
with all gases, it increases with increasing pressure.
Together with the several times higher thermal con-
Cooling systems
ductivity and specific heat of hydrogen, the effect
is that heat removal from heated surfaces is up
to ten times more effective, resulting in lower tem-
peratures. Coolers can also be considerably smaller.
The use of hydrogen imposes the need for herme-
tic sealing and condition control, which helps to
ensure that the original electrical clearances are
maintained.
More importantly: the degradation of insulation
by oxidation processes cannot occur in a hydrogen
atmosphere.
The disadvantages are:
Since concentrations of from 4% to 76% of hy-
drogen in air are explosive, hydrogen must not be
allowed to escape from the stator casing and its
associated pipework in significant quantities and
become trapped in potentially explosive pockets.
The casing and end shields have to be of rugged
construction and leak proof, demanding meticulous
welding techniques. Penetrations such as the rotor
shafts, and all outgoing connections, must be posi-
tively sealed, the former requiring a sophisticated
sealing system.
A comprehensive gas control system is required.
For generators rated much above 100 MW, air cool-
ing is not practical; more than half the total loss
would be due to fan and rotor windage. At 500
and 660 MW, hydrogen pressures of 4 or 5 bar are
economic; higher pressures than this have little or
no advantage. The only practical alternative at
these ratings is complete water cooling including
the rotor, which has not been adopted in the UK,
and only rarely elsewhere, because of leakage pro-
blems at the very high water pressures produced
by the rotation.
5.2 Hydrogen cooling system
It is necessary to ensure that potentially explosive
mixtures of air and hydrogen do not occur when filling
the casing with hydrogen, or when emptying it.
The usual method is to use carbon dioxide as a
buffer between the two other gases, in a process known
as scavenging, or simply gassing-up and degassing.
Carbon dioxide, stored as a liquid under pressure,
is expanded to a suitably low pressure above atmos-
pheric. It is also heated, because the expansion causes
it to cool and it would otherwise freeze. With the
rotor stationary, C 0 2 is fed into the bottom of the
stator casing through a long perforated pipe, and
because it is more dense than air it displaces air from
the top via the hydrogen inlet distribution pipe to
atmosphere outside the station. Some mixing of gases
occurs at the interface. A gas analyser is used to
491
The generator
monitor the proportion of C0 2 in the gas passing to
atmosphere; when this is sufficiently high, the C0 2
inlet is closed (see Fig 6.46).
High purity hydrogen from a central storage tank
or electrolytic process is then fed through a bus main
at about 10 bar to the gas control panel, where its
pressure is reduced before being fed to the casing
through the top admission pipe (Fig 6.47). Being very
much lighter, it displaces the C0 2 from the bottom
of the casings via the C0 2 pipe to atmosphere, again
with some degree of mixing. When the proportion
of C0 2 in the vent is low enough, the proportion
of air left in the casing will be very low, and if the
casing is then pressurised with hydrogen to its op-
erating pressure (say 4 bar), the proportion of air
will be reduced to a quarter of this low value. The
complete process normally occupies a few hours.
Separate procedures are followed to ensure that
other components, such as tanks, are properly scav-
enged, so that dangerous mixtures do not occur. The
reverse of the foregoing procedure, using C0 2 and
then dry compressed air, is followed to remove
hydrogen from the machine for inspection or for a
prolonged outage.
In one design of 500 MW generator, air is removed
from the casing by drawing a vacuum, using the
pump normally used to degas the seal oil. The shaft
seals are arranged to seal effectively under this unusual
operating condition. When the vacuum is as low as
can be achieved, hydrogen is admitted, the resulting
purity when pressurised being sufficiently high.
Normally, hydrogen purity remains high, since air
cannot leak into the pressurised system. Some air
may, however, be released from the shaft seal oil
flowing into the casing hydrogen space. Replacement
hydrogen to make up for leakage is usually sufficient
to maintain the required purity.
The differential pressure developed across the
rotor fans is used to circulate a sample of casing
hydrogen continuously through a katharometer-type
purity monitor, which initiates an alarm if the purity
falls below a preset value, typically 97%. The purity
monitor (and the gas analyser) can be calibrated with
pure gases from the piped supplies. A check on the
purity is also possible by monitoring the differential
pressure developed by the fans, which responds
markedly to the change in density produced by air
impurity.
A pressure sensitive valve admits hydrogen from
the bus main if the casing pressure falls below a pre-
determined level, while a spring-loaded relief valve
is set to release hydrogen to the outside atmosphere
if the pressure becomes excessive. It is important
that these two pressures are not set so close that
wastage occurs, particularly as the gas temperature
and pressure changes when on-load cycling. Monitoring
of the hydrogen consumption is a recently introduced
feature on some units (see Fig 6.48).
The temperature of the hydrogen is normally moni-
492
Chapter 6
tored by several thermocouples, whose readings should
be averaged, at the inlets to and outlets from the
hydrogen coolers. Typically, hydrogen is circulated
at 30 m 3 /s which, with a full-load loss input of about
5000 kW, results in a temperature rise of the order of
30C. The cooled gas should not be hotter than 40C,
so the temperature of the gas entering the coolers
should not exceed 70C.
Water cannot normally leak into the casing from the
stator winding water circuit or the hydrogen coolers,
since the water pressure is lower than the gas pressure
in both circuits. It can be released from the shaft
seal oil, particularly if the oil is untreated turbine
lubricating oil which has picked up water from the
turbine steam glands. It is important that the mois-
ture content of the casing hydrogen be kept low
enough to prevent condensation occurring on the
coldest component, which may be the water cooled
winding. The differential pressure is used to circulate
a flow of hydrogen continuously through a dryer,
typically of the twin-tower type, using activated alu-
mina, with automatic changeover and regeneration. A
motor-driven blower maintains the flow through the
rotor when the rotor is not running at speed (see Fig
6.49).
Continuous monitoring of the humidity of the cas-
ing gas is provided by means of a hygrometer. The
maximum permissible dewpoint is not less than 20C
below the cold gas temperature, measured at casing
pressure. It is important that this caveat is observed,
particularly if the dewpoint is being compared with
that of a sample drawn from the casing and measured
at atmospheric pressure.
Hydrogen is circulated by the fans through the
stator core and end windings, the precise paths being
different in different designs. The rotor acts virtually
as its own fan, hydrogen being drawn through the
windings and exhausted into the airgap, again dif-
ferently in different designs. The hydrogen removes
the electrical loss in the rotor winding, the Iron loss'
in the stator core, the windage loss produced by the
rotor and fans, and most of the electrical losses gen-
erated in the frame and end winding structures.
Because it is impractical to ensure that potentially
explosive mixtures of hydrogen and air never occur
in the small bore instrumentation pipework, those
instruments and devices containing electrical circuits
in contact with the gas, such as katharometers, must
be intrinsically safe in such mixtures. This means that
a sudden break in an electrical circuit must not be
capable of providing enough spark energy to ignite
the gas.
It is impossible to ensure complete freedom from
leakage of hydrogen over the lifetime of the plant,
and the areas near to potential leakage sources are
classified into zones of differing degrees of hazard,
described in detail in CEGB Code of Practice 098/34:
'Code of Practice for the Design Principles relating
to the use of Hydrogen in Large Generators'. Zones 0
 Cooling systems

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FIG. 6.46 Generator gas system displacing air with C 0 2

493
The generator Chapter 6

INTEGRATING
FLOW METER FROM C0 0
SUPPLY ^

FROM
* - HYDROGEN LP
DELIVERY MAINS

"2
C0 o

FIG. 6.47 Generator gas system displacing C 0 2 with H 2

494
 Cooling systems

PERFORATED ADMISSION PIPE

m n
TURBINE EXCITER
END GENERATOR STATOR CASING END

TO

t i
ATMOSPHERE

-M-
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FIG. 6.48 Generator gas system in normal operation

495
The generator Chapter 6

H2 OUTLET
PURGE AIR
VENT PRESSURE ,
H E R
. DIVERSION
DIVERSION
VALVE TO DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
SWITCH/SAMPLING POINT

PRESSURE GAUGE

PRESSURE GAUGE
STOP VALVE

TOWER 'B'

HEATER SUPPLY
CABLES
PURGE AIR PRESSURE
REDUCING VALVE

THERMOMETER

THERMOMETER

CONTROL
PANEL
CO,
REGULATOR

5-PORT
SHUTTLE VALVE

DIVERSION
DIVERSION VALVE
DIVERSION VALVE
V A L VE
DIFFERENTIAL
FLEXIBLE PRESSURE
BLOWER BELLOWS SWITCH
1 1 FLEXIBLE UNIT
MOTOR COUPLING

FIG. 6.49 Gas dryer and blower

and 1, in which explosive mixtures exist continuously
or occur in normal operation, should not be present
if the principles outlined above are followed. Zone 2,
in which explosive mixtures are unlikely to occur
and, if they do will only exist for a short time, covers
instrumentation as previously noted; the hydrogen
dryer and blower, the detraining tanks, and the in-
terior of the control cubicle to which hydrogen is
piped. Also classified as Zone 2 are the areas into
which hydrogen may leak, through gaskets, seals, etc.,
knowing the normal pressure behind the gas and its
propensity for rapid upward movement. Sources of
ignition are not located in such areas. It is, however,
496
virtually impossible to eliminate some potential igni-
tion sources, such as the rotating shaft rubbing an oil
scraper ring, or sparking at brushgear.
Another potential source of ignition occurs where
currents are induced in pipework loops, as may be
the case when pipes are routed near to main con-
nections. Here, flanged joints are insulated to break
the possible current path.
If a serious rupture occurs, e.g., the break-up of
a shaft seal, hydrogen may escape very rapidly, and
if it encounters a source of ignition, say the shaft
rubbing, it will burn intensely in the ambient air. In
order to vent the casing to atmosphere outside the

station, and to admit C0 2 to the casing, duplicated
valves are provided, one set being located remote from
where any fire is conceivable (see Fig 6.50).
Hydrogen has been used universally for 50 years
for high speed generator cooling, and incidents such
as this have been very rare. The meticulous attention
to safety precautions both in design and operation
have been largely responsible for this good record.
5.3 Shaft seals and seal oil system
Seals prevent the escape of hydrogen where the rotor
shafts emerge through the casing end shields. What-
ever their design, they are located in the end shields,
and are inboard of the bearings. Two types of seal
have been commonly used: the thrust seal and the
journal seal.
5.3.1 Thrust type seal
In the thrust type seal (Fig 6.28), the seal ring acts
like a thrust face, bearing onto a collar on the shaft.
Turbine lubricating oil is fed to a central circum-
ferential groove in the white-metalled face of the
seal ring, at a pressure controlled to be greater than
that of the casing hydrogen. Most of the oil flows
outwards over the thrust face and drains into a well.
A small proportion flows inwards, against centrifu-
gal force and with only the oil/hydrogen differential
pressure behind it, into a drainage compartment which
is at casing hydrogen pressure. This oil can release
entrained air and water at this point, thus contami-
nating the casing hydrogen, as noted earlier, and it
is therefore important that the inward oil flow is
small.
The seal ring is attached to a housing which must
be free to move axially to accommodate the 30 mm
or so of axial movement imposed on the shaft by
thermal expansion of all the coupled rotors down-
stream from the turbine thrust bearing, as they pass
from cold to hot conditions. The housing is arranged
to move inside a stationary member, using rubber
sealing rings to contain the oil and to create an axial
pressure at the seal face.
In some designs, an additional chamber between
fixed and sliding components is fed with oil at a
separately controllable pressure so that the overall
pressure at the seal face can be varied. In another
variation, additional pressure is provided by springs.
5.3.2 Journal type seal
Here the seal resembles a short journal bearing float-
ing on the shaft. In this case the shaft can freely
move axially through the seal, and it therefore does
not have to accommodate the thermal expansion of
the shaft. Again, oil is fed to a central annular groove
Cooling systems
in the white-metalled ring, and flows along the clear-
ances between the shaft and the bore of the seal,
both outwards to the drain and inwards to the hy-
drogen pressurised space. The inward flow rate is
much greater than that for the thrust type, because
it is not inhibited by centrifugal force, and it would
be capable of contaminating the hydrogen purity to
an unacceptable extent. To prevent this, all the oil
fed to the seals is subjected to vacuum treatment, in
which much of the air and water is removed. Against
this disadvantage, it is claimed that the journal type
seal is inherently better able to withstand disturbances
of the shaft by expanding to provide a larger clear-
ance for oil flow if it is heated by excessive shaft
movement.
More sophisticated versions of the journal type seal,
one of which has two separate oil supplies for inward
and outward flow, have been developed to avoid the
need for vacuum treatment (see Fig 6.29). It is also
possible to keep the oil supplies separate from the
main turbine lubricating oil supply, which is the source
of most of the entrained water.
5.3.3 Seal oil system
In the conventional seal oil system (see Fig 6.51), the
main seal oil supply is taken from the shaft-driven
lubricating oil pump, with its pressure suitably re-
duced. The pressure is further controlled by diaphragm
valve which maintains a constant differential pressure
above casing gas pressure at the seals. The oil is cooled
in a water-cooled heat exchanger, and finely filtered
to prevent metallic particles gaining access to the small
clearances at the seal faces.
Because it is necessary to maintain the shaft sealing
oil at standstill, to prevent hydrogen escape, motor-
driven seal oil pumps are also provided; these act as a
back-up in emergencies, and are initiated by falling
seal oil pressure. They are commonly vertical pump-
motor units mounted on the top of the lubricating
oil settling tank with the pumps submerged. A battery
fed DC motor-driven pump may be provided as a
back-up in case of supply failure, but this would
be expected to operate only a few hours while the
hydrogen is scavenged.
The oil flowing to the casing side of the seal is
in a pressurised hydrogen environment and must be
collected in a 'break pressure' tank, which releases it
through a float controlled valve and enables it to be
returned to the drain tank. The possibility of hydrogen
entering the drain tank is recognised; low level alarms
give a first warning (some form of pressure loop is
usually provided) and a blower exhausts the gas above
the oil in the 'hydrogen section' of the tank to at-
mosphere. This blower also serves to reduce the
pressure in the bearing housings (communicated via
the half empty drain pipes) below atmospheric, thus
reducing egress of oil vapour at the bearings.
497
The generator Chapter 6

PERFORATED ADMISSION PIPE

TURBINE EXCITER
END GENERATOR STATOR CASING END

TO
ATMOSPHERE

X t
-M

t
-M- -M-
.
W
. LIQUID
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V%

hM- 4H GAS CONTROL

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CH
INTEGRATING hM-
FLOW METER . ^ . FROM C0 0
-M- -M- SUPPLY^

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FIG. 6.50 Generator gas system emergency scavenging

498
 Cooling systems

TO OIL-GAS DIFFERENTIAL
I SEAL OIL SUPPLY PRESSURE GAUGES

3-WAY COCK (WITH L PORT)

| A | ALARM ON GAS CONTROL CUBICLE

(P) PRESSURE GAUGE

[Is] LIMIT SWITCH

' TRANSMITTER

|PS| PRESSURE SWITCH

MAIN OIL TANK HYDROGEN

COMPARTMENT

FIG. 6.51 Seal oil system

499
The generator
5.4 Stator winding water cooling system
Water in direct contact with the winding conductors
is the most effective and economic means of heat
removal, and is used throughout the range of gen-
erators under consideration (see Fig 6.52). Five main
criteria must be observed:
The conductivity of the water must be very low,
to prevent current flow and electrical flashover.
The means used to transfer water into the conduc-
tors must be of high integrity insulation material,
not easily degraded.
The velocity of the water must be low enough to
prevent erosion, and the design must not allow cor-
rosion to occur, either of which could lead to a
build-up of conducting material, causing an elec-
trical flashover.
The maximum water pressure must be lower than
the casing hydrogen pressure, so that if any leakage
occurs, it is of hydrogen into the water circuit, since
leakage of water into the winding insulation could
lead to an electrical breakdown.
The maximum temperature in the water circuit
must be low enough to provide an adequate margin
below boiling point (commonly about 115C at
the pressure involved). The design aims for an inlet
temperature of just above 40C, with an outlet
temperature of 65-70C.
Demineralised water is used, which is obtained ini-
tially, and made up, from the turbine condensate. A
proportion is circulated through a dminraliser (Fig
6.53) to ensure that the water quality described in
Section 4.6 of this chapter is maintained. All the
metal with which the water is in contact is either
non-ferrous or stainless steel. Even small components
made of mild steel are not permissible because of
the propensity for magnetite to form and be held by
electromagnetic forces.
Flexible hoses made of extruded PTFE (polytetra-
fluorethylene) are used to transfer water into and out
of the conductors. This material has good electrical
properties, is chemically inert and has a long life in
the ambient conditions, has an extremely low friction
factor so that particles are less likely to adhere, and
is partially translucent in the thicknesses used, so
that flow (containing bubbles) can be observed. The
low friction has a disadvantage in that attachments
are more difficult to arrange, but leak-free crimped
joints have been satisfactorily developed (see Fig 6.33).
The water is circulated by duplicated pumps, through
a water-cooled heat exchanger and fine filter, to the
generator inlet connection. Designs differ from this
point. In one, the main supply goes to a circular
manifold supported from the stator core end plate.
500
Chapter 6
From the manifold, PTFE hoses connect to the elec-
trical joint ('nose') between a top and bottom con-
ductor bar, through which the water flows in parallel.
At the exciter end, the water in each bar is trans-
ferred through the electrical connector to a return
bar, and thence via another PTFE hose to the outlet
manifold, located alongside the inlet manifold. A
small flow is tapped-off to cool the terminal bushings
and phase connections. This is a double-pass system,
requiring higher pressure than a single-pass system,
but half the number of hoses with their potential for
leakage.
In the single-pass arrangement, the manifolds are
at opposite ends, and the water flows through only
one bar in series. This system allows smaller water
passages in the conductors to be used because a
higher pressure drop per bar can be tolerated.
Other variations may be seen in obsolescent designs.
In one, all the conductors comprising a phase group
were brought to a common waterbox, consisting of a
large cast resin chamber with a bolted-on lid, inside
which electrical connections between conductors were
made. In another, the water passed through five con-
ductor bars in series before returning to the manifold.
This required a high pump pressure but minimised
the number of hoses.
If the flow is significantly reduced, the water tem-
perature rises rapidly. Reduction in flow is therefore
sensed, usually by differential pressure across an ori-
fice plate or across the stator winding itself, and is
used to bring in the standby pump, and to trip the
unit, if flow is not restored quickly.
Water pressure is determined by the height of the
header tank and the pressure developed by the pump.
These are not controlled, since it is expected that
the casing hydrogen pressure will not be allowed to
fall much below its rated value in operation. During
start-up, the hydrogen pressure must be established
before the water pump is started, to prevent a reverse
pressure differential.
The water circuit is tested initially to ensure that
it has a very low leak rate, but hydrogen will enter the
water in small quantities. It is detected by arranging a
settling tank on the outlet side of the generator, before
the header tank connection, where gas will largely
detrain. It is collected in a chamber equipped with
timed release valves, and an alarm is initiated if the
release rate exceeds an acceptable level (see Fig 6.54).
Thermocouples in each winding slot provide a means
of detecting a low flow through one (or both) of the
conductor bars in that slot. More recent machines have
a thermocouple in each outlet hose, which provides a
more direct indication of incorrect flow. Water flow
does differ somewhat between different paths, and
outlet temperatures also differ; the best indication is
a departure from normal operational experience for
a similar condition of loading and primary cooling
water temperature.
 MAKE-UP HEAD TANK

-I ^ M STATOR COOLANT
GAS RELEASE
DRAIN, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE
__- CONTROL AIR
ELECTRICAL

TO GENERATOR AUXILIARIES
CW SYSTEM

TO
GENERATOR
AUXILIARIES
CW SYSTEM

PURIFYING
PLANT

FIG. 6.52 Stator winding water cooling system

501
Cooling systems
The generator Chapter 6

AIR VENT

GASKET

UNTREATED WATER
INLET VALVE

RATE OF FLOW INDICATOR

TREATED WATER
OUTLET VALVE

DEMINERALISER COLUMN

U-BOLT CLAMP

AIR INLET VALVE

RESIN
OUTLET PIPE
ASSEMBLY

RESIN REMOVAL VALVE

DRAIN VALVE

BOTTOM COVER

FIG. 6.53 Dminraliser

502

GAS OUTLET
FLOAT OPERATED
SWITCH
FLOAT OPERATED
SWITCH
FIG. 6.54 Gas-in-water detection chamber
As noted earlier, it is important that condensation
does not occur on the windings. Some machines have
an electrical heating element, or an automatic cooler
bypassing system, to prevent water that is too cold
from circulating in the windings during start-up and
early loading.
It is not easy to measure the insulation resistance
(IR) of a winding which has multiple high resistance
paths to earth through the water-filled hoses, and even
draining out the water does not ensure that the inside
surfaces of the hoses are dry. Attempts have been made
to use a specially designed resistance measuring device
which uses the water manifolds as 'guard rings', but
this is not always satisfactory. Fortunately, modern
Cooling systems
BODY
WATER GAUGE
epoxy resin insulation systems do not absorb mois-
ture, and a low IR is usually indicative of surface
contamination, which can be removed by warmed air
circulation.
5.5 Other cooling systems
Casing hydrogen is cooled by passing it through water-
cooled heat exchangers arranged horizontally or ver-
tically in the casing. The heat exchangers consist of
many tubes of non-ferrous metal with either metallic
strip fins or wire loops brazed to their outside sur-
faces (Fig 6.55). These coolers have a double-pass
503
The generator
water circulation, so that inlet and outlet water con-
nections are at the same end. They are equipped with
sealing devices so that access to the header box can
be gained for inspection, even though the casing is
pressurised. Some form of air venting system is also
provided. The coolers can be withdrawn from the
casing when it has been scavenged.
Water for these coolers (and other auxiliary coolers)
may be condensate or distilled water in a self-contained
system, or both; it is undesirable to use raw cool-
ing water because of the danger of corrosion. The
water pressure is arranged to be less than the rated
pressure of hydrogen in the casing, so that in the
event of leakage, hydrogen will leak into the water
circuit. In the latest machines, hydrogen detectors are
provided in the water circuit (Fig 6.56). Operation
is usually possible with one hydrogen cooler valved-
off; this provides some redundancy. Loss of primary
water is detected by rise of hydrogen temperature,
which may be so rapid that the protection is arranged
to trip the unit.
Air cooling systems are provided for the rotating
exciters, and for the slipring/brushgear or rotating
rectifier chambers. The rotating exciter components
have a closed air circuit with a water-cooled heat
exchanger; the sliprings usually have open air venti-
lation.
STATOR END
WALL
HORIZONTAL FRAME
END BAR
COOLER
SUPPORTS
SEALING GASKET
INLET AND OUTLET
WATERBOX DOOR
LARGE HOLE FIXED
TUBEPLATE
FIXED GASKET
FIG. 6.55 Hydrogen cooler
504
Chapter 6
6 Excitation
6.1 Exciters
6.1.1 Historical review
When the first AC generators were introduced a
natural choice for the supply of the field systems was
the DC exciter. These direct current commutator ma-
chines were not only used as main and pilot exciters
but later also as a control amplifier, known as a
rotating amplifier or amplidyne.
The DC exciter suffered from commutation and
brushgear problems but also offered certain advan-
tages; in particular, a capability for equal voltage
output of either polarity, which was used to improve
generator transient performance. The main exciter ar-
mature also provided a path for the commutation
of induced currents, regardless of polarity, which ap-
pear in the generator field winding during pole-slipping
and other severe system disturbances, thereby limiting
the induced voltage.
Gear-driven exciters were introduced to extend the
application of these machines, however, increased
demand for higher excitation currents paralleled by
advances in semiconductor technology brought about
CORNER MEMBER
RETURN
N
WATERBOX DOOR
 Excitation

r-txl L fe -tXl-i

2x100% EXCITER AIR/ T LIQUID f

RECTIFIER COOLERS f LEAKAGE
DETECTOR

TREATED WATER SUPPLY

FROM HIGH LEVEL HEAD TANK
\

L
-CXh

COOLING WATER INLET

DISTILLED WATER
BY-PASS
MAKE UP WATER

FIG. 6.56 Distilled water cooling system

505
The generator
the introduction of the rectified AC exciter. These
were either static semiconductor diode rectifiers sup-
plying the generator field winding via sliprings, or
brushless systems which carry the diode rectifier on
the shaft. Developments have continued and excita-
tion powers now range from 70 kW for 20 MW gas
turbine-generators to 3500 kW for the 660 MW steam
turbine-generators.
Where generators are connected to the main
transmission system over long transmission links, it
is necessary to provide a high response excitation
system capable of satisfying system transient stability
requirements. In these circumstances, a static thyris-
tor excitation system capable of step changes in field
voltage is generally specified.
6.1.2 AC excitation systems
The excitation requirements of all CEGB 500 and 660
MW turbine-generators are provided by AC excitation
systems. A typical AC excitation scheme, showing the
shaft-mounted main and pilot exciters together with
associated brushgear is shown in Fig 6.57.
The CEGB currently operates 660 MW turbine-
generators with either static or rotating excitation
equipment. Detailed descriptions of these are given
in Sections 6.2 and 6.3 of this chapter respectively,
while this section concentrates on exciter plant which
is common to both.
To maximise plant availability under 'black start'
conditions, reliance on external electrical supplies is
kept to a minimum by using direct-driven perma-
nent magnet pilot exciters. For many years, DC pilot
exciters were used, but the low currents involved
introduced commutation problems due to brushgear
glazing and, as a consequence, they were superseded
by AC machines.
The pilot exciter provides power for the excitation
AVR control equipment which, on present 660 MW
plant, is of a salient pole design with ratings approach-
ing 100 kW.
Both the main and pilot exciters are air cooled
machines, cooling air being drawn through the ma-
chine by shaft-mounted fans. Temperature measure-
ments are taken at the inlet and outlet of the cooling
circuit to monitor performance.
6.1.3 Exciter transient performance
Exciters must operate over a wide voltage and current
range as ceiling requirements are considerably in excess
of rated full-load conditions. The exciter is required
to respond quickly to changes in excitation at its own
rotor terminals. This requirement for a fast response
characteristic is achieved by the use of a short air
gap and a laminated rotor body.
Exciter transient performance is characterised by
the exciter response ratio defined in BS5000 Part 2,
as follows:
506
Chapter 6
Exciter response ratio =
The average rate of increase in excitation
open-circuit voltage (V/s)
Nominal excitation voltage
Typically, exciters are required to increase output volt-
age from 100% to 200% in less than 0.3 seconds,
corresponding to a response ratio of 3.5.
The average rate of increase of the excitation open-
circuit voltage is given by the slope of AC in Fig 6.58.
Slope of AC = BC/AB but AB = 0.5 seconds.
Hence AC = 2BC (average rate of increase of ex-
citer voltage) and the nominal exciter response ratio
is given by 2BC/OA.
6.1.4 The pilot exciter
A shaft-driven excitation system consists of a main
and pilot exciter, the pilot exciter providing the input
power to the AVR. A number of different types have
been developed including salient pole, inductor type
homopolar and heteropolar designs. System require-
ments for complete independence from external sup-
plies during 'black start' conditions have led to a trend
in favour of the permanent magnet generator (PMG)
pilot exciter design. The salient pole design has gained
favour on all recent 660 MW units and forms the
basis of the following discussion.
The salient pole PMG is a three-phase medium
frequency machine, providing an essentially constant
voltage supply to the thyristor converter and AVR
control circuits. A typical salient pole PMG is shown
on Fig 6.59.
The permanent magnet poles of the generator are
manufactured from high energy material, such as
Alcomax. The permanent magnet pieces are bolted
to a steel hub and held in place by pole shoes. The
bolts are generally made from non-magnetic steel to
prevent the formation of a magnetic shunt. In some
designs of PMG, the pole shoes are also skewed one
pole pitch over the stator length to improve the
waveform of the output voltage and reduce electrical
noise.
The stator core is constructed from a stack of low
loss sheet steel laminations, assembled within a fabri-
cated steel frame. Radial and axial cooling ducts are
provided at intervals along the core length to allow
cooling of the core and windings. To facilitate re-
moval, certain designs of pilot exciter can be split along
the horizontal centre line.
The stator winding is a two-layer design, each
stator conductor comprising a number of small dia-
meter copper wires insulated with polyester enamel.
The coils are connected together to give the rated
three-phase voltage output, and insulated with Class
F (BS5000 Part 2) epoxy glass material.
 GENERATOR ROTOR MAIN EXCITER MAIN EXCITER SLIPRING PILOT EXCITER
SLIPRING BRUSHGEAR ROTOR BRUSHGEAR ROTOR
GENERATOR
ROTOR BEARING PEDESTAL MAIN OIL PUMP

LTmPLpw

FIG. 6.57 Section through main and pilot exciters

Excitation

507
The generator
FIG. 6.58 Concept of the exciter response ratio
A steel enclosure is fitted over the PMG stator,
which provides mechanical protection and serves to
reduce the medium frequency noise emitted from the
PMG to an acceptable level, as defined in BS4999
Part 51.
Cooling of the PMG is achieved by drawing air
through mesh-covered apertures in the enclosure; the
air is then circulated by the rotor or shaft-mounted
fans.
6.1.5 The main exciter
The main AC exciter is generally of a four or six-
pole revolving field construction. The exception is the
revolving armature main exciter used in a rotating
rectifier scheme, which is described in detail in Sec-
tion 6.2 of this chapter.
The exciter magnetic circuit is designed to operate
on or near the unsaturated part of its characteristic.
This preserves a linear relationship between the con-
trolled excitation of the main exciter and the gen-
erator slipring voltage. The armature is designed for
low voltage operation, with comparatively high current
levels. A typical rotating field main exciter arrange-
ment is shown on Fig 6.60.
The stator core and windings are air cooled, the
ventilation circuit being formed by the end cover
and ducting in the stator casing. Thermometers are
fitted to the casing to measure inlet and outlet air
temperatures.
The core is constructed from a large number of
segmented plates stamped from core plate material of
high magnetic quality and low electrical loss. Each
508
Chapter 6
layer of punchings in the core is made from a number
of these segments, coated with insulating varnish and
laid side-by-side to form a circle. All the joints on
adjacent layers are staggered.
The stator winding is of a three-phase, four or
six-pole design, formed by copper coils which are
contained in conductor slots in the core, and retained
in position by insulating slot wedges. Each coil is
made from individually-insulated copper strips, con-
tained within a moulded insulating tube. To restrict
eddy currents in the coil, the copper strips in each coil
are transposed.
The rotor consists of a hollow-bored alloy steel
forged shaft which carries the silicon steel laminations
forming the rotor core. The rotor body is generally
laminated to reduce poleface losses in the exciter.
The reduction of this loss is important, as in the ex-
citer, the ratio of stator slot opening/gap length is
comparatively large, a short airgap length being ne-
cessary to lighten the burden on the main exciter ex-
citation system. The stator slots form indentations in
the airgap boundary; therefore, as the rotor flux moves
across the stator teeth, the changing permeance due
to the slot openings introduces medium frequency
pulsations. These pulsations induce harmonic voltages
in the surface of the stator teeth but due to the
laminated construction, the resultant losses are kept
to a minimum.
The rotor windings are retained in position by cylin-
drical rotor endcaps. A fan is mounted on a seating
machined in the balance ring to circulate cooling air.
At the exciter outboard end, two slipring units are
connected to the end winding, via radial connections
and upshaft leads.
6.1.6 Exciter performance testing
Exciters are required to undergo a number of tests
within the manufacturer's works to ensure that all
of the functional requirements are fulfilled. These
include open- and short-circuit tests, overspeed bal-
ancing and HV testing. PMG exciters are stabilised
by applying short-circuits across the stator terminals
to ensure that there is no appreciable loss of output
voltage over the plant life.
The full exciter test requirements are contained with-
in BS5000 which covers routine and type testing.
6.1.7 Pilot exciter protection
The pilot exciter is now invariably a permanent mag-
net generator with windings only on the stator. These
windings are insulated to 1.1 kV and tested at 3.2 kV,
50 Hz for 1 minute, which is well in excess of the
normal operating voltage of 220 V.
The pilot exciter is only ever called upon to deliver
its full current output during field forcing. Modern
AVR equipment is fitted with a time/current limiter
which allows the pilot exciter to deliver maximum
 Excitation

STATOR WINDINGS

CENTRE SECTION
STATOR CASING

STIFFENING STRAP

INBOARD END COVER

CORE CLAMPING RING

CORE

ROTOR

LOCKING SCREW

PERMANENT MAGNET
POLE

TERMINAL BOX

CLAMPING RING
BAFFLE
STATOR
WITHDRAWAL
EQUIPMENT
MAIN EXCITER
END

PEDESTAL

OIL THROWER RING

LOCATING DOWEL

HOLDING DOWN
STIFFENING PLATE
BOLT
FAN TIPPING
RING

BAFFLE

AIR SCOOP

FIG. 6.59 Salient-pole permanent magnet generator

current for a pre-set time, after which the current is The rated current is well below maximum current;
ramped back to a safe value. therefore, for reasons similar to those given for the
The result of these measures is a pilot exciter having pilot exciter, no additional protection is provided.
a considerable design margin for normal duties. It is
not, therefore, CEGB practice to provide additional
pilot exciter protection.
6.2 Brushless excitation systems

6.1.8 Main exciter protection

The main exciter, like the pilot exciter, has con-
siderable inbuilt margin compared with its normal
duties, the AC windings being insulated for 3.3 kV,
even though normal working voltages are around 500
V. During ceiling conditions, this rises to approxi-
mately 1000 V.
6.2.1 System description
The development of the solid state silicon diode, with
its inherent robustness and reliability, made possible
the design of a compact rectifier system that can be
rotated at rated generator speed. This alternative to
the conventional slipring excitation system eliminates
509
The generator
CORE KEY
TRANSFER HOLE
CORE END RING
BOLT
STATOR CORE
END WINDING
SUPPORT RING
SUPPORT RING"'
BRACKET
VENTILATION DUCT
HAND HOLE COVER
THERMOCOUPLE
ACCESS DOOR
DOWEL HOLE
LEAD SUPPORT CLEAT
EXCITER TERMINAL LEAD
FIG. 6.60 Main exciter
the need for brushgear maintenance and reduces the
overall unit size.
Basically, the brushless scheme consists of a re-
volving armature AC exciter supplying a rotating recti-
fier mounted on the same shaft, which itself is directly
coupled to the main generator shaft.
The rotating excitation system does not use field
suppression switches and discharge resistors. The main
generator field is de-energised by suppressing the ex-
citer field which can be done rapidly by inverting the
thyristor bridge which supplies it. The exciter time
constants are short; therefore the time taken to sup-
press the generator field is only slightly longer than
in a conventional system.
All modern gas turbine units are fitted with brushless
excitation systems, where the pilot exciter, main exciter
and diode wheel are overhung; this arrangement means
the equipment is readily accessible for inspection. The
complete rotating system is balanced as a unit. The
rotating diodes are connected in a three-phase bridge
arrangement, the bridge arm consisting of two diodes
in series, so that if one fails by going short-circuit,
the other diode will continue to operate and hence
510
Chapter 6
LIFTING LUG
STATOR CASING
INNER END EXCITER LEAD
COVER y SUPPORT CLEAT
OUTER END COVER
DIVIDING PLATE
STIFFENING STRAP
BAFFLE
BAFFLE RING ASSEMBLY
STIFFENING RING
WHITE METAL BEARING
the bridge operates normally. In the unlikely event
of two diodes failing in the same bridge arm, a moni-
toring circuit in the field of the main exciter detects
the fault and trips the machine.
Because of the high excitation power requirements
of a 660 MW generator, a number of diodes are con-
nected in parallel in each rectifier bridge arm. A fuse
is connected in series with each diode to isolate it
if it fails. Present CEGB requirements include built-
in redundancy of rectifier components so that, should
two of the parallel paths in each arm fail, full MCR
excitation requirements can still be supplied. This
increase in components has meant the use of larger
diameter diode wheels. Diodes and their associated
components have therefore to be designed to with-
stand centrifugal forces in the region of 6000 g.
Measurements of essential quantities, such as ro-
tor earth fault indication, field voltage and current
are obtained via a telemetry link or instrument slip-
rings.
Recent designs of rotating diode wheel have taken
advantage of continued developments in semiconduc-
tor diode technology to reduce the number of com-

ponents. This has led to a simplified mechanical
arrangement.
6.2.2 The rotating armature main exciter
The main exciter is a brushless machine which, in
conjunction with the other units of the brushless ex-
citation system, supplies power to the main generator
rotor. By dispensing with commutators, sliprings and
brushgear, the brushless machine requires less main-
tenance than the conventional machine and there are
no sliding or rubbing electrical contacts to cause
sparking or carbon dust.
The machine is a three-phase rotating armature AC
generator driven directly from the main generator
through a solid coupling. The DC field system is
mounted in the stator and the AC winding is on the
rotor. A laminated pole construction is used, giving a
field circuit with a short time constant to produce a
fast response.
The AC output from the main exciter is rectified
by diodes on the shaft and, in order to reduce diode
commutation reactance, a fully interconnected damper
winding is fitted to the exciter polefaces. Figure 6.61
shows a typical rotating armature main exciter.
The stator consists essentially of a fabricated support
structure which carries the laminated magnet frame
and the associated field windings. The support frame
is formed from two steel end plates connected by
rectangular steel axial tie bars. The tie bars are equally
spaced around the bore to form a cage into which
the magnet frame laminations are assembled.
The stator core consists of a laminated magnet
frame with the laminated field poles bolted into the
bore of the frame. The magnet frame is built up from
segmental laminations of sheet steel. Each ring of
laminations is made up of six segments; the segments
in adjacent rings are half overlapped so that the
radial joints do not coincide. Ventilation spacers are
inserted during manufacture to form radial ventilation
ducts.
The field poles are laminated and assembled onto
key bars which allow the bolting of the poles onto
the bore of the magnet frame. The poles are built
up from T-shaped laminations clamped between end-
plates by axial rivets.
The exciter armature is formed from laminations
of low loss electrical sheet steel, shrunk onto a shaft
forged from annealed carbon steel. Each segment is
thinly insulated on both sides with a varnish, baked
on to give a durable insulation. The shrink-fit is such
that the stampings are always in contact with the
shaft. The laminations are clamped between heavy
endplates of non-magnetic steel with strong finger
supports for the armature teeth.
Radial ventilation ducts are formed by spacer plates
at intervals along the rotor body. Cooling air from
both ends flows axially along slots machined in the
shaft to feed air into the interpolar gap through the
Excitation
radial ventilation ducts.
The armature windings are held in place by wedges
driven into dovetail slots formed when the winding
slots are punched. The armature winding overhang is
cooled by axial vents in the teeth in each end packet.
The three-phase two-layer winding is secured in place
by wedges made from epoxy glass mat. In order to
minimise losses caused by eddy currents, the conduc-
tor is made from braided strips in parallel. A Roebel
transposition is used in the slot portion to reduce
eddy current losses.
Each of the phase ends of the three-phase winding
is connected to the appropriate phase conductor in
the AC shaft connection assembly by six laminated
copper connecting straps. A copper ring under the
outboard endwinding forms the neutral point.
The AC shaft connections between the exciter and
rectifier consist essentially of three cylindrical con-
centric conductor assemblies which pass through the
wall of the shaft. The conductor bars are insulated
from each other and from the shaft.
Figure 6.62 shows the rotating rectifier unit of a
660 MW generator which is mounted outboard of the
main AC exciter. Three-phase AC power is supplied
to the silicon diode rectifier from the main exciter
by conductors taken axially along the surface of the
shaft. The components within the rectifier are con-
tained against the high centrifugal forces by a steel
retaining ring.
The diode modules are accommodated within the
retaining ring in two circular rows, the complete
rectifier being a ' 3 - 2 - 1 - 9 ' connection of 54 diodes.
The notation signifies three AC connections, two
DC connections, one diode in series per arm, and the
last number indicates that there are nine paths per
phase.
The rotating rectifier includes a 20% standby ca-
pacity, this ensures continued unrestricted operation
in the unlikely event of diode failure. Anode-based
diodes are used in the positive arm and cathode-based
diodes in the negative arm of the bridge. The diodes
are of a compression bonded construction.
Individual diodes are protected by two HRC (high
rupturing capacity) fuses, connected in parallel, which
isolate the diode should it become faulty, leaving the
remaining healthy diodes to carry the full excitation
current. Each diode module has a resistance-capaci-
tance spike voltage suppression circuit and an indi-
cator fuse. The indicator fuse, in conjunction with the
blown fuse detector equipment, is designed to detect
the operation of the main diode protection fuses.
The rectifier retaining ring is shrunk onto the out-
side of the hub. A thick cylinder of insulation is
moulded onto the inside bore of the retaining ring,
and the circular rows of diodes are attached to it via
the diode module heat sinks.
The anode-based diode modules, situated at the
hub end of the retaining ring each consist of a heat
sink, diode, capacitor, capacitor fuse and main fuse.
511
The generator Chapter 6

MAIN ENCLOSURE

AIR FILTERS

AIR TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT PROBES
AIR COOLER

COLLECTING TROUGHS
STATOR FRAME

AIR TEMPERATURE MAGNET FRAME

GAUGE LAMINATIONS

STATOR FIELD POLE

STATOR FIELD COILS

GENERATOR/EXCITER ENDSHIELD
COUPLING FAN

ARMATURE SHAFT

ARMATURE RETAINING
RING
I 0 ^ ARMATURE BODY
AC SHAFT
11 CONNECTION
DRAIN FROM COLLECTING
TROUGHS

ANTI-CONDENSATION
HEATER

DRAIN VALVE

COOLING WATER
INLET
EXCITER
BEDPLATE

FIG. 6.61 Rotating armature main exciter

The cathode-based diode modules are situated at
the open end of the retaining ring, and in addition
to the anode based components have two indicator
fuses mounted on the heat sink. Figure 6.63 shows a
typical cathode-based module.
The DC output from the rectifier is connected to
copper alloy rings shrunk onto bushes on the shaft,
with insulation between the connection rings and the
512
bushes. Laminated copper straps connect the positive
and negative rings to insulated radial studs in the
shaft. These studs are screwed into the shaft bore
insulated D-leads.
With a rotating rectifier system, diode condition
monitoring is not as simple as it is on the equivalent
static rectifier scheme. A method of indirect measure-
ment is required to indicate a diode failure. The blown
 Excitation

ANODE-BASED CATHODE-BASED
DIODE MODULE DIODE MODULE

INSULATION
CYLINDER

ALUMINIUM
SEGMENTS
RADIAL
CONNECTING STRAPS

INSULATION
CYLINDER

INSULATED
' LEADS
NEGATIVE RADIAL
TERMINAL STUD
-(UNDER)

INSULATED CLAMPING
BOLT
STEEL COUPLING
BUSH AND BOLT

COOLING-AIR FLOW

FIG. 6.62 Rotating rectifier

fuse detector performs this function; it consists of
two main units, an optical detector head and a ter-
minal unit containing the detection equipment, shown
diagrammatically in Fig 6.64.
The optical detector head consists of a unit con-
taining the three photoelectric cells associated with
three separate light sources, two on the bottom face
and one (the datum) on the top face. The light beams
on the bottom face pass over the path traversed by
the tips of the diode failure indicator fuses as the
513
The generator Chapter 6

EPOXY RESIN
GLASS STEADY
STRAP

* INDICATING
FUSES

DIODE
MAIN FUSES

INSULATION
PLATES
ALUMINIUM
BASE PLATE

BALANCE
WEIGHTS
CONNECTION
STRAPS
CAPACITOR
FUSE

CAPACITOR

FIG. 6.63 Negative DC diode module

rectifier rotates. Under normal operating conditions,
these light beams remain unbroken and the light shines
continuously on the photoelectric cell immediately op-
posite, thus maintaining a constant signal. However,
should a diode fail, the associated indicator fuse op-
erates and ejects a striker pin which interrupts the
appropriate beam of light on each revolution. This
interruption produces a pulsed DC signal at the output
of the photoelectric cell which is fed to the blown fuse
514
detector circuit, where an alarm signal is generated.
To distinguish between the two rows (positive and
negative) of indicator fuses, the light beams from the
two probes are offset by an amount equal to half the
circumferential distance between fuses. Without this
arrangement, signals from the two rows of fuses would
be coincident and therefore unidentifiable.
To establish the angular position of a failed diode
on the rotating rectifier, a fixed datum point is con-
 Excitation

LIGHT GUIDE LIGHT BEAM

DATUM DATUM
REF1
DATUM

DATUM
SIGNAL DETECTOR
CIRCUIT
PHOTO
ELECTRIC
CELL OSCILLOSCOPE

BLOWN
FUSE
OPTICAL PROBE SIGNAL
INDICATOR
FUSE PIN

TUNGSTEN - HALOGEN
LIGHT SOURCE
3=1) (BACK ROW)

BLOWN
FUSE REMOTE
DETECTOR ALARM
CIRCUIT CIRCUITS

BLOWN FUSE
(FRONT ROW) SIGNAL

PEC

LOCAL ALARM
1
INDICATOR
LAMP

FIG. 6.64 Blown fuse detector system

tinuously scanned by the third photoelectric cell.
The datum detector output is compared with the
blown fuse detector signal and the relationship be-
tween the two establishes the position of the failed
diode.
Generators fitted with brushless exciters employ tele-
metry systems to provide measurement of generator
rotor winding quantities, including rotor current, volt-
age, temperature and most importantly earth fault
indication.
The equipment uses solid state electronics, some
of which are shaft-mounted and the remainder rack-
mounted within the AVR. The rotating units are com-
pletely encapsulated and accommodated in transverse
holes in the exciter shaft. Plugs and sockets are used
for connections. The power supply for the rotating
electronics is supplied from the stationary unit at me-
dium frequency via windings on the aerial assembly.
The overall schematic of the telemetry system is shown
on Fig 6.65:
Voltage measurement The field voltage is obtained
from a voltage divider circuit connected across the
field winding. This comprises resistors Rl and R2
which have a voltage output of 0.6 V corresponding
to the generator field voltage.
Current measurement A current shunt is built into
the rotor winding, giving a mV output correspond-
ing to the 0-5000 A flowing in the field winding.
Earth leakage A DC supply is produced in the
rotating electronic equipment, the positive supply
of which is connected to the negative end of the
field winding via a resistor R3. The negative is con-
nected to the rotor shaft through a high value
resistor R4. Leakage to earth will result in current
flowing through these resistors which is measured
by the voltage drop across R3.
The output from the current channel is fed to a volt-
age controlled oscillator that produces a frequency
modulated (FM) signal, which is then conveyed to
the stationary unit by the aerial assembly. Voltage
and earth leakage signals are treated similarly. Values
of winding resistance and average winding temperature
are derived from the voltage and current signals.
The signal from the field voltage demodulator is
also fed to an active filter tuned to the exciter funda-
mental frequency. Should a complete rectifier bridge
arm fail, signals at this frequency appear in the field
winding causing the filter output to increase, initiating
an alarm.
515
The generator Chapter 6

ROTATING PARTS STATIONARY PARTS

VOLTAGE TO FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE
CONVERTERS CONVERTERS
VOLTAGE
DIVIDER
FIELD
WINDING

v. SIGNAL
r OUTPUTS

D
FUNDAMENTAL
FREQUENCY
DETECTOR
(150Hz)
BRIDGE ARM
EARTH FAILURE
LEAKAGE

EARTH
LEAKAGE
DEMODULATOR
D EARTH
< LEAKAGE

n
a
EARTH
EARTH LEAKAGE LEAKAGE
LIMITING RESISTOR SOURCE

HZ> 9kHz
7 OSCILLATOR
ROTOR

EARTH DC SUPPLY
FOR
ROTATING
ELECTRONICS

AERIAL
ASSEMBLY

FIG. 6.65 Rotational telemetry overall schematic diagram

An alternative brushless exciter design consisting
of a rectifier with a 3 - 2 - 2 - 8 arrangement of connec-
tions totalling 96 diodes is also in common use. The
notation signifies three AC connections, two DC con-
nections with two diodes in series and eight parallel
paths per bridge arm. The rectifier is designed to
maintain rated output following the failure of up to
two paths in any bridge arm.
A circular row of fuse modules and two circular
rows of diode modules are contained against the cen-
trifugal forces by a steel retaining ring. The diode
modules consist of anode and cathode units, which are
used in the positive and negative arm of the bridge. In
contrast to the mark 1 systems, the mark 2 is fused on
the AC side of the rectifier and advantage has been
taken of the improved peak inverse voltage capability
of modern diodes to eliminate the capacitor fuse cir-
cuits. A typical mark 2 diode module is shown on
Fig 6.66.
Fusing on the AC side means a reduction in fuse
size, as the elements are no longer subjected to the
high induced generator field voltages which occur
during system faults and pole slipping incidents.
The need for the two diodes in series was deter-
mined from consideration of two diodes failing simul-
taneously in the same phase of the rectifier. If the
series diodes were not present, the result would be a
short-circuiting of the generator rotor.
Indicator fuses are connected in parallel with the
main fuses as a secondary method of determining
diode failures. When the generator is shut down, in-
spection of the indicator fuses readily identifies failed
diodes.
For cooling purposes, air is circulated in a closed
ventilation system which contains a water cooled heat
exchanger. Air from the outlet side of the cooler cir-
culates within the main enclosure. The self-fanning
action of the fuse and diode modules draws air from
the main enclosure through the rectifier.
6.2.3 Telemetry system
The telemetry system employed on this design of
rectifier makes use of the principle of frequency di-
vision multiplexing and includes a number of addi-
tional features. The most significant of these is the

516
 Excitation

LAMINATED
COPPER STRAP

DIODE

HOLDING DOWN
BOLT HOLES (2)

INSULATION
STRIPS

INSULATION
BASE

BASEPLATE
AND HEATSINK

FIG. 6.66 Rectifier module (anode)

indication and phase location of up to three blown
fuses per phase, making a total indicating capacity
of nine blown fuses. The other changes are the use
of a single transmitter, directly modulated by the
field voltage, to which are added sub-carriers contain-
ing the rotor current, blown fuse and earth leakage
information.
Voltage
The field voltage measurement is taken differentially
at each end of the shaft, as shown on Fig 6.67.
Voltage measurement is made via a voltage divider
and differential amplifier 1. The output of this ampli-
fier is fed via the mixer unit 4 to the transmitter
10 to give direct frequency modulation of the trans-
mitted carrier frequency.
The transmitter output is transferred via the aerial
to a carrier amplifier 16 and demodulator 17 to give a
mean output voltage proportional to the carrier fre-
quency. The output is then smoothed and scaled to
produce an output corresponding to the DC field
voltage.
Earth leakage detection
Rotor earth leakage is detected as a voltage devel-
oped across a resistor R6 which produces a frequency
517
518
EARTH
* * * * * * * * BLOWN FUSE
LEAKAGE
DISPLAY
DISPLAY
The generator

'
3 ri

STROBE LOGIC
GENERATOR UNIT

EIGHT SERIES EIGHT SERIES

CONNECTED CONNECTED FIELD
TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR WINDING
SWITCHES SWITCHES PEAK TO THREE LEVEL
PEAK LEVEL l- DETECTOR
AND CURRENT AND CURRENT
RECTIFIER COMPARATOR
TRANSFORMERS TRANSFORMERS
LV^IAJT

LOW PASS LOW PASS SMOOTHING

FILTER FILTER SECTION
6 r i DC -1kHz DC -1kHz

FIELD BLOWN EARTH
15 CURRENT FUSE LEAKAGE
LA-AJSJI DEMODULATOR DEMODULATOR DEMODULATOR

8 rf BANDPASS BANDPASS BANDPASS
INTEGRATING
FILTER FILTER FILTER
AMPLIFIER
21-32 kHz 4 - 10kHz 100Hz-1kHz
* * * * * * * *

3_
SUMMING DIFFERENTIAL
UNIT AMPLIFIER
VOLTAGE
TO
FREQUENCY
CONVERTER

VOLTAGF VOLTAGE 4-95

kHz TRANSMITTER CARRIER CARRIER
TO TO INPUT TRANSMITTER
FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER HDEMODULATOR
FREQUENCY MIXER
CONVERTER 700- CONVERTER
300Hzl
T:

12 kHz
12kHz
POWER POWER
TUNED
SUPPLY DRIVER
FILTER

FIG. 6.67 Telemetry system block diagram

Chapter 6

change at the output of a voltage-to-frequency con-
verter 3. This output is added to the voltage signal
in the transmitter input mixer 4. The earth leakage
signal is isolated from the carrier demodulator 17 out-
put by a band-pass filter 22 and processed to provide
an earth leakage alarm signal.
Field current measurement
Field current is measured by means of eight series-
connected current transformers (T1-T8) in phase A
of the main exciter output. Since each current trans-
former (CT) surrounds a conductor between the fuses
and the associated rectifier in one phase, the total
output from the current transformers corresponds to
the total phase current. The CT output modulates the
voltage-to-frequency converter 5 over a range of field
currents from 0-6000 A DC. The signal carrying the
current information is selected by a band-pass filter
20, demodulated and rectified to give field current
indication.
Blown fuse indication
Eight CTs (T9-T16) in each phase, identical to those
used for current measurement, are each loaded by a
transistor switch (TRS1-TRS8), shunted by a resistor
(R17-R24). The resistors are connected in series but
under normal operating conditions each one is shorted
out by its associated transistor switch. The resistance
of the circuit is therefore low. If a fuse operates,
the associated transistor switches off and the circuit
resistance increases; further fuse failures result in fur-
ther increases in resistance. This arrangement is re-
peated on each of the three phases and connected to
the summing unit 40 which, by supplying a current
to each of the circuits, provides an output voltage
proportional to the number of blown fuses in each
phase. The output of the summing unit controls the
output of the voltage-to-frequency converter.
The blown fuse information is selected from the
receiver carrier demodulator 17 by a band-pass filter
21. The signal is then recovered by the demodulator
24. The output waveform for the circuit corresponds
to the number of blown fuses so the waveform is
analysed to give the number of fuse failures. Phase
identification is carried out by a strobe generator 30
which produces three separate pulses that coincide
with the centres of each positive phase current period.
6.2.4 Instrument sliprings
An alternative scheme is shown diagrammatically on
Fig 6.68 and uses shaft-mounted sliprings. Connec-
tions are taken from the exciter upshaft leads through
the shaft bore to instrument sliprings mounted on
the permanent magnet generator shaft. These slip-
rings permit direct measurement of field voltage. The
rotor earth fault indicator relay is connected to one
Excitation
of these sliprings.
The brushes are designed to operate continuously in
order to achieve uninterrupted rotor earth fault pro-
tection. This arrangement is lightly loaded and would,
after a short period of operation at low current,
develop a high resistance contact film, resulting in
incorrect readings. To overcome this difficulty, a
constant current is circulated through the two brushes
(<brush-wetting,). This continuous flow of current
maintains the interface resistance constant at normal
levels.
A signal proportional to generator rotor current
is obtained from a search coil mounted in the
quadrature axis of the exciter field coils. The output
signal is filtered and converted from a voltage to a
standard 4 - 2 0 m A current signal suitable for use
with the station central logging computer. The field
voltage signal is similarly conditioned and buffered
to protect the instrumentation from the high voltages
induced in the rotor field following incidents, such
as pole slipping. The current and voltage signals are
subsequently processed to provide an average rotor
winding temperature measurement.
Continuous monitoring of the rotating diode equip-
ment is considered unnecessary, given the proven
operational reliability of the equipment. This is the
simplest and most robust of the described schemes
to monitor essential rotor quantities. It has the added
advantage that generator rotor RSO (recurrent surge
oscilloscope) testing can be carried out, a facility not
available with equivalent telemetry schemes.
6.2.5 Rotating rectifier protection
The main exciter is protected against the effect of
diode failure by the provision of fusing, either on the
AC or DC side of the rectifier. When a diode fails, it
usually fails to short circuit, blowing the high rupture
capacity (HRC) fuse, which in turn blows an ejector
pin indicator fuse to initiate an alarm. On the mark 1
system, the pin is detected by a photoelectric cell,
and an alarm is raised in the control room. In contrast,
the mark 2 system can identify up to nine individual
diode failures.
On the basis of the proven high operational relia-
bility of the rotating diodes, it is not now considered
necessary to continuously monitor the rotating system
for failure. Present practice is to examine the indica-
tor fuses on an opportunity basis and during planned
maintenance overhauls.
Should a major fault occur, such that a complete
bridge arm is either short- or open-circuited, major
damage can be caused to the excitation system. To
protect the unit in the event of such a failure, it is
CEGB practice to provide bridge arm failure protec-
tion. This device initiates a turbine trip on detection
of a failure.
The detector monitors the amount of ripple induced
in the main exciter field, which in a healthy rectifier
519
The generator
FIG. 6.68 Arrangement of instrument sliprings
is the sixth harmonic of the exciter fundamental fre-
quency. This ripple is associated with the normal
three-phase full wave rectification of the exciter ar-
mature voltage. Should a bridge arm fail (to either
open- or short-circuit), a component of ripple at the
exciter fundamental frequency appears in the exciter
field. This is detected by a band-pass filter tuned to
the exciter fundamental frequency. Once the input is
of sufficient magnitude to overcome an internal bias
signal, which is set to prevent spurious operation, a
relay is energised which initiates a Category B unit
trip.
6.3 Static rectifier excitation equipment
6.3.1 Introduction
Excitation systems based on the static semiconductor
diode bridge were the first alternatives to the DC
520
Chapter 6
AUXILIARY SUPPLY
110V 50Hz
excitation system. Early equipment contained diodes
of relatively low rating, where up to three diodes were
required in series to meet reverse voltage requirements
during pole slipping. This, together with a cautious
design approach, resulted in high spare capacity.
The rapid development of semiconductor techno-
logy has resulted in a reduced number of simpler,
more compact devices, capable of operating at high
voltage and current levels. Equipment of this type
has a record of high reliability on the CEGB system,
and is currently in use on a number of 660 MW units.
With the introduction of the thyristor, the role of
the static rectifier has radically changed. The thyristor
rectifier plays an active role in the control of excita-
tion power to the generator field. Like the diode,
the thyristor conducts current in one direction only;
however, unlike the diode, the point at which con-
duction takes place can be controlled.
Excitation power modulation is achieved by con-
trolling the thyristor firing angle, eliminating the need
for a main AC exciter. As the time constant asso-

ciated with the exciter is the principal cause of delay,
its removal greatly improves the speed of excitation
system response, enhancing generator transient stability
margins.
A feature of all static excitation equipment is the
need for sliprings and brushgear which require regular
maintenance. As this is carried out on-load, an inter-
lock system is normally provided so that access to
the slipring enclosure is prevented, unless a safety
procedure has been followed. No further mention of
sliprings or brushgear will be made here, as a detailed
account of the equipment is given in Section 3 of this
chapter.
6.3.2 General description of static diode rectifier
equipment
A static rectifier system is an assembly of diodes and
diode protective equipment. Typical 660 MW rectifier
units consist of up to four self-contained, three-phase,
full wave bridges. The number of diodes per section are
selected so that MCR requirements can be met with one
section out of commission. Each section is provided
with AC and DC isolators, and an interlock system
ensures that, during on-load operation, access can be
gained to one section only.
Diode rating is based on the continuous and peak
inverse voltages, together with the current/time rating
on overload. A typical rectifier bridge has a number
of parallel paths per arm (the diodes being specially
selected to ensure satisfactory current sharing) with
one diode in each parallel path.
To dissipate the heat generated during rectifica-
tion, the diodes are mounted on heat sinks. Cooling
is provided by either forced or natural air circula-
tion and alarms are generally provided to warn op-
erators of high temperature conditions which require
investigation.
Busbars are used for the AC connections from the
main exciter, and for the DC rectifier output to the
generator field winding. The busbar system, like the
exciters, is rated for 110% MCR and is capable of
withstanding the mechanical forces arising from the
worst overcurrent fault conditions.
All rectifier equipments supplied to the CEGB must
meet the requirements of BS4417 which covers both
routine and type testing.
6.3.3 Rectifier protection
Diodes are susceptible to overcurrent, which causes
excessive heating of the element, and to overvoltages
which can pierce the rectifying element and cause com-
plete breakdown. It is therefore essential for system
integrity that both the operating and ceiling voltages
are within the capacity of the diodes.
During generator pole slipping or asynchronous op-
eration, the peak voltages appearing at the slipring
are about 2000 V on a 660 MW machine. Since these
Excitation
voltages appear across the rectifier in the reverse
direction, it is CEGB practice to use diodes with a
peak inverse capability of 3.4-4.2 kV, thus providing
ample margin.
To protect the diodes against voltage spikes (caused
by diode commutation effects and external switching),
each diode is provided with a dV/dt suppression cir-
cuit, consisting of a capacitor and series resistor. In
addition, each rectifier section has a resistor-capacitor
suppression network connected across the DC output
to limit voltage transients coming from the DC side
of the rectifier to within the peak transient voltage
rating of the diodes.
The rectifier diodes are easily damaged by over-
currents and are therefore individually protected by
high speed, high rupturing capacity fuses, with micro-
switches for fuse failure indication. These fuses op-
erate for an internal fault to isolate the faulty diode
and allow continued operation of the remaining diodes
in the arm. The most severe fault experienced by the
diode is a short-circuit on the DC side of the rectifier;
this is cleared by HRC fuse operation.
Overcurrents due to system faults or slipring flash-
overs are cleared by DC circuit-breaker operation.
6.3.4 Static thyristor rectifier schemes
The thyristor has radically changed the role of static
rectifier equipment, as it no longer plays a passive
but an active role in the control of generator excita-
tion. One of the principal features of this form of
excitation control is its very fast rate of response
due to the elimination of a main exciter. A typical
thyristor excitation scheme is shown on Fig 6.69.
Excitation power is generally taken from an excita-
tion transformer which is connected to the generator
output terminals. With this arrangement, the trans-
former primary voltage follows the generator terminal
voltage during normal and fault conditions. Under
fault conditions the excitation power transformer must
be capable of meeting the field forcing requirements
at reduced terminal voltage, and of withstanding the
overvoltage experienced following a load rejection.
An alternative scheme, which is not subject to
system voltage variations, is the compound source
rectifier system. These static systems use both current
and voltage sources (generator terminal quantities) to
make up the excitation power source.
To ensure integrity under 'black start' conditions,
however, a scheme based on shaft-mounted exciters is
an attractive alternative. The exciter runs continuously
at ceiling output with low power factor, providing
the thyristor converter with a constant voltage source
of excitation power.
The thyristor rectifier unit is arranged in several
isolatable sections so that any one section can be ser-
viced while the remaining sections provide full MCR
excitation requirements. Thyristor free-wheel and pole-
slip crowbar circuits are generally included to protect
521
The generator
MVAR
LIMIT REVERSIBLE
CURRENT
INPUT
FROM STATOR
POWER
SYSTEM
STABILISER!
AUTO
VOLTAGE SIGNAL
CONTROL
VOLTAGE - .BASE EXCITATION
REFERENCE
SIGNAL
VOLTAGE AUTO/MANUAL
SETTING CHANGEOVER
ROTOR
HEATING
CURRENT
LIMIT
FIG. 6.69 Typical thyristor excitation system
the thyristors from excessive overvoltages. Direct cur-
rent voltage transformers (DCVTs) trigger the crow-
bar into operation on detection of an overvoltage
condition. Free-wheel thyristors provide a path for
stored energy in the rotor during thyristor commu-
tation and system fault conditions. The pole-slip crowbar
provides a path for the induced reverse direction pole-
slip current, so avoiding excessive pole-slip voltage
developing across the rotor terminals.
The DC output of the thyristor rectifier is provided
with voltage and current surge suppression circuits
which are designed to protect the thyristor from volt-
age spikes generated during thyristor commutation or
field circuit-breaker operation. In addition, individual
thyristors are protected against dV/dt breakdown by
a capacitor-resistor suppression circuit connected in
parallel (identical to the circuit used to protect diodes).
Overcurrent protection is provided by a series-connected
HRC fuse. In the event of an individual thyristor
drawing excessive current the series fuse will rupture,
ejecting a striker pin which initiates an alarm. Over-
current excursions are normally controlled by the AVR
to within the rotor heating limit; however, in the
event of a prolonged overcurrent condition, the ex-
citation is tripped through the field circuit-breaker.
To meet the high current requirements of large
turbine-generator excitation systems, it is necessary
522
Chapter 6
EXCITATION
TRANSFORMER
-oo
MAIN
VOLTAGE FEEDBACK
<x>
CURRENT FEEDBACK
-3
THYRISTOR
CONVERTER
THYRISTOR
CURRENT
CONTROL CONTROL
SIGNAL
GENERATOR/MOTOR
MANUAL
POT
AVR EXTERNAL PLANT
to connect a number of thyristors in parallel. This
presents difficulties, since individual thyristors have
different forward path characteristics, causing one to
conduct the majority of current; if allowed to con-
tinue, this would cause breakdown. Forced current
sharing, by the addition of a low value resistance or
inductance in series with each anode, is normally used
to obviate this.
Thyristor cooling is provided by a natural or forced
air scheme. Temperature detectors mounted within the
air circuit provide early warning of high temperature
conditions, allowing appropriate operator action to be
taken. On future large plant, the higher current ratings
and associated losses may make it necessary to use
water cooled thyristor equipment.
Thyristor excitation systems can improve the steady
state and transient stability limits considerably because
of their ability to change the generator field voltage
almost instantaneously. They are therefore finding gen-
eral application on generating plant which is connected
to the periphery of the main transmission system,
where the inversion mode of operation, in which the
field current is rapidly reduced by the reversal of
energy flow, is exploited to the full. The rapid field
suppression achieved following isolation from the sys-
tem under load rejection or fault conditions is illus-
trated on Fig 6.70.
 Excitation

GENERATOR FIELD
VOLTAGE V c n

V F D - FIELD VOLTAGE

T f -FIELD TIME CONSTANT

V SUPPRESSION TIME FOR A THYRISTOR EXCITER

FIG. 6.70 Field suppression time

6.4 The voltage regulator
6.4.1 Historical review
Early designs of voltage regulator equipment had a
large deadband, were slow to respond to system changes
and required regular maintenance. This was due main-
ly to the use of moving mechanical components within
the automatic voltage regulator (AVR). To eliminate
these difficulties, AVR systems were developed which
made use of the cross-field generator or amplidyne.
The amplidyne was used as the regulator output stage
and controlled the field of the DC exciter.
The amplidyne and DC exciter were, in turn, super-
seded by the magnetic amplifier and AC exciter. In
this scheme, the magnetic amplifier was used as the
regulator output stage controlling the main exciter
field. The output from the exciter was rectified by a
diode bridge and taken, via slipring connections, to
the generator field winding. Schemes of this type were
successfully employed on all the CEGB 500 MW gen-
erators and continue to provide reliable operation.
The rapid developments in the field of semiconduc-
tor technology brought about the introduction of the
transistor amplifier and the thyristor output ampli-
fier, which have increased the speed of response and
improved the overall system performance. Subsequent-
ly, the discrete component operational amplifier has
been replaced by integrated circuit equivalents. A
typical modern dual channel arrangement is shown
on Fig 6.71.
Future developments in the field of AVR design will
centre around the use of digital microprocessor tech-
niques. These discrete time controllers offer a number
of potential advantages, most notably the introduction
of adaptive control strategies.
6.4.2 System description
The AVR is an essential part of the operation of a
modern electrical power system. It is at the heart of
the excitation control systems around which the re-

523
The generator Chapter 6

VT VT CT CT
B A B A
Le-i EXCITER j
MONITORING
VT mm
uUUu uwu uUUu
nnmnnnnnnnn
ROTOR ANGLE
MEASUREMENT
UP-TO-FREQ
DETECTOR
F
MAIN
RECTIFIER
ARM
O/C
TRIP/ALARM
CHANNEL
CHANNEL
A
AVR
UT^ A
CONVERTER

PILOT EXCITER
SUPPLY
CHECKING
ALARM/TRIP

CHANNEL CHANNEL
B B
AVR CONVERTER

VOLTAGE
LOWER REFERENCE

MANUAL

OVERFLUX

EXCITATION
TRIP & ALARM
TOTAL CURRENT

FIG. 6.71 Dual channel AVR

maining equipment operates. The central function of
the AVR is to maintain constant generator terminal
voltage under conditions of changing load. There are,
however, a number of other functions which are
required from the AVR, if a large generator is to
operate satisfactorily under all operational conditions.
The CEGB currently specifies dual channel AVR
equipment complying fully with EES 1980 together with
manual back-up control on all 660 MW plant. This
provides maximum reliability as the loss of one chan-
nel does not inhibit operational performance. Facilities
are provided to repair the faulty channel while the
generator remains in service. On small gas turbine
plant, single channel AVR equipment is specified.
6.4.3 The regulator
The AVR is a closed loop controller which uses a
signal proportional to the generator terminal voltage
and compares it with a steady voltage reference. The
difference or error voltage obtained is then used to
control the exciter output.
If the load on the generator changes, the generator
524
terminal voltage also changes, increasing the error sig-
nal. The error is amplified by the regulator and used
to increase or reduce excitation, as necessary, to bring
the voltage back to its original value. The need for a
rapid, stable response following such changes is of
paramount importance and, since control systems us-
ing such high steady state gains would rapidly become
unstable, special signal conditioning networks are in-
cluded. These consist of phase advance and phase
lag circuits which have adjustable time constants al-
lowing accurate tuning of the voltage response. To-
gether, these circuits act as a notched filter, reducing
gain at generator electromechanical oscillation frequen-
cies, whilst permitting the high gains necessary for
accurate voltage control. The setting of the time con-
stants is of great importance, as transmission system
dynamic stability is sensitive to AVR settings. For
this reason, sophisticated analytical techniques (see
Section 6.7 of this chapter) have been developed and
applied in order to obtain optimal performance.
The AVR accepts the generator terminal voltage
signal via its own interposing voltage transformer.
The voltage signal is then rectified and filtered before

being compared with the reference voltage. Provision
is made for the operator to change the reference
voltage in response to system requirements.
In addition to the basic voltage control require-
ment, the AVR includes control loops which perform
other vital tasks. These controllers, which include the
MVAr limiter and over fluxing limiter, are discussed
in detail in Section 6.5 of this chapter.
6.4.4 Auto follow-up circuit
With a dual channel design, both regulator channels
can be active at the same time, each providing half
the total generator excitation requirements. An alter-
native arrangement allows for one channel to be active,
whilst the other follows passively. Should a channel
trip in either scheme, then the other picks up the
full excitation requirement of the generator in a
'bumpless' manner. This is achieved using follow-up
circuits which track the primary (or active) channel
and drive the standby channel output while a dif-
ference exists between the two.
6.4.5 Manual follow-up
This is similar to the auto follow-up but is used to
adjust the manual control system in response to
automatic channel changes. In the event of an AVR
failure, the manual control takes over in a smooth
bumpless manner.
6.4.6 Balance meter
A balance meter is provided in the power station
control room and in the AVR cubicle. This monitors
the difference between the automatic and manual
control output settings. During automatic control, the
follow-up circuits ensure this error is minimal, whereas
during manual control no such facility exists to adjust
the AVR, and a large discrepancy can therefore exist.
During manual operation and prior to selection of
AVR control, the balance meter is consulted and an
adjustment is made so as to avoid large MVAr dis-
turbances following control changeover.
6.4.7 AVR protection
The AVR plays a vital role in the unit overall pro-
tection scheme, as it controls suppression of the gen-
erator field after faults. In addition, it is necessary
to protect against AVR component failure which would
otherwise jeopardise generator operation.
The field suppression circuit accepts signals from
the main unit overall protection scheme, in addition
to signals from the overvoltage and transformer over-
fluxing relays. The circuit switches the AVR thyristor
converters to their inversion mode of operation and
then trips the excitation.
The overvoltage relay monitors the generator ter-
Excitation
minal voltage and, if it exceeds a safe level (normally
1.3 pu), the thyristor converter is immediately switched
into the inverting mode, which reduces the field cur-
rent in minimum time. This relay is only active during
unsynchronised operation.
The overfluxing relay is also only active during un-
synchronised operation, when there is a chance that
the generator transformer could be overfluxed if the
safe voltage/frequency ratio is exceeded. A special
relay detects this condition and initiates an alarm.
Control loops within the AVR will act to reduce this
to a safe level but, if the condition persists, the thy-
ristor converter is switched to the inverting mode and
the excitation is tripped.
Most faults within the regulator loop give rise to
either an over or under excitation condition. There-
fore comparator circuits are used to monitor regulator
and converter bridge input and output levels. Alter-
natively, a single comparator monitors the thyristor
output current and compares it with maximum and
minimum field current limits allowed. Transiently, these
limits are exceeded during system faults, but the chan-
nel is tripped if the condition persists beyond a few
seconds.
6.4.8 Thyristor converter protection
In addition to the above, AVR channels are tripped
if any of the indicator fuses protecting the converter
thyristor s rupture. The thyristor converter is further
protected by a temperature sensing device which op-
erates in the event of excessive heating.
6.4.9 Fuse failure detection unit
The regulator relies upon a signal from the generator
voltage transformers for its controlling action. Loss
of the signal is due in general to failure of the fuses
in the voltage transformers. A fuse failure detector
unit monitors the input to each channel and compares
it with that of a check or reference transformer. If
a fuse fails in the voltage transformer supplying the
reset voltage, the channel is tripped; a fuse failure
in the reference transformer initiates an alarm.
6.4.10 The digital AVR
The rapid development of the microprocessor has
brought about the increased use of digital electronic
techniques in a number of industrial control appli-
cations. While the present generation of solid state
AVRs meet all existing CEGB functional requirements,
there are advantages to be gained if microprocessor
schemes are considered.
High reliability, which has been a feature of pre-
sent AVR equipment, can be expected to improve
still further due to the reduction in the number of
components, since much of the control logic, at pre-
sent carried out by electromechanical relays, will be
525
The generator Chapter 6

software specified. Cost advantages are also envisaged
as standard memory circuits replace the present cus-
tomised printed circuit boards. However, the principal
motivation lies in the range of sophisticated control-
ler designs that the microprocessor makes physically
realisable. One class of controller is the adaptive
regulator, which (as the name suggests) is capable of
adjusting its structure to take account of changing
plant conditions. This type of regulator, shown sche-
matically on Fig 6.72, consists of a recursive real-
time parameter estimator (based on a form of least
squares structure) which is used to identify the con-
trolled plant. The estimated plant model is then used
by the regulator to form the control law. A wide
choice of regulator/control law designs exists; typical
strategies include pole placement and minimum var-
iance. Both have a very flexible structure, making it
a simple matter to include additional input signals,
such as machine accelerating power (which has been
demonstrated to enhance transmission system dyna-
mic performance), and post-fault recovery.
6.5 Excitation control
In addition to the basic voltage control loop, modern
excitation equipment includes a number of additional
limiter circuits. These limiters operate as parallel con-
trollers, in that their signals replace the generator
voltage as the controlled variable whenever those in-
put signals exceed predefined limits.
6.5.1 Rotor current limiter
All exciters are capable of supplying generator field
current well in excess of that required for normal
MCR operation. This field forcing capability or mar-
gin is necessary during system fault conditions, where
the additional reactive power provides the much needed
boost of synchronous torque. However, this current
must be restricted in duration because of the danger
of overheating the generator rotor which would cause
insulation system degradation. To prevent overheat-
ing, the exciter field current signal is applied to the
rotor current limit circuit which detects values of
field current in excess of 110% MCR.

CONVENTIONAL
SPEED GOVERNOR

1r i1

GOVERNOR
VALVE REF ^ POWER
* ^
TURBINE GENERATOR
GENERATOR OUTPUT

-VOLTAGE

]f 1f

DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE TO
ANALOGUE DIGITAL
CONVERTER CONVERTER

1r
i1

RECURSIVE
1 PARAMETER
ESTIMATOR COMPARATOR ... 0 REF
-^^~

ESTIMATED ,
SYSTEM ' f
F3ARAMETER

CONTROLLER
WITH ADAPTIVE
U n IMML GAI NS
CONTROL
SIGNAL

FIG. 6.72 Block diagram of adaptive excitation controller

526

During system fault conditions, the AVR reacts to
boost excitation; normally this situation lasts only
milliseconds before circuit-breaker operation clears
the fault. However, it is necessary to allow for the
longest back-up protection clearance times and hence a
delay of up to 5 s is specified. After this delay, the
rotor current limit circuit generates a signal which
opposes that from the AVR and ramps excitation
current back to a safe value.
6.5.2 M V A r limiter
Modern AVR equipment is capable of controlling
generator operation at rotor angles of 130 to 140.
This mode of operation is not, however, tenable when
transient stability criteria are taken into account; it is
therefore customary to limit the generator operation
to a rotor angle of 75.
The permissible leading MVAr varies with the square
of the generator terminal voltage, the limit line being
defined by the following equation:
MVAr + MW = V2
VI sin</> 4- VI cos</> = V2
The in-phase and quadrature components of stator
current are obtained from a form of phase sensitive
rectifier. The signals are then compared with the
generator terminal voltage bias and, if the limit set-
ting is exceeded, an output is generated which acts to
boost excitation and reduce rotor angle.
6.5.3 Overfluxing limit
In addition to the overfluxing protection circuit, mod-
ern AVR equipment includes overfluxing limiter cir-
cuits. This is a closed loop controller which monitors
the voltage/frequency ratio during unsynchronised op-
eration. Should a predefined ratio be exceeded, the
limiter generates a signal which acts to reduce ex-
citation and thereby prevent generator transformer
overfluxing.
6.5.4 Speed reference controller
In accordance with current CEGB functional require-
ments, this feature controls the application of excita-
tion during the turbine run-up sequence. This limiter
unit ensures that voltage is brought up to nominal and
the unit synchronised with the minimum delay.
6.6 The power system stabiliser
6.6.1 Basic concepts
Situations have occurred where groups of generators
Excitation
at one end of a transmission line oscillate with respect
to those at the other end. These oscillations, known
as power system oscillations, are load dependent and,
if not prevented, severely limit the MW transfer across
the transmission system. To obtain a solution to this
problem, an understanding of the basic machine tor-
que relationships is necessary.
For a generator to remain in synchronism following
system faults, it must produce a braking torque to
balance the accelerating torques introduced by changes
to the electrical transmission system. The braking tor-
que can be separated into two components:
The synchronous torque, which is in-phase with
rotor angle changes and is necessary to ensure res-
toration of rotor angle following displacements.
The damping torque component, which is in-phase
with rotor speed changes and provides damping of
rotor oscillations.
Where generating units are connected to the grid over
high reactance tie lines, fast response excitation sys-
tems are vital to maintain system transient stability.
This has the effect, however, of reducing the inherent
generator damping torque; consequently, under cer-
tain load conditions, generator rotor swings following
system changes will have little damping.
As the component of torque in question is strongly
associated with rotor speed, a logical starting point
for investigation is the generator torque speed loop
shown in Fig 6.73 (a).
The introduction of an AVR, while enhancing syn-
chronising torque, has a deleterious effect on the small
inherent generator damping torque (the latter is ob-
tained by means of poleface windings or induced eddy
current effects). This presents some difficulty, as from
considerations of transient stability a fast response
high gain excitation system is necessary, however, its
implementation could result in reduced power system
damping and a consequential reduction in load trans-
fer capability.
To counteract this, a device known as a power
system stabiliser (PSS) has been developed. Figure
6.73 (b) shows the addition of such a device to the
torque speed loop. A signal derived (in this case) from
shaft speed is used as the input to the stabiliser; this
is then processed and conditioned to provide sufficient
phase lead to compensate for the phase lags inherent
in the generator plant and transmission system. The
output of the stabiliser is superimposed onto the AVR
demand signal in order that an increased damping
torque component is produced.
A comprehensive linearised generator and power sys-
tem stabliser representation is shown on Fig 6.73 (c),
where it can be seen that the PSS signal is fed to the
block denoted as GEP. This represents the generator,
exciter and power system, detailed knowledge of which
is vital if the PSS is to compensate for the phase
527
The generator Chapter 6

SYNCHRONISING TORQUE SYNCHRONISING TORQUE

CONTRIBUTION CONTRIBUTION

MS MS

AVR AVR
AND AND
EXCITER EXCITER

PSSu

E ref COMP
(a) (b)

ATm -CHANGE IN MECHANICAL TORQUE - CHANGE IN ROTOR ANGLE

TD - CHANGE IN DAMPING TORQUE COMP - COMPARATOR
T - CHANGE IN SYNCHRONISING TORQUE PSS - POWER SYSTEM STABILISER
D s - GENERATOR DAMPING FACTOR ABSOLUTE MACHINE SPEED
-CHANGE IN SPEED AVR DEMAND SIGNAL

K1 - PARAMETER RELATING CHANGE IN ELECTRICAL

TORQUE FOR A CHANGE IN ROTOR ANGLE
Ko - PARAMETER RELATING CHANGE IN ELECTRICAL
TORQUE FOR A CHANGE IN MACHINE FLUX
LINKAGE
K3 - IMPEDANCE FACTOR
K4 - DEMAGNETIZING EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN
ROTOR ANGLE
Kc - PARAMETER RELATING CHANGE IN TERMINAL
VOLTAGE WITH CHANGE IN ROTOR ANGLE
K6 - CHANGE IN TERMINAL VOLTAGE WITH CHANGE
IN MACHINE FLUX LINKAGE
Tdo - MACHINE FIELD OPEN CIRCUIT TIME CONSTANT
EXC(S) - VOLTAGE REGULATOR SYSTEM
(c) COMPREHENSIVE LINEARISED
GENERATOR AND POWER SYSTEM STABILISER

FIG. 6.73 Simplified torque-speed loop diagrams

528

lag within GEP and produce a component of gen-
erator torque in phase with speed changes. This in-
formation can be obtained in a variety of ways, nota-
bly by on-load frequency response analysis, using pulse
injection techniques and by computer simulation tech-
niques based on representative system models.
6.6.2 Characteristics of GEP
Extensive system investigations are used to establish
the characteristics of GEP. All operating modes of
the plant are examined to identify the conditions
under which stability is marginal. In general, operation
at leading power factor during times of low system
demand are the most critical. However, in the case of
pumped-storage plant, which will generally be operat-
ing in the pumping mode during these periods, the
situation can be more critical because of the large
machine rotor angle with respect to the rest of the
system.
A series of simulation studies is then conducted,
using detailed plant representation (including the AVR
and PSS), the results being assessed by the analytical
techniques described in Section 6.7 of this chapter.
The model PSS settings are adjusted until optimum
excitation performance is achieved at all critical op-
erating conditions. These settings are then used as a
basis for plant commissioning tests, thereby reducing
expensive on-site testing.
6.6.3 System modes of oscillation
Examination of the basic torque-speed-angle loop in
Fig 6.73 yields Wn (natural frequency of electro-
mechanical oscillations) = V(wKie/M) rad/s. For
typical values of machine inertia (M) and synchron-
ising torque coefficients (Kie), the frequency range of
interest is 0.2-4.0 Hz. Within this frequency range,
the oscillatory modes can be broadly divided into
three main components.
Inter-area or inter-tie oscillations
Inter-area oscillations range typically from 0.2-0.6 Hz
and occur where two generation groups are connected
by a weak tie line; they tend to be power transfer
dependent. Inadequate damping of these modes will
result in operational difficulties, since power transfer
capability is reduced. These low frequency inter-tie
oscillations have been initiated by random events oc-
curring during periods of high MW transfer over weak
transmission links and/or unusual load distribution.
Local mode oscillations
These occur where a single generator is exporting
power over a high reactance transmission link. In
these situations the need for static thyristor excitation
systems (because of transient stability requirements)
aggravates the problem of steady state stability which,
Excitation
if uncorrected, will result in prolonged rotor swings
in the region of 0.9-1.6 Hz.
Intra-plant modes
Intra-plant modes of oscillation occur between units
within the same power station. Unlike the above,
these are not power transfer dependent but result from
interaction between generator excitation systems. If
action is not taken, intra-plant interactions will limit
the available PSS gain and hence its effectiveness.
6.6.4 Principles of PSS operation
PSS action is inhibited during steady state trans-
mission system conditions, as it has a detrimental
effect on voltage control. A steady state voltage offset
is prevented by the use of a washout circuit at the
PSS input. The washout circuit, shown on the PSS
block diagram on Fig 6.74, is essentially a differen-
tiating circuit which attenuates low frequency changes.
The time constant of the circuit, Tw, is chosen to
washout low frequencies but not to interfere with
the signal conditioning networks at system electro-
mechanical frequencies.
The signal conditioning network provides the phase
compensation, so that a torque is produced in phase
with speed changes. This network essentially shapes
the PSS characteristic to provide the best damping
performance at all electromechanical modes. Generally
this is achieved by maximising stabiliser gain (within
the constraints imposed by the power system control
loop) and shaping the phase characteristic so that it
has a slightly lagging value at the particular inter-
area oscillation frequencies of concern. To prevent the
intra-plant interaction, tuning should ensure that the
overall phase characteristic is not greater than 90
lagging at frequencies up to 4.0 Hz.
It is important to emphasise that PSS action is
intended to improve the system damping following
small disturbances. PSS action following system faults
will degrade AVR performance, and hence system
recovery; therefore, the stabiliser output is limited, so
that AVR action is dominant during the first post-
fault cycles.
6.6.5 The choice of stabiliser signal
An obvious choice for the stabiliser input signal is
rotor shaft speed, measurements being generally made
at the HP turbine pedestal. The drawback with this
form of signal is its inherent susceptibility to shaft
torsional frequencies. This term refers to the reso-
nance conditions on the shaft line which cause one
section of shaft to oscillate with respect to another
with little natural damping. These frequences act
through the PSS and excitation system to set up elec-
tromechanical torques which tend to aggravate the
situation and, in the extreme, to cause shaft damage.
To eliminate this potential problem, detailed infor-
529
The generator Chapter 6

STABILISER
LIMITS

STABILISER GAIN SIGNAL CONDUCTIVITY WASHOUT POWER TRANSDUCER

(1 +T a S)(1 +T b S) TwS

(1 + T S ) ( 1 +T d S) 1 +T S
STABILISER
OUTPUT

VT CT
GRID

FIG. 6.74 Power system stabiliser block diagram

mation is required of the shaft torsional conditions
so that, if possible, speed probes can be mounted at
a torsional node and suitable torsional filtering can
be applied.
Because of these considerations, use is made of a
signal derived from generator electrical power which
is related to shaft speed by the following relationship:
P e )dt
> Dynamic stability refers to the system performance
where is shaft speed change, P m is mechanical
input power, P e is machine electrical power and M is
the angular momentum. If the mechanical power is
assumed to remain constant, Equation (6.1) is sim-
plified to:
=
i >*
The major advantage of this form of stabilising signal
is its insensitivity to torsional oscillations and the
simplicity of measurement. Its adoption, therefore,
has both technical and cost advantages.
530
6.7 Excitation system analysis
Trends in modern generator design, with the empha-
sis on large thermally-efficient but electrically-remote
centres of generation, have combined to reduce trans-
mission system stability margins. As a consequence,
the primary responsiblity for power system dynamic
and transient stability rests with the generator excita-
tion system.
(6.1)
following small load changes which, under conditions
of high MW transfer over long distances, can result in
sustained oscillations in the region of 0.5 Hz. If these
oscillations are not rapidly attenuated, severe limits
will be imposed on transmission system operation.
Transient stability is concerned with the ability of a
(6.2) generator or group of generators to maintain syn-
chronous operation following system faults. Under
such operating conditions, the generator requires a
boost of synchronous torque. This is provided by the
transmission system in the form of a synchronous
component of the post-fault infeed. However, as the
reactance of the transmission line connecting the gen-

erator to the system increases, the synchronous tor-
que component is reduced. Under these circumstances,
the AVR bucks and/or boosts the generator field
current in such a way that the generator itself develops
the additional synchronising torque.
A properly tuned AVR therefore performs a vital
role in the maintenance of stable system operation
under all operating conditions, and this section is
concerned with the methods developed and employed
to analyse AVR performance, and hence to arrive at
tuned settings.
6.7.1 Frequency response analysis
Frequency response analysis is based on the injection
of a sinusoidal signal at the input to the AVR and
the corresponding measurement of generator terminal
voltage magnitude and phase shift. This procedure is
repeated over the range of frequencies necessary to
identify the plant, which in the case of the generator
excitation system is 0.2-4.0 Hz. Results are plotted
in the form of inverse Nyquist or Bode diagrams, from
which information on system stability and damping
can be obtained. These tests can be repeated for a
range of AVR settings until an acceptable system
response is established. Performance indices used in
this form of analysis are system gain and phase mar-
gins, both of which are measures of relative stability.
In general, a phase margin of 40 or more, and a
gain margin of 6 decibels is considered good design
practice for most feedback control systems.
An alternative approach is the injection into the
AVR summing junction of a short duration rectan-
gular pulse. The corresponding machine terminal volt-
age response is measured and harmonically analysed
by a computer, using a fast Fourier transform pack-
age. The results are then plotted in the form of an
inverse Nyquist diagram from which measurements
can be made of relative stability and damping. This
approach has a number of distinct advantages, par-
ticularly during on-load testing as, unlike variable
frequency techniques, pulse injection testing can be
undertaken without the risk of exciting power system
oscillations.
6.7.2 State variable analysis
A common method used to assess the performance
and stability of feedback control systems is to track
the path taken by the roots or poles of the closed
loop transfer function. Changes in system parameters,
such as gain and time constants, cause these poles
to move. The path taken by the poles in response
to control system changes can be plotted and are
known as a root locus. Referring to Fig 6.75 any
roots appearing on the right hand side of the S-plane
imply an unstable system. Roots on the real axis in-
dicate an exponential or overdamped response, and
roots containing an imaginary component imply an
Excitation
oscillatory response. It is possible to simplify the
interpretation of the root locus diagram by consider-
ing those poles which lie furthest to the right as
dominating the system response.
This approach is extended to the multivariable situ-
ation by making use of modern state variable theory.
The system considered is first linearised about the
operating point of interest and the equations of state
formed.
X = AX + CV Input equation
Y = DX + FV Output equation
where X is the vector of state variables, Y is the
vector of output variables, A is the state matrix and
C,D,F are the feedback, input and output matrices,
respectively.
A series of simulations is conducted over the com-
plete generator operating regime, using a detailed
model of the turbine-generator and excitation sys-
tem. The dominant poles (or equation solutions) are
plotted for a range of control settings, and those iden-
tified as providing optimal damping at the most critical
operating condition are selected for commissioning
purposes. This method of analysis therefore provides
advanced information regarding equipment settings
and plant performance, thus reducing expensive com-
missioning time.
6.7.3 Large signal performance investigations
The foregoing methods are based on the response of
the excitation system to small signals; hence non-
linearities can be ignored and the system assumed to
be linear.
It is equally important, however, to investigate the
performance of the turbine-generator plant following
substantial changes in operating conditions. In these
situations the non-linear characteristics of the plant
must be taken into account to obtain realistic results.
These large signal performance investigations pro-
vide a means of evaluating excitation system response
following a major transmission system disruption (gen-
erally a three-phase fault at the generator transformer
high voltage terminals is used for standard studies
and investigations), which could jeopardise system
transient stability.
Transient stability analysis is primarily concerned
with the effect of transmission line faults on genera-
tor synchronism. While certain simplistic approaches
exist dealing with the case of a single machine operating
onto an infinite bus (such as the equal area stability
criteria), a full multi-machine solution is generally
necessary requiring the use of digital computer simula-
tion techniques. These simulation packages represent
in detail the generator, transmission and excitation
systems, and solve the governing non-linear differen-
tial equations by numerical integration.
531
The generator
STABLE
FORM OF TIME-DOMAIN
RESPONSE
LOCATION OF EIGENVALUE
OR ROOT IN S-PLANE
FIG. 6.75 S-plane showing possible root locations with corresponding time response
The ability to simulate these situations is essential
to the CEGB, because generator excitation system
performance under system fault conditions cannot be
demonstrated by test methods, due to the potential
risk to system stability.
7 Generator operation
In this section, the operation of the generator under
all common conditions is considered. Electrical and
other parameters are introduced as necessary in order
to describe the condition.
7.1 Running-up to speed
Before running-up to speed, the casing and other
components will have been scavenged of air and filled
with hydrogen to a pressure approaching the rated.
Hydrogen pressure increases with increasing tempera-
ture and the objective is to achieve rated pressure
when on steady load. The seal oil system must be
operating in order to contain the hydrogen. The stator
winding water system is established, taking care that
532
Chapter 6
UNSTABLE
-T-J15
- h i 10
the windings are not colder than their ambient hy-
drogen. Cooling water to the hydrogen, distilled water,
winding water, seal oil and excitation heat exchangers
is established. The lubricating oil system (common
with the turbine) must also be operating, and also the
jacking oil system if the shaft is at standstill.
The run-up cycle is primarily determined by the
requirements of the steam turbine, and may be under
the control of an automatic run-up system. It is ad-
visable to pass through the first and second critical
speeds of the generator rotor (roughly, 800 and 2200
r/min) quickly to avoid subjecting the bearings to
the increased vibration amplitudes which may occur
at these speeds (see Fig 6.27).
As the rated speed is approached, excitation may be
automatically applied by the voltage regulator (or this
may be manually applied) by closing the exciter and
main field switches. The resulting voltage will be pre-
vented, by a voltage/frequency control device, from
being greater than would maintain rated voltage/fre-
quency, so as to prevent overfluxing of the generator
transformer. At rated speed, rated voltage should be
generated, with the machine on open-circuit, unless
some other voltage condition is required. Speed is
under the control of the turbine governor. Vibration
 Generator operation

levels are monitored at all the bearing housings and

at the shafts adjacent to the generator bearings during
run-up.
AIRGAP
LINE

7.2 Open-circuit conditions and STATOR VOLTAGE %

synchronising 100
Generators are usually operated at or near their rated
voltage, any departure demanded by the transmission
system being accommodated by the transformer tap-
changer. A generator voltage range of 5% is speci-
fied. For the same MVA output, a higher voltage
results in greater losses and temperatures in the core
but lower current in the stator winding, so the overall
thermal conditions are not much changed.
Since these large generators are invariably connected
to the grid through generator transformers, the rated
voltage of the generator can be determined by the
manufacturer to give the most economic design. Once
the first of a new rating has been decided, a degree
of standardisation is imposed to allow generator trans-
former units to be made interchangeable, 22 kV being ROTOR CURRENT
standard for 500 MW units and 23.5 kV for 660 MW
units, on the CEGB's system.
FIG. 6.76 Open-circuit characteristics
The electrical phasor diagram for this excited, open-
circuit condition is shown in Fig 6.7, though, at this
stage, the machine is not running synchronously with
the transmission system. ference voltage would cause a large current to circulate
The open-circuit characteristic will have been es- from the system through the stator windings, causing
tablished during running tests in the manufacturer's high forces in the windings. If the frequencies were
works. The rotor currents for several values of stator significantly different, the sudden pulling into syn-
voltage are measured and plotted (Fig 6.76). The chronism would impose a large torque on the rotors.
relationship is virtually linear (the airgap line) up to A back-up check synchronising device inhibits the
about 75% rated voltage, demonstrating that the air- circuit-breaker from closing if the voltages, angular
gap reluctance is constant, whereas the iron circuits positions and speeds do not match within predeter-
depart markedly from constant reluctance as the flux mined tolerances.
density increases above the point at which saturation Once synchronised, the speed is effectively con-
starts to occur. After a long shutdown, it is reas- trolled by the transmission system and the steam ad-
suring to check a few points on the open-circuit mitted to the turbine produces just sufficient power
characteristic with the unit on manual excitation. Note to overcome the mechanical and magnetisation losses.
that direct measurement of rotor current is not possi-
ble on brushless machines.
Synchronising is effected either manually or by
means of an automatic synchroniser. The speed of 7.3 The application of load
the unit is adjusted by controlling the speed governor If the voltages and angular positions match exactly,
until the generated frequency closely matches the no current flows in the windings and no electrical
system frequency. The generator voltage is adjusted torque is produced. In order to generate load, an
by the setpoint of the voltage regulator until it closely imbalance in the phasors must be created.
equals the voltage of the system, as monitored by a The turbine steam inlet valves are therefore gradu-
voltage transformer with the same ratio as the ally opened further; the extra torque thus produced
generator transformer, or directly where a low volt- starts to accelerate the rotors so that they move for-
age switch is used. The main circuit-breaker is closed ward relative to their no-load (direct axis) position,
when the two voltage phasors are almost coincident, though still in synchronism with the system. The volt-
and the generator will then pull into and remain in age phasor difference created by this angular change
synchronism with the system. If the voltage phasors results in current circulating from the system through
were significantly different in magnitude or angular the stator windings, producing an electrical torque
position when the circuit-breaker is closed, the dif- which balances the increased mechanical torque, re-
533
The generator Chapter 6

suiting in a new state of synchronous equilibrium at

a 'load angle' (see also Section 2.6 of this chapter).
Because the generated voltage effectively depends
on the system voltage and the load being generated,
action by the voltage regulator cannot change the
generated voltage directly. However, if the rotor cur-
rent is changed, the phase relation between the gen-
erated voltage and current is changed, and the required
power factor can be maintained by voltage regulator
action. These processes of control of generated load
and power factor continue to meet the requirements
of the transmission system, as long as the unit remains
synchronised. Phasor diagrams for various on-load
conditions are shown in Figs 6.8 and 6.9. 62 90
ROTOR ANGLE &
(a) Illustrating stable equilibrium

7.4 Steady state stability

The power produced by a synchronised generator can
be expressed as (VE sin )/(Xd). For a given machine,
operating at a terminal voltage V, the synchronous
reactance Xd is a constant parameter, and if the
'internal voltage' E, or rotor current, is kept constant,
power varies as sin . At rated conditions, is about
45-55.
From this position, a sudden increase in steam
throughput, or (more likely) a sudden demand for
more power into the system, perhaps because of a
fault on the lines, results in an increase in and in
generated power until a new equilibrium position is &1 90
ROTOR ANGLE &
reached (Fig 6.77 (a)). (b) Illustrating instability

This is valid if is less than 90 before the sudden

change. Once is greater than 90, a demand for
more power cannot be met by an increase in load
angle, and the generator rotors cannot attain a posi-
tion of equilibrium (Fig 6.77 (b)). The rotor then INCREASED EXCITATION
accelerates to just above synchronous speed and op-
erates in a non-synchronous mode ('pole slipping'),
with large power and voltage oscillations which are
unacceptable to either the transmission system or the ORIGINAL EXCITATION

boiler controls. The situation may be retrievable if

the voltage regulator can initiate a rapid increase in
the field current, increasing E in the equation, to
prevent instability (Fig 6.77 (c)).
Load angles approaching 90 are associated with
operation at leading power factor, which is not a
normal requirement in the UK. However, studies of 61 62 90
the transmission system under all credible conditions ROTOR ANGLE 6

of loading, line outages and faults are carried out to

(c) Maintaining stability by increasing excitation

ensure that the system will not fall into instability,

and the required values of synchronous reactance FIG. 6.77 Steady state stability
and excitation response are based on these studies,
which may recommend different values in different
locations. In practice, because of magnetic saturation,
Xd is reduced as the load angle moves towards 90, unit in the quadrature axis.
the 'quadrature axis' position, so that the limiting Operation at leading power factors requires re-
condition is ameliorated slightly. Values for CEGB duced rotor current. Operation with zero rotor current,
machines are about 1.8 per unit, falling to 1.7 per at zero MW, and a leading reactive output = Rated
534

MVA/Xd (or strictly Rated MVA/Xq where Xq is
the quadrature axis synchronous reactance), determines
the theoretical limit of stability. The practical values
of leading reactive outputs, allowing a margin for
overshoot, with different types of excitation control
(see Section 5 of this chapter), can be plotted on a
MW-MVAr diagram. The example shown in Fig 6.78
allows for instantaneous increases in MW of 4% at
rated load and 10% at zero load.
7.5 Capability chart
The capability chart is a MW-MVAr diagram, for
which the limits of leading MVAr were discussed
above.
A constant MW limit can be drawn at the rated
power output of the turbine, though the maximum
power capability of the steam system may be signi-
ficantly greater than this. The circular locus of rated
stator current cuts the rated MW line at the rated
MVA and power factor point, but does not in prac-
tice impose a limit. The rated rotor current, also a
circular locus but with its origin at the 0 MW,
Rated MVA/Xq MVAr point, imposes a limit at con-
ditions of MW and lagging power factor both lower
than rated. Such a capability chart is used as the
THEORETICAL
STABILITY -
LIMIT
- RANGE OF MVAR FOR SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATION -
MVAR
FIG. 6.78 Capability chart
Generator operation
scale of a vector meter, across which cursors travel
parallel to the axes, representing generated MW and
MVAr, the operating point being where the cursors
intersect. Permissible operating areas are indicated
on the instrument.
It can be seen that the capability chart is another
manifestation of the generator phasor diagram. Op-
eration at rated load and about 0.95 power factor
leading is possible, though rarely required.
7.6 Steady short-circuit conditions, short-
circuit ratio
Another relationship that is established during works
testing, is between the field current and the stator
current with the three stator line terminals short-
circuited (Fig 6.79). In this condition, the voltage re-
quired to circulate, say, rated current through the wind-
ings is very low (= Xtf, say 0.15 per unit) and there-
fore the flux is also very low and conditions are lin-
ear, since there is no magnetic saturation. Most of the
considerable magneto motive force (MMF) produced
by the rotor is required to counteract the armature
reaction MMF produced by the stator winding.
Running under these conditions in order to cir-
culate current through the windings to dry out the
RATED STATOR
CURRENT
RATED CONDITIONS
TURBINE RATING
RATED ROTOR
CURRENT
535
The generator Chapter 6

(Note that different considerations apply to a salient

pole machine, where the geometry of the magnetic
OPEN CIRCUIT paths is very different when operating near the quad-
rature axis from that in the direct axis, and Xd and
Xq have dissimilar values.)

100 7.7 Synchronous compensation

While operation in this mode is not foreseen for
generators of this rating in the UK, a note here is
included for completeness. A generator, synchronised
STATOR to the system, may be used to generate or absorb
CURRENT
% reactive MVA, while drawing its loss power from the
system. By varying its excitation, it can be operated
over the range shown on Fig 6.78, to meet the re-
quirements of the system. It is not normally possible
to drive the turbine at rated speed with no steam flow,
ROTOR CURRENT
and smaller generators operated in this way are de-
coupled from their turbines. At large values of leading
FIG. 6.79 Open- and short-circuit characteristics reactive generation, stator core end temperatures may
be high, because the axial components of MMF from
both stator and rotor windings become more in phase,
resulting in higher values of axial leakage flux.
insulation is not a normal requirement for these large
generators. It may, however, be necessary to demon-
strate the capability of the connections between gen-
erator and transformer, in which case the short- 7.8 Losses, efficiency and temperature
circuit would be applied at the transformer terminals. Many separate components of loss can be identified,
Manual control of excitation is essential. some of which are substantially constant irrespective
The open- and short-circuit characteristics enable of load; others can, for simplicity, be assumed to
certain parameters to be established. Short-circuit ra- vary approximately as (stator current)2. These com-
tio (SCR)
ponents are listed below, with kW values given for a
typical 660 MW generator at rated conditions:
Rotor current for rated voltage on open-circuit
Rotor current for rated current on short-circuit Constant losses Coolant loss, kW
_ Wo Fan loss Hydrogen 600
Ifs Rotor windage loss Hydrogen 350
Other windage loss Hydrogen 150
Open-circuit core (iron) loss Hydrogen 950
This rough measure of steady state stability is nearly Bearing loss Lub oil 600
the reciprocal of Xd; minimum values of 0.4 and
Shaft seal loss Seal oil 100
0.5 are specified for the 500 and 660 MW units, re-
spectively. Rotating exciter constant 1oss Exciter air 100
Auxiliary system losses, e. g., motors 100
Synchronous reactance Xd may be quoted as the
reciprocal of short-circuit ratio, in which case it is Variable losses Coolant loss, kW
the value corresponding to the degree of saturation Stator copper loss Stator winding water 1600
at rated voltage on open-circuit (which is not the same Eddy current loss in
as that at rated load). It is of interest when discussing windings Stator winding water 600
operation close to the stability limit, in which case Additional core loss, >
its unsaturated value is appropriate and given by: due to higher flux and
end loss
Hydrogen 1600
Rotor current for rated current on short-circuit Loss in core end plates
Rotor current for rated voltage on airgap line and frame
Loss in rotor surface J
Rotor copper loss Hydrogen 2400
Ifg Variable excitation loss Exciter air 150

536

The total loss is typically 9300 kW, and the effi-
ciency is 98.6%. The efficiency is slightly higher at
about 80% than at 100% MW load, and also im-
proves as the power factor increases towards unity.
The losses shown in the list are removed by the var-
ious cooling systems described in Section 5 of this
chapter. The total loss removed by each system is
therefore known, and the flow rates are designed to
maintain an appropriate temperature. In the hydro-
gen system, 30 m 3 /s of hydrogen is circulated, being
cooled to about 40C by the heat exchangers, and
reaching about 65C on entry to the coolers. The
stator core will attain about 75C, except at the ends,
which are likely to be hot, but within the BS limit
of 120C. The rotor winding will reach an average
temperature of 105C with local hot spots perhaps
20C higher than this, which poses insignificant ther-
mal stresses on the insulation and creep conditions on
the copper and aluminium components.
In the stator winding water system, conditions differ
between single and double pass arrangements, but
with inlet water cooled to 40C, the outlet water will
not exceed 70C. Hence the winding copper will bare-
ly exceed 70C, and then only at the water outlet
end, and the winding insulation will nowhere exceed
100C. CEGB specifies Class F insulation with Class
B rises, which are very comfortably met in these
designs.
A considerable advantage of water cooled windings
is that the temperatures are inherently constrained to
be very low, thus maximising the intrinsic life of the
insulation. Also, since the temperature rises of the
core and windings are similar, problems associated
with differential thermal expansion are minimised,
and it has not been found necessary to incorporate
features in the end windings to accommodate axial
movement.
7.9 Electrically unbalanced conditions
The amplitudes and phase displacements of the three-
phase voltages and currents in the transmission system
are usually symmetrical to within about 1%, which
does not impose any significant difficulties in the
generator. However, it is possible for much larger
unbalances to exist, for example, if one phase of a
circuit-breaker remains closed while the others are
open for considerable lengths of time, then the ability
of the generator to withstand such conditions must
be established.
The well known method of resolution of unbal-
anced phasors into systems of symmetrical components
is used in the analysis shown in Fig 6.80. Because
generators are invariably connected to transformers
whose LV windings are arranged in delta, which there-
fore do not have a neutral connection, zero sequence
voltages and currents cannot exist. The only compo-
Generator operation
nents of concern are the negative sequence components.
In order to circulate negative sequence currents
through the generator stator and transformer wind-
ings, a system of negative sequence voltages must be
produced by negative sequence flux, i.e., flux rotating
at synchronous speed but in the opposite direction of
rotation to the main flux. This cuts the rotor at twice
the rotational speed, and induces a 100 Hz voltage in
the rotor surface. 100 Hz current flows in the outside
'skin' of the rotor body, in the wedges and in the
top winding conductors, as if these components were
part of the squirrel cage of an induction motor.
Additional heating therefore occurs in these regions;
in particular, in positions where current transfers
from one component to another, such as at the wedge
ends, and at the endring shrink faces.
Because of the potentially damaging effect of this
extra heating, limits on the extent of unbalance have
to be established. These are conservatively set to ini-
tiate alarms when the negative sequence component
exceeds 5% of the rated current and to trip at above
10%. The component is detected by a three-phase cir-
cuit designed to respond to negative sequence current.
In some designs, copper shims are placed in the
ends of the rotor slots, below the wedges, and extend-
ing outboard of the rotor body to form a continuous
ring, in order to assist circumferential current flow
and to minimise the small intense hot spots where
current transfer is concentrated. Where circumfer-
ential slots are cut into the pole faces (Section 3 of
this chapter), means for transferring surface current
across the slots are provided, usually in the form of
copper strips retained by wedges in shallow 'pole
face slots', to avoid overheating at positions of current
concentration.
The shallow surface current paths must also handle
the very much larger, short duration currents imposed
by unbalanced conditions during transient faults. A
rough criterion of acceptability is provided by assuming
that the heating is proportional to E(I 2 ) 2 t, where
12 is the negative sequence stator current (per unit)
and t the time (in seconds) for which the condition
persists. This is only approximately valid for times
short enough for heat dissipation to be ignored. Per-
missible values of (I 2 ) 2 t of about 3 are usual for
500/660 MW generators, and 'instantaneous' trip-
ping is initiated if this value is exceeded (see Fig
6.81).
The surface current paths are also involved in any
condition in which the generator is connected to the
system but is not operating synchronously. This may
happen on total or partial loss of excitation, and
can usually be tolerated by the generator for a short
time, although slip frequency surges will occur on
the system. Because the induced currents are at slip
frequency, they are able to penetrate further into the
rotor, wedges and winding, and the thermal conditions
are not as critical as with the 100 Hz currents pro-
duced by unbalanced operation.
537
The generator Chapter 6

Vc-
UNBALANCED VOLTAGE SET

AN UNBALANCED VOLTAGE SET CAN BE

RESOLVED INTO THE FOLLOWING:

A Va+
Vb-

Vc+, Vb+

(a) Balanced (b) Balanced (c) Zero-sequence

positive-sequence negative-sequence components
components components (normally negligible)

FIG. 6.80 Unbalanced phase conditions

7.10 Transient conditions
Changes in the load demand, system operation con-
ditions and the response of other generating units,
mean that conditions at the unit transformer terminals
are constantly changing. Increase in overall demand
causes a fall in frequency to which the speed gover-
nors of all the connected turbines respond. Their rate
of response depends on the settings of the individual
governors, some units being deliberately arranged to
act more responsively than others.
A highly responsive unit varies its steam inlet valve
position frequently, causing the steam throughput to
change and altering the torque equilibrium. The ro-
tors move forward or backward relative to their pre-
vious position, i.e., changes, so that the electrical
power generated changes to restore equilibrium. The
combined effect of similar load changes occurring in
many units acts to restore the system frequency to its
original value.
Coincident with the change of load will be a change
in system voltage, which causes the voltage regulator
to adjust the excitation to restore the original voltage
value. (A large voltage change may require a trans-
former tapchanging operation to maintain the gen-
erator terminal voltage near its rated value.)
Flux cannot change in the machine instantaneously,
and the rate-of-change is influenced by the transient
reactance X^' This depends largely on the flux paths

538

PERMISSIBLE FAULT CURRENT
- TIMES MCR CURRENT
3.0
I
_ \
\
2.0
N . P HASE-T O-PHAi>E FAUL TCURF ENT
1.0
PH ASE-TO-EARTH FAULT
CURRENT
40
TIME-S
FIG. 6.81 Duration of fault currents
embracing the stator winding slots, the airgap and
the rotor slots, with a small component associated
with the end windings, and is affected by the degree
of magnetic saturation. The normal value for un-
saturated transient reactance is of the order of 0.3
per unit.
It is this reactance which controls the initial rise-
of-voltage when load is suddenly tripped off; typi-
cally the voltage rises instantaneously to 1.3 per unit
and finally reaches a value determined by the pre-
vailing value of rotor current. Also, transient reactance
is used in calculations involving the stability of the
unit with the system during a transient fault situation.
Such studies require accurate representation of gen-
erator parameters, and in this context it is important
that its specified value has been met (see Fig 6.82).
During conditions of massive change, such as those
that occur during a close-up fault, when the terminal
voltage may be suddenly reduced to half its rated
value (or even to zero for a fault at the generator or
transformer low voltage connections), the very rapid
Generator operation
~^!%1^
DECRFASiMn 1700/
^ ' ' J ' ^v\\ i INUUUSLY
50 100
change of flux induces currents in the rotor surface
paths, and for the first few cycles, say up to 200 ms,
conditions depend more on a reactance linking these
surface flux paths with the stator winding. This is
referred to as the sub-transient reactance, X d " , with a
value of about 0.2 per unit. It is this reactance which
limits the current in the first few peaks after a fault.
For a three-phase fault at the generator terminals from
rated voltage open-circuit, the RMS value of the initial
current peak will be V / X d " , i.e., 1/(0.2) = 5 per unit.
The peak value is V2 times this, and, if the par-
ticular phase experiences full asymmetry (depending
on the instant at which the fault occurred), it is pos-
sible for the first peak to reach 2V2 x 5 = 14.14
times rated current. In practice, flux decay results in
the maximum current being about 90% of this value,
but if the short-circuit is applied from a condition of
load, i.e., with increased flux and a higher Internal'
voltage, the peak current could be greater.
Such peaks of current result in enormous forces
on the stator windings in the slots and end windings
539
The generator
100
VOLTAGE
%
ROTOR CURRENT FOR
RATED LOAD
/
ROTOR CURRENT
OPEN-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC
FIG. 6.82 Voltage rise on rated load throw-off
(since force varies as current squared), and in the
connections, which would result in considerable move-
ment if the components were not adequately sup-
ported to resist them. It is therefore vital to establish
the value of sub-transient reactance. (It should be
noted that the thermal effects are not troublesome
because of the rapid rate-of-decay of current.)
Another reason is to ensure that the main circuit-
breaker (and low voltage switch, if fitted) is able to
withstand these very large through-currents and that
it can, if necessary, break them although, in practice,
it rarely breaks on the first peak of current.
To measure the transient and sub-transient re-
actances and their associated time constants, a three-
phase short-circuit is suddenly applied to the prototype
generator running at speed during the in-works tests,
while excited to one or more agreed voltage values, and
the resulting three-phase currents recorded. Figure
6.83 shows a typical trace and how the X d ' and X d "
values are deduced, while Fig 6.84 shows how the
reactances vary with initial voltage due to saturation.
A generator terminal fault, though physically vir-
tually impossible, imposes the most severe of the
three-phase conditions, with the effective voltage 1.0
per unit, or higher. More likely is a fault on the
system which, because of the interposed reactance
of the generator transformer, imposes short-circuit
currents similar to those from a terminal fault at a
voltage equal to X d "/(X d " + X e ), where Xe is the
reactance of the transformer and that part of the
system between it and the fault.
A type of fault more likely to occur, particularly
inside the generator, is one involving a short-circuit
540
Chapter 6
<
^ INSTANTANEOUS
RISE
TIME
ASSUMES NO VOLTAGE REGULATOR ACTION
between two phases. Here, the phasors become highly
unbalanced, and the 'negative sequence reactance',
X 2 , helps to determine the peak current, which may
attain a maximum of 2V2 x V3(V/Xd- + X2) which
is of a similar magnitude to that in the three-phase
case.
In a line to earth fault, the 'zero sequence reactance',
X 0 , is involved, and the peak current may be 2V2 x
V3 (V/Xd" + X2 + X0) usually considerably lower
than the three-phase value, depending very much on
the neutral earthing arrangement.
Works tests for X2 and X 0 are not normally carried
out, even on prototype designs, since X2 is easily
derived from the positive sequence reactances, and
the value of X 0 is not as critical as the others.
Another factor involved in transient stability repre-
sentations is the inertia of the rotating masses, usually
quoted as the 'inertia constant' H, with units of MW
seconds/MVA (or simply seconds). For these ratings,
H will be of the order of 3.0, of which the generator
contributes only about 0.8. The higher the inertia,
the longer the time taken to accelerate the rotors
into instability, allowing more time for corrective
action and hence a bigger margin.
7.11 Neutral earthing
The neutral ends of the three phases of the stator wind-
ing are connected together, outside the casing, by the
'star-bar', which may be located underneath the cas-
ing alongside the line connections, or above it in a
special enclosure. The star point is connected to earth
 Mechanical considerations

through a neutral earthing device, designed to limit

the fault current in the event of a stator winding fault
TERMINAL
>ANl to earth.
The neutral earthing device of earlier generators
VOLTS

consisted of a water resistor, designed to limit the cur-

rent in a line to earth fault to a maximum of 300 A.
More recent machines use a small single-phase dis-
tribution type transformer with its primary connected
I/IMA)\AAAAAA/\/WVVWWWVVWI between the generator star point and earth, and its
secondary loaded onto a resistor. This arrangement
limits the fault current to about 15 A, and was ori-
3-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT WAVES ginally intended to allow an internal fault to be sus-
tained while load was reduced, rather than requiring
an instantaneous trip. Modern practice is to trip in-
stantaneously on fault detection, even with this form
of earthing. In both cases the sensitivity of protection
10
1 is such that a fault at less than 10% from the neutral
point is not detectable, and could persist, though the
H low voltage to earth in this part of the winding makes
8
1 fault initiation less likely and fault current compara-
VALUES OF STATOR
' \ \
FULL LOAD J
1 \ \ tively low.
CURRENT AND ROTOR
NO-LOAD CURRENT
H
L \ >>
fc% \ s
H E ~
5A ^ S f c > ^ ^ 2 . T 0 R
FIELD CURRENT
x d.
H 7.12 Shutting down
H
4-J

0 2
1 1 1 1 i i i I i i 1 1 1 1 1 The process of load reduction is the reverse of that for
INSTANT OF
4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NO OF CYCLES
50 100 200 300
load increase except that, when the load has reached
a low value, the main circuit-breaker (or the LV
SHORT CIRCUIT

switch, if fitted) is opened, and with it the turbine

STATOR AND ROTOR SHORT-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
WITH 100% ASYMMETRY

steam valve and the excitation crcuit-breakers. The

FIG. 6.83 Three-phase short-circuit current characteristics unit runs down in a time determined by the inertia
of the rotors and the windage and friction losses. At
some stage, the motor-driven lubrication pump is
switched in to take over from the shaft-driven pump.
The turbine must usually be barred for some hours
on shutdown, and lubricating oil must be maintained
to all the bearings during this process.
REACTANCE
It is usual to leave the hydrogen in the generator
%
30 H casing, unless a prolonged shutdown is envisaged or
access to the casing is required in order to avoid
wastage of gas. The pressure will fall as the tem-
perature drops, but it is not usual for the pressure to
be maintained exactly at rated value, nor for water to
be circulated in the coolers and windings. It is essential
SUB-TRANSIENT
REACTANCE
that the shaft seals are supplied with oil both during
barring and when stationary, to prevent hydrogen leak-
age, and, because of the possibility of moisture ingress
from the seal oil, the blower may be run in order to
circulate hydrogen through the dryer.

I
50

INITIAL VOLTAGE %
8 Mechanical considerations
Some aspects of torque, stresses, vibration, etc., were
mentioned in Sections 3 and 4 of this chapter, and
these and other mechanical aspects are considered in
FIG. 6.84 Transient and sub-transient reactances more detail in this section.
541
The generator
8.1 Rotor torque
At a constant load (electrical output and generator
losses) of P kW, the torque (Nm) experienced at the
turbine-generator coupling is 9545P divided by (r/min).
The coupling must be capable of transmitting the
torque associated with rated output continuously with-
out deformation. These couplings commonly have
four of their bolts closely fitted into both coupling
flanges, while the other bolts have smaller diameter
and a clearance in the coupling holes. The torque is
transmitted partly through the fitted bolts and partly
through friction between the flange faces. The full
torque must also be transmitted through the shaft
end at the turbine end, which must therefore be de-
signed to withstand it.
In the very much larger section of the rotor body,
shear stress due to torque is very much less than in
the shaft ends and is not of significant magnitude.
Also, the transmitted torque reduces in a linear man-
ner along the length of the rotor body, so that at
the exciter end, only the small torque required to
drive the rotating exciters (and any other coupled equip-
ment) has to be transmitted.
As noted previously, during electrical faults, stator
currents of many times rated value occur, and these
cause electromagnetic torques of a similar magnitude.
The torque reaction at the turbine to generator cou-
pling and in the associated shafts depends, among
other things, on the ratio of inertias of the turbine
and generator rotors, but can also be several times
rated torque. The specification requires that the shaft
and coupling shall be designed to withstand stipulated
fault conditions, without failure, though not neces-
sarily without permanent distortion of components
such as coupling bolts. It is not unknown for the
fitted coupling bolts to exhibit distortion after a severe
electrical fault.
Materials subjected to repeated high stresses ex-
hibit a lifetime, during which damage is accumulated,
and at the end of which failure occurs fairly rapidly.
Much effort has been devoted to establishing models
of turbine-generator shaft systems in order to be able
to predict their remaining 'life' (i.e., ability to with-
stand further faults), knowing the history of the faults
to which they have already been subjected. This has
been done analytically, knowing the torsional char-
acteristics of the rotor system, and computing the
shaft torques due to postulated electrical transients.
It was found that in the case of rapid reclosure of a
circuit-breaker following clearance of a faulty line,
the magnitude of the peak of torque depends very
critically on the timing of the instant of reclosure.
This has also been demonstrated, during transient
conditions, using values of stress obtained from strain
gauges fixed to the shafts. Devices which calculate
shaft torques from electrical inputs have also been
used.
It is difficult to relate measured or calculated torque
peaks accurately to damage caused, or to remaining
542
Chapter 6
life. Results from models do not scale accurately and
at the most extreme (and therefore most damaging)
stress, the highly non-linear effects of material damp-
ing must be considered.
In the UK, where high speed reclosure is not prac-
tised, sub-synchronous resonance due to the use of
series capacitors is not a problem and the operation
of the transmission system is under close control,
it is thought that the combination of very high stresses
and very low probability of occurrence results in an
acceptable risk for rotors designed to conventional
specifications, and that lifetime monitoring is not
justified.
The exercise has highlighted the need to avoid
stress raisers such as unnecessarily small radii, and to
ensure a high quality surface finish. It has also drawn
attention to the need to design the generator to ex-
citer coupling to withstand torques of the order of
the rated generator torque, since it has been shown
that these can exist during transient conditions.
The requirement for torque transmission places a
limit on the minimum diameter of the shaft and therefore
of the journal. An acceptable compromise between
the higher loss associated with a large diameter and
adequate hydrodynamic stability results in a bearing
somewhat shorter than its diameter for these ratings.
Bearing performance is described in Chapter 1.
8.2 Stress due to centrifugal force
All rotating components are subjected to stresses due
to centrifugal forces, and are designed so that the
yield stress of the material exceeds the stress at over-
speed by an adequate safety factor. Usually the com-
ponents closest to the limit are the rotor teeth, rotor
wedges, end rings and outermost winding conductors.
The tensile stress in the rotor teeth was considered
as part of the rotor optimisation in Section 3 of this
chapter. It is greatest at the tooth root, but will have
local concentrations at the wedge dovetail. There will
also be a high local stress where the wedge transfers
the centrifugal force (CF) load of the slot into the
tooth. Detailed finite element analysis is carried out
to ensure that unacceptable stress concentrations are
avoided. These stresses are constant at constant speed,
so that the only cyclic factor is the number of stop-
start cycles, which is relatively few (<10 4 ) over the
lifetime of the machine. Thus crack propagation by
high cycle fatigue from this mechanism alone is not
of concern.
Similar considerations apply to the slot wedges, in
which the loading pattern is similar to that in a short
beam in bending, uniformly loaded on its underside,
and with built-in ends. Aluminium alloy wedges are
commonly made from extruded sections, but have
the outermost layer (1 mm, or so) machined away
where stresses are high, so that the properties of the
parent metal are fully realised. It would be necessary

to take the creep behaviour of aluminium into con-
sideration at temperatures in excess of 100C, but
it is not usual for wedge temperatures to exceed this
value (see Fig 6.85).
Pole face wedges are much less stressed, and are
commonly made of steel.
The most inboard of the field lead wedges may
be unusually highly stressed because of the extra CF
loading imposed on it by the section of connector
leading into the winding.
The shrink-fits of the end ring onto its seatings
on the rotor body and end disc reduce as speed
increases, and are greatest at standstill. There are
therefore large circumferential strains at the ends of
the rings, and correspondingly high stresses, at stand-
still. As speed increases, the centrifugal force of the
rotor end windings imposes a load and stress in the
central part of the ring, which combine with the
FIG. 6.85 Finite element mesh for tooth-wedge stress calculations
Mechanical considerations
rotational hoop stress due to the rotation of the
ring. At rated speed and overspeed, the stress at
the shrink-fits may be less than that in the centre.
There is also an axial stress due to the higher thermal
expansion of the copper in the end winding relative
to that of the steel ring. As noted in Section 3.3 of
this chapter, direct contact of the end disc onto the
shaft is not normal, since the flexure of the shaft
would transmit a small alternating stress onto the
highly stressed ring which could promote crack pro-
pagation by high cycle fatigue. Again, it is important
that the stresses under all conditions are analysed in
detail, and this may necessitate a three-dimensional
finite element computation in order to ensure free-
dom from high stress concentrations, particularly at
the sudden changes of section involved (see Fig 6.86).
In the rotor conductor nearest the wedge, it is the
compressive stress produced by the centrifugal force
543
The generator Chapter 6

8.3 Alternating stresses, fretting and fatigue

A stationary rotor sags under its own weight, causing
a compressive stress in the outermost fibres at the
top and at the axial centre of about 15 MPa, with
a corresponding tensile stress at the bottom of the
same magnitude. As the rotor rotates, each fibre ex-
periences a compressive/zero/tensile/zero/compres-
sive stress cycle once per revolution. Since a rotor
operating at 3000 r/min accumulates 1.5 x 109 cycles
in a year, alternating stress due to bending has to
be considered in the design. Though its magnitude
is small, it is superimposed on the high steady stresses
in the rotor and wedges identified above, and can pro-
mote the growth of cracks by high cycle fatigue.
One source of crack initiation may be fretting. If
a once per cycle movement can occur, say at the gap
between two short slot wedges, the resultant localised
damage may be sufficient to intensify the local stress
field at a minute 'crack-tip', from which the alter-
nating bending stress can propagate. Such features are
avoided wherever possible, and particularly near the
axial centre where alternating bending stresses are
highest. The concepts of fracture mechanics are used
to study such crack tip stress intensification.

8.4 'Slip-stick' of rotor windings

FIG. 6.86 End ring lug area finite element mesh and
stress contours
of all the other conductors in the slot which is of
ed
concern, particularly where the copper area is reduced
by ventilation grooves and slots. Some creep of the he
irs
copper may be observed at such slots after many years
in operation.
One effect not mentioned in Section 3.8 of this chap-
ter is the behaviour of the rotor winding during a
loading cycle. The rotor is run up from cold, and
though the windings and rotor body are warmed by
gas friction, there is little differential in thermal effect
at this stage. At speed, the winding conductors are
locked together and to the wedge by the centrifugal
force, unless an axial force can overcome the friction
between them.
When current is applied to the rotor winding, it
reaches a higher temperature than the rotor body,
and as the coefficient of thermal expansion of copper
is nearly twice that of steel, the conductors experience
an axial force directed outwards from the axial centre.
As the differential temperature increases, the axial
forces increase, until slippage occurs at a point where
the build-up of axial force is able to overcome the
friction. Because the 'bottom' conductor experiences
the least centrifugal load, it is most easily able to
overcome friction, and a shorter length of it remains
frictionally-locked than those of coils further up the
slot. Slippage in most windings appears to occur in
small steps, apparently randomly, though possibly re-
peatably, so that the release of the axial forces does
not result in sudden changes in vibration of sufficent
magnitude to be significant. In some rotors, however,
due to higher frictional restraints having to be over-
come, the release of much larger axial forces appears
to cause the bending moment to change significantly,
resulting in a noticeable sudden change in vibration.

544

One feature of this is that the rotor must usually be
run down in speed before the changed vibration dis-
appears, when the cycle can be repeated.
Once the rotor is at speed and temperature, it does
not tend to suffer from high cycle effects. It is more
vulnerable to effects promoted by relative movement,
such as abrasion, when running at lower speeds and
while barring, when the centrifugal locking-up is
absent.
8.5 Noise
The generator rotor, with its fans, generates very
high noise energy at speed. The spectrum is wide, but
contains peaks at frequencies related to the number
of fan blades and slots.
The other main source of noise is generated by
the stator core when magnetically excited. As pre-
viously noted, the magnetic forces valise' the stator
core, causing vibration and noise at 100 Hz and mul-
tiples. The main component of magnetic noise, how-
ever, arises from distortions on a much smaller scale,
that of the magnetised iron crystals, in the pheno-
menon known as magnetostriction, at 50 Hz and
multiples thereof.
The robust stator casing acts as an effective sound
attenuator, and little can be achieved to reduce the
transmitted noise further, for example, by the acoustic
treatment of the inside surfaces. In practice, the major
sources of high noise intensity tend to occur in the
driven components such as exciters, which have fans
operating in air and no heavy steel surround. Some-
times the complete line of driven units is housed under
an acoustic cover to attenuate these sources. Access
doors and windows must be provided, and these can
reduce the effectiveness of the covers.
A sound power level of 93 dBA is specified at
1 m distant from the plant. Legislation may require
this to be reduced for new plant in the future.
9 Electrical and electromagnetic aspects
Some electrical and magnetic aspects of generators,
not previously considered, are dealt with in this section.
9.1 Flux distribution on load
When, in previous sections, magnetic flux densities
have been mentioned, operation at rated voltage,
no-load has been assumed, where the load angle is
zero and the rotor operates in the 'direct axis'. In
practical load situations, the load angle is 40-50
and the effective flux level must be large enough to
overcome the leakage reactance voltage drop. The
first effect distorts the flux pattern markedly; the
Electrical and electromagnetic aspects
second increases the required flux magnitude; both
increase saturation, the effects of which are highly
non-linear (see Fig 6.87). One result of this is that
overall iron losses will be higher than those calculated
for no-load conditions, and their distribution will dif-
fer. Another is that the calculation of the required
MMF (rotor current) required for any load condition
cannot be accurately based on the simple phasor
diagram. Since the rotor is necessarily designed with
little margin, accurate calculation of the rotor current
needed for rated conditions is essential.
FIG. 6.87 Flux distribution on load
A method previously used took as its basis the
simple no-load unsaturated phasor diagram, and de-
fined an imaginary reactance, the Totier' reactance,
empirically derived, which was used to define a Totier'
voltage drop, IX p , for the given load conditions. An
internal voltage required to overcome this voltage
drop, the Totier voltage' was thus established. The
MMF difference between the airgap and open-circuit
characteristics at the Totier voltage' was then pha-
sorially added to the unsaturated MMF phasor. In this
way, the increasing and non-linear effects of sat-
uration were taken into consideration (see Fig 6.88).
Present methods use finite element calculations,
which can be reduced to two dimensions for the
central part of the machine. Even so, the detailed
geometry and non-linear magnetic characteristic make
the calculation complex.
In the end regions, a three-dimensional approach
is almost essential, although various schemes have
been devised in which simplifications can be made.
In addition to the difficulties already noted, the thick
conducting plates in which non-linear eddy currents
545
The generator
ADDITIONAL ROTOR
CURRENT REQUIRED
FOR POTIER REACTANCE DROP
ROTOR CURRENT
FIG. 6.88 Potier construction for on-load excitation current
are induced, and other conducting components, must
be included in the modelling. It has reached the
stage of refinement where detailed changes, say, in the
thickness of magnetic screens, can be modelled in
order to optimise the design, and to indicate where
potential hot spots may occur due to unwanted flux
concentrations.
9.2 Control and calculation of reactances
The reactance of an inductive circuit determines its
voltage/current relationship. In a generator, different
reactances are identified in order to model or de-
scribe voltage (or flux)/current relationships under
different circumstances.
The synchronous reactance, X d , relates the arma-
ture reaction MMF (proportional to stator current) to
the MMF needed for rated flux in the air gap. For a
given design of machine, increasing the radial length
of the air gap proportionately reduces Xd and im-
proves steady state stability. This results in a larger
outside diameter, and a higher rotor current at full
load.
The stator leakage reactance, X^, is not a specified
quantity, and its value is a matter of economic design.
The transient and sub-transient reactances, X d ' and
X d ", are specified. They describe the flux/current rela-
tionships during transient changes, and under these cir-
cumstances, the amount of flux encircling the sta-
tor slots, rotor slots and end windings are of impor-
546
Chapter 6
tance. If higher values are required than the 'natural'
design produces, the leakage reluctance can be re-
duced by making the slots narrower, and/or sinking
them deeper into the core. Again, this is extravagant
and results in a larger design.
If lower values are required, it is not usually suf-
ficient to manipulate the slot geometry, and a more
basic change to the design might be needed.
Using computer programs similar to those men-
tioned in the previous section, more accurate repre-
sentation of the reactances can be made, over the
range of load conditions, than is possible by simple
calculation.
9.3 The cause and effect of harmonics
As explained earlier, stator winding distribution is
designed to minimise the generation of harmonic volt-
ages and currents.
The stator winding is invariably star connected, so
that triple harmonics cannot occur in the line voltage
or current. Since one pole of the rotor is identical
with the other, it cannot produce second-order flux
harmonics, which would make the two halves of the
flux wave dissimilar. The only harmonics of signi-
ficant magnitude which will appear are those of order
5, 7, 11, 13, etc., with diminishing amplitudes, and
those near to the rotor slot pitch, e.g., 41 and 43
for a 42-pitch rotor slotting. The no-load rated volt-
age wave must not contain a greater total harmonic

content than that specified in BS5000, in which cer-
tain ranges of frequency are more highly weighted
than others because of their effect (in the transmission
system) on communications lines. This now rather out-
dated concept is still accepted as an agreed and useful
criterion, since high harmonic levels can induce high
local losses in parts of the generator, e.g., the rotor
surface.
In practice, harmonics are generated by the con-
nected loads, a recent trend being the even-order
harmonic requirements of equipment using thyristors.
This must be supplied by the generators and must
therefore appear in the flux wave, causing rotor surface
losses similar to those produced by unbalanced load
conditions.
Rotor windings occasionally develop short-circuits
between adjacent turns in a coil, and while this is not
usually of great concern, the difference in flux pat-
tern from the two poles is detectable, using a small
flux coil mounted in the airgap. When the signal from
one pole is offset against the signal from the other,
differences reveal any abnormality. Another method
which has been suggested uses the presence of second
harmonics in the stator current, as noted above, but
this has to be able to reject those imposed by the load
requirements.
9.4 Magnetic pull
If the rotor is exactly centred in the bore of the sta-
tor, the magnetic pull between one pole of the rotor
and the stator will be exactly balanced by that of
the other. If not centred, there will be an unbalanced
pull acting as an attractive force on the pole with
the smaller air gap. However, the air gap of these
large machines is so large (80 to 130 mm), in order
to achieve the required synchronous reactance, that
centring the rotor to a readily achievable accuracy
does not impose a magnetic pull at all comparable
with the gravitational force on the rotor.
Similarly, the net axial magnetic force on the rotor
is zero if it is axially centred in the stator, and this
is the condition normally achieved at rated load with
the rotors at their normal temperatures. With the
usual axial offset which occurs with the rotors cold,
the axial magnetic pull is only of the order of a few
thousand Newtons and is not a significant additional
load on the thrust bearing.
9.5 Shaft voltage and residual magnetism
The production of a voltage (predominantly at 50 Hz)
from one end of the generator rotor to the other oc-
curs because of some asymmetry, either of the position
of the rotor in the stator, or some difference in mag-
netic properties. This mechanism has a low effective
Electrical and electromagnetic aspects
source impedance, and can circulate significant cur-
rent through bearings, seals, etc., causing eventual
break-up of white-metalled surfaces.
Voltages of the same frequency as the shaft-driven
excitation machines can be measured on the generator
shaft, but these are capacitively coupled, have a high
source impedance and will not sustain a large current.
The steam turbine rotors may develop a voltage
due to the electrostatic action of steam and water
droplets on the blades, and one function of the shaft
earthing brushes is to ensure that this is discharged.
A phenomenon which has occurred (rarely) on tur-
bines is that, where a rotor or rotors have a degree of
permanent magnetism and there are contacts of low
resistance between shaft and earth at suitable axially-
separated locations, the small generated voltage can
circulate a small current through the turbine casing,
which, in certain designs, can act as a partial 'turn'
of a winding encircling the shaft. This then produces
an MMF and therefore a higher shaft voltage, the
whole process building up until many thousands of
amperes circulate, causing damage at the contacts. It
is therefore important to ensure that deliberate con-
tacts, such as earthing brushes, have a resistance (say,
1 ohm) deliberately included in series, and that heavily
magnetised shafts are de-magnetised (see Fig 6.24).
The residual magnetism of a generator rotor will
normally produce a voltage of several hundred volts
at speed, even without external excitation; and access
to terminals, connections, etc., must not be allowed.
9.6 Field suppression
If an electrical fault occurs in the generator, the
connections, or on the generator transformer, the
protection will act to trip the main circuit-breaker.
This will extinguish the stator current within one
cycle of circuit-breaker operation but the flux cannot
be reduced so quickly. In all except brushless ma-
chines, a field circuit-breaker is connected in circuit
between the excitation source and the rotor winding.
If this were to be opened, the instantaneous reduc-
tion in current would induce a large (several kV)
voltage in the rotor winding, with the risk of insulation
breakdown.
Instead, a field suppression resistor is inserted in
series with the rotor winding, the excitation source
circuit being opened subsequently. The resistor has
an ohmic value of 1 to 3 times that of the winding,
and reduces the current (and flux) rapidly, without
imposing an excessive voltage. Thus the ability of the
flux to prolong the current in the fault is safely
minimised.
In brushless machines, direct suppression of the
rotor winding current is not possible. The exciter field
current is rapidly reduced by the operation of the
exciter field switch (this also applies in a non-brush-
less machine), or by inversion of the thyristors, but
547
The generator
the rotor current has an effectively zero resistance
path through the rotating diodes, and decays with
the natural time constant of the winding (see Fig 6.89).
9.7 Voltage in the rotor winding
At rated load, the voltage required to circulate rated
rotor current is of the order of 500 V. During field
forcing, this may rise to almost twice this value for
a few seconds. The rapid decay of current during field
suppression may possibly induce 1500 V briefly in
the winding. During transient fault conditions, the
requirement of maintaining the previous flux level may
cause large currents to be induced into the winding,
with correspondingly high voltages (1500 V or so).
The highest voltages are likely to be applied during
asynchronous operation, during which the induced
alternating rotor current (at slip frequency) seeks to
reverse. This possibility is blocked by the excitation
diodes and high voltage peaks occur (>2000 V) at
the sudden changes in current.
The winding insulation of a new rotor is finally
tested at 3500 V, having withstood higher test voltages
during manufacture. However, the arduous operating
conditions may cause insulation to become physically
damaged, displaced, or just oily or dirty from con-
tamination, and such high voltages are less easily
withstood in an older rotor.
When brushes are being changed with the generator
on-load, it is common practice to ensure that the
excitation control is on 'manual', so that the rotor
cannot be subjected to field forcing voltages, and to
disconnect the earth fault indication biasing voltage.
It may be thought to be advantageous to earth the
slipring being worked on deliberately, but if this were
done and an earth fault developed in the rotor wind-
SLIPRINGS
AND BRUSHGEAR MAIN FIELD
I SUPPRESSION
SWITCH
<Lp
ft
GENERATOR MAIN FIELD
'SUPPRESSION
ROTOR
RESISTOR
WINDING
I
FIG. 6.89 Field suppression circuits
548
Chapter 6
ing, a large fault current would flow, with danger to
the maintenance operator. It is considered prefer-
able not to apply an earth, but to ensure that the
operator is properly clothed and is using special in-
sulated equipment.
9.8 Stator winding insulation
In normal operation, the highest voltage to earth
occurs in the winding bar (and connection) at the high
voltage ('line') end of each phase. This amounts to
23.5/3 = 13.5 kV (RMS) for the 660 MW units.
Voltage to earth on the other conductor bars is re-
duced through the winding to effectively zero at the
neutral end. The electrical stress in the insulation is
not high even on the line-end bars; all the bars are
similarly insulated.
The system of insulation has to undergo searching
type tests before it is approved for general use, and
even then, quality control tests on production bars
include the destructive cutting up of two sacrificial
bars per machine to ensure freedom from cavities in
the insulation, among other quality checks.
In operation, electromagnetic forces cause the bars
to vibrate at 100 Hz in the slots and end windings,
to an extent limited by their restraining devices. If
bars become loose in their slots due to relaxation
of ripple springs or wedges, the layers of insulation
tape may become locally de-laminated, in spite of
the bonding resin. Electrical discharges can occur at
such sites which might eventually lead to electrical
breakdown of the bar to earth. Fortunately, in a hy-
drogen atmosphere, carbonisation of the surfaces does
not occur as readily as it would in air, and break-
downs from this cause are uncommon. Discharge on
the bar surface, either in the slot, or across the end
FIELD
SUPPRESSION
SWITCH
FROM
BRIDGE
AVR
RECTIFIER
 Operational measurement, control, monitoring and protection
winding surfaces, may occur, particularly where the
semi-conducting surface treatment layers become bro-
ken or damaged, but again this does not normally
lead to breakdown. Much more likely is mechanical
damage to the insulation by pieces of core punching
which become detached, magnetic debris (which can
cut 'wormholes' into the end winding insulation un-
der electromagnetic forces), and abrasion of packing
blocks into insulation. For these reasons, insulation
thicknesses have not been reduced to take advantage
of the superior electrical properties available with
modern insulation systems.
Considerable effort has been devoted to devising
means of detecting signs of insulation deterioration,
for instance, by observing discharge activity in a
permanently installed, capacitively coupled device, or
by radio frequency aerials inside the casing; both
methods are still being developed. Discharge energy is
predominantly in the 1 MHz range, whereas corona
discharge, which also occurs, is predominantly at a
higher frequency. Occasional 'fingerprint' measure-
ments can show whether either activity is increasing
with time.
Similarly, an overall measure of the insulation
integrity of a whole phase can be gained by mo-
nitoring the capacitative component of current at
various voltage levels, usually expressed as 'tan delta'
values, i.e., a measure of (very low) power factor.
Breakdown, however, is most likely to occur from
one local area of damage, as already noted, and the
poor results from this local area are swamped by the
better measurements of the rest, so that such methods
are relatively insensitive.
Stator insulation withstands more than twice its
rated line voltage, i.e., >2[V3 x maximum (phase)
operating voltage], and an insulation sample will with-
stand at least twice this again, so there is a huge
safety margin on intact insulation. Even so, testing
at high voltage is destructive, and repeat testing in
service is deprecated.
If an earth fault occurred at one of the phase
ends, the voltage at the neutral would be elevated,
and that at the other phase ends could rise to V3 x
normal. This condition would persist for only a few
seconds, at most, before the protection acted to trip
the unit and suppress the flux. In normal operation,
the maximum voltage a winding can attain is limited
to about 35% above rated, for example, if rated
load were tripped, but again this would quickly be
suppressed.
Surges arising from switching or other operations
on the system are greatly attenuated in the generator
transformer, and do not pose a significant hazard to
the generator winding. These large machines do not
have multi-turn coils, which are more at risk from
surges. The surge withstand voltage is quoted at about
85-90 kV, but surge withstand tests are never carried
out.
10 Operational measurement, control,
monitoring and protection
Many of these subjects have been mentioned in pass-
ing. In this section, each group is considered as a
co-ordinated whole.
10.1 Routine instrumentation
Provisions vary between manufacturers and have chang-
ed over the years, but the following is representative.
10.1.1 Temperature
Thermocouples are used to detect the temperature
in:
Stator core in teeth, back of teeth, core ends
and axial centre.
Core end plates and end plate screen these are
permitted to attain higher temperatures than the
core if not in contact with insulation.
Hydrogen inlet to and outlet from coolers
several, to allow averaging.
Stator winding, either one per slot or in water outlet
hose basically to monitor water flow in in-
dividual bars.
Hydrogen seal faces to detect rubbing, or oil
starvation.
Stator frame, at C0 2 inlet to detect freezing.
Resistance elements or other thermometers are used
for:
Water inlet and outlet temperatures in all water
cooling systems.
Oil outlets from bearings and seals.
Seal oil at outlet from cooler.
Hydrogen to and from cooler, as back-up to ther-
mocouples.
An ohmmeter is used to display rotor winding
temperature.
Temperatures are monitored during works tests
and during on-load commissioning, to ensure that
the specified limits have not been exceeded. The
alarm level would normally be set above the high-
est temperature attained at rated load with the
warmest ambient conditions, but recent thoughts
are that this practice may miss early warnings of
developing abnormalities. If a measured tempera-
ture is related to other parameters, such as current
549
The generator
and cooling water temperature, or even compared
to other similar signals to see that its magnitude
in the established scatter pattern is correct, by using
a dedicated microprocessor, a more informative
indication can be provided to the operator.
10.1.2 Pressure
Pressures are monitored as follows:
Hydrogen in supply bus.
Hydrogen in casing.
Carbon dioxide in supply line.
Stator winding water.
Seal oil (and thrust oil, if separate).
Vacuum in seal oil treatment plant (if used).
Differential pressures are monitored between:
Hydrogen and stator winding water.
Hydrogen and seal oil.
Fan inlet and outlet.
10.1.3 Flow
Flow rates of the following are measured:
Stator winding water, by flowmeter or by differen-
tial pressure across either an orifice or the winding.
Make-up hydrogen (in some machines).
Hydrogen through katharometer.
10.1.4 Condition monitoring
Purity of hydrogen (katharometer).
Humidity of hydrogen (hygrometer).
Humidity of exciter air (hygrometer).
Conductivity of stator winding water.
Composition of scavenging gases (katharometer).
Quantity of particulate matter in hydrogen (condi-
tion monitor).
Fig 6.90 shows a typical condition monitor console.
10.1.5 Electrical
MW, MVAr, voltage, current, power factor (in
control room).
550
Chapter 6
Vectormeter (on control desk).
Excitation voltage, current.
AVR indications (locally, on AVR panel).
Diode failure.
Shaft voltage.
10.1.6 Vibration
Bearing and shaft movement.
End winding vibration, using accelerometers on sup-
port beams.
10.2 Logging and display
Transducer outputs are received as inputs to the com-
puter at intervals determined by consideration of what
event could have caused a signal different from nor-
mal, and in what time scale this could cause damage.
Readings may be logged only when outside the normal
range or, alternatively, readings within the range may
be logged at intervals.
The most modern stations display only the essen-
tial information continuously to the control room
operator. Some systems display 'by exception', i.e.,
when a parameter falls outside its expected range.
All information is available on demand, on VDU
screens or printers.
10.3 Control
The load and excitation control systems have already
been described. The following quantities are common-
ly controlled automatically:
Hydrogen pressure, by spring-loaded valve, backed
up by spring-loaded overpressure valve.
Seal oil pressure, by pump pressure control and
differential control valve.
Stator winding water pressure, by spring-loaded
bypass valve.
Cooling water temperature, by heaters and bypass
valve.
Gas-in-water detection, by timed operation of
solenoid valve.
Regeneration of dryer, by timer and automatic
valves.
Other parameters, such as water temperature, are
commonly controlled manually, adjustments to valves
being made as necessary when indicated values exceed
given limits.
 Operational measurement, control, monitoring and protection

FIG. 6.90 Condition monitor (NEI Parsons Ltd)

(see also colour photograh between pp 482 and 483)

551
The generator
10.4 On-load monitoring, detection and
diagnosis
Detection of abnormal conditions is divided between
two sections: on-load detection techniques, described
here, and techniques which are applied off-load, at
standstill, or during maintenance, which are grouped
with Tests under Section 11 of this chapter.
Some equipment is provided so that on-load checks
can be carried out periodically on a routine basis in
order to ensure that previously established conditions
have not changed.
10.4.1 Air gap flux coil
A search coil monitors the rate of change of leakage
flux in the air gap as the rotor rotates (Fig 6.91).
The signal from one pole is subtracted from the signal
from the other; significant differences are indicative
FIG. 6.91 Airgap search coil and waveforms
552
Chapter 6
of one or more turns in a coil becoming short-
circuited. (In some machines, this condition may be
continuously monitored.) The condition normally re-
quires remedial action but it is prudent to check that
the situation is stable.
10.4.2 Core or condition monitor
In this device (Fig 6.90), hydrogen is drawn from
the casing through a chamber in which a radioactive
source emits a normally constant rate of electrons.
Ionised particles in the hydrogen stream, due to dust
or liquid aerosol droplets, cause the collected current
to fall, and initiates an alarm at a given level. It is, in
effect, a sophisticated smoke detector. The particles
may be from areas of overheating stator core (hence
the name) or from insulation; they can be trapped in
a filter and analysed.
 Operational measurement, control, monitoring and protection

SEARCH COIL WAVEFORM

VOLTAGE (V) 0

I
b
3.0-
\
2.5-
I
VOLTAGE (V) 2.0- DIFFERENCE
WAVEFORM

1.5-

1.0-
b b
0.5-

w\r\j HP^vWlrvJ ri
2C

r\ A / / /\ / / fti\

-0.5-
v\l
a and b are the two sides of the faulted coil

FIG. 6.91 (contd.) Airgap search coil and waveforms

10.4.3 Insulation discharge and the condition investigated. If it is decided that

These techniques were discussed in Section 9 of this
chapter.
10.4.4 Rotor winding earth fault indication
The rotor winding and its connected excitation circuits
are not earthed. In order to detect a low value of
insulation resistance while on-load, a biasing voltage
of about 30 V DC is applied to the 'positive' end
of the winding through a current relay, causing the
entire circuit to have a negative voltage to earth (Fig
6.92). If the overall insulation resistance to earth falls
below 100 000 ohm (the actual value depends on
the position of the 'fault' in the circuit), the relay
operates to initiate an alarm. Operation of the rotor
may be continued but it is recommended that the
unit should be taken off-load as soon as convenient
a calculated risk can be taken to enable generation
to be continued, a protection device developed in
1987 can be installed. This will initiate a Class 1 trip
on the occurrence of a second rotor earth fault, and
minimise the damage from the high circulating current
that this would otherwise cause (see Fig 6.93).
10.4.5 Shaft current insulation integrity
In a machine with 'islanded' insulation (see Section 3
of this chapter), the integrity of its insulation can be
checked with a megger.
10.4.6 Stator winding water analysis
This water must be checked for oxygen and copper con-
tent at recommended intervals.

553
The generator Chapter 6

of its trip initiation:

Class 1 protection initiates a main circuit-breaker
trip as fast as can be arranged. Taking the trip
relay and circuit-breaker operating times into ac-
-530V
count, this means about 120 ms (6 cycles) after
initiation. With the most modern circuit-breakers,
this time may be reduced to about 80 ms.
Class 2 protection initiates the closing of the tur-
bine stop and interceptor valves. The load reduces
to 1% or less within a few seconds; this situation
is detected by a low forward power' relay which,
after a short delay, initiates a main circuit-breaker
EXCITATION SUPPLY
5 0 0V 4 0 0 0 A DC lf TYPICALLY <0.75mA
trip. The process takes 4-5 s from the original
EARTH
LEAKAGE initiation and is intended to prevent a possible speed
CURRENT
DETECTION runaway if the overspeed governor does not func-
RELAY
tion correctly on load rejection. Consequently, those
-30V BIASSING VOLTAGE conditions in which a 5 s delay can be tolerated
before tripping are arranged to be protected by a
STATION Class 2 trip.
EARTH

FIG. 6.92 Rotor winding earth fault detection 10.5.1 Class 1 trips
Electrical failure damage propagates so quickly that
Class 1 tripping is essential. The following situations
are commonly protected by Class 1 trips:
Generator transformer winding fault This causes
imbalance between currents in the HV side of the
transformer and the generator neutrals. (Note that,
for faults beyond the transformer, no damage in-
K IS ACTUAL
FAULT POSITION ternal to the generator and transformer is expected,
K1 IS APPARENT
FAULT POSITION and tripping is not initiated.)
Unbalanced load (negative sequence) faults These
are described in Section 7.9 of this chapter.
Stator winding earth fault With high impedance
neutral earthing fault current could be tolerated for
the 5 s of a Class 2 trip, but this condition has
been found to be the forerunner of a more serious
SWITCH CLOSED:
Vi ' + V

\ APPARENT CHANGE K = K1 - K
2'
VOLTAGE V1 ACROSS FAULT RESISTANCE Rf
= . ve = AK (V^ + Vg1)
CURRENT If IN FAULT RESISTANCE = V2'
Rm
FAULT RESISTANCE R, :
HENCE BOTH FAULT POSITION AND FAULT RESISTANCE CAN BE
COMPUTED AND COMPARED WITH PREVIOUS VALUES
FIG. 6.93 Second rotor earth fault protection
10.5 Protection
Protection, here defined as equipment designed to
trip the unit when necessary, is classified by the speed
554
fault in the windings and Class 1 tripping is now
recommended.
High hydrogen temperature The most positive
method of protection against a complete loss of
raw cooling water to the generator cooling circuits
is to trip on high hydrogen temperature. Gas tem-
peratures and stator winding water temperatures
rise to a dangerous level so quickly that activating
an alarm to advise an operator to take action is
unlikely to result in action which is fast enough
to be effective.
Split phase protection This is not yet fitted except
experimentally. It is intended to detect a difference
in the currents in the two parallel paths of a stator
phase winding, which are normally equal. A bar-
to-bar fault in one path would result in a detect-
able imbalance, which could trip the unit before

the fault had time to develop into a more damag-
ing fault between phases.
Second rotor earth fault
10.5.2 Class 2 trips
Loss of stator winding water flow This is time
delayed to allow the standby pump to start.
Exciter rectifier bridge-arm failure This protects
against the loss of all the diodes in one arm of the
excitation rectifier.
Loss of excitation Detected by a mho relay after
the rotor has moved into a pole slipping mode.
High vibration This is described in Chapter 2.
Emergency pushbutton This is described in Chap-
ter 2.
11 Maintenance, testing and diagnosis
11.1 Maintenance and tests during operation
Sliprings and brushgear require regular maintenance
to ensure trouble-free operation. The selective pass-
age of more current through one particular brush
can lead to excessive wear on that brush, so that
even though an average brush life is 6 months, one
brush may wear to the point where spring pressure
is lost within 2 weeks. Facilities for on-load brush
changing are provided, and are necessary for base
load units. Occasionally, sliprings may require re-
surfacing by grinding, but this cannot be done on-
load and must await a shutdown. Shaft riding earthing
brushes, and the instrumentation brushes provided
on some 'brushless' units, also need regular attention.
There is little other maintenance work which can
be carried out with the machine on-load, apart from
keeping clean components such as pedestal and exciter
insulation shims, emptying drains when necessary, and
noting what they contain, cleaning or replacing filter
elements where possible, and ensuring that pumps,
control valves, etc., are functioning correctly.
Apart from monitoring both the regular and more
specialised instrumentation, as described earlier, there
are few tests which can usefully be carried out. Cal-
ibrating checks can be made on the purity meter
by diverting pure hydrogen through it, and manual
sampling can provide samples of casing hydrogen for
back-up monitoring of impurities and moisture con-
tent, and of stator winding water for pH value, oxy-
gen and copper content, and conductivity. In some
stations, means are provided for the on-load testing
of certain protection devices, for example, flow of
Maintenance, testing and diagnosis
stator water.
Any sudden departure from normal conditions
should be investigated. Changes in shaft or stator
winding overhang vibration should be correlated with
load and temperature, and changes in stator core or
casing vibration with voltage and temperature. Con-
dition monitor excursions should require samples to
be analysed. Such information may be invaluable
when assessing the condition of the machine at the
next major outage, or when planning remedial work.
11.2 Maintenance and tests when shut
down for a short outage
During outages as short as 2 - 5 days, the casing would
not normally be scavenged, and the shaft would be
barred for much of the time. Therefore the generator
and its systems are not much more accessible than
when in operation.
Cleaning of brushgear and the slipring area can be
carried out to remove built-up deposits of carbon,
possibly soaked with oil, which can form electrical
tracking paths. It may be possible to grind the slip-
rings.
If the brushes are lifted clear of the sliprings and
a pair of insulated brushes fitted, a test on the rotor
windings can be made with a recurrent surge oscillo-
scope (RSO). In this test, a steep-fronted pulse is
applied to one end of the winding. Any abnormality
in the winding, such as a short-circuit between turns,
will cause a smaller surge to be reflected back to the
source, just as if the winding were a transmission
line. Figure 6.94 shows typical waveforms of signals
reflected from each end. By subtracting the signals,
an abnormality may be detected. Such tests can be
very sensitive, and must be interpreted with care.
11.3 Maintenance during a longer outage
If the outage is known to be longer than a week or
so, the casing can conveniently be scavenged. When this
has been properly carried out, access to the inside of
the casing can be gained by withdrawing a cooler,
or to the end winding area by taking off a cover
in the endshields.
Visual examination of the interior may reveal ex-
cessive amounts of oil, indicative of a malfunctioning
shaft seal, or of water, indicating a cooler or cooling
circuit leak. Signs of overheated insulation may be
evident, or of powdered glass or mica, indicative
of abrasion of insulation. Excessive burning or welding
between core bars and the core back may indicate
an embedded core fault. Loose packers, bolts or
hoses in the end winding may be apparent, and loose
debris may be visible. The effort involved in such
an inspection is worthwhile to preserve confidence
in the continuing good performance.
555
The generator Chapter 6

" ^^

6- ^
J -'*
.i

3*~
VOLTS 4H
1 '
/ 1

* - ^ ' 1
1

DEVIATION

-2-J
50 60

TIME

FIG. 6.94 Recurrent surge test

All such examinations of the interior must be sub-
ject to the rigorous enforcement of rules concerning
tools, the wearing of overshoes, etc., to ensure that
foreign materials are not left inside. The stator casing
heaters should be kept on once degassing has been
completed.
At these outages, seals and bearings may be dis-
mantled for inspection, both for signs of wear and
damage, and of electrical discharges due to the pass-
age of shaft current. The inside of exciters can also
be inspected, as can components in the various aux-
iliary systems.
A limited amount of testing can be carried out, e.g.,
the insulation resistance of the rotor winding, using a
500 or 1000 V megger, and the IR of the shaft current
insulation if islanded.
11.4 Maintenance and tests with the
machine dismantled
If the outage is to be long enough for the rotor to
be withdrawn, much better access to both rotor and
556
stator is possible. Inspection of the rotor surface,
particularly where crack initiation sites are suspected,
such as the gaps between short wedges, should be
carried out. Inspection down the radial ventilation
holes to check that insulation packing has not moved
to block the gas cooling passages, is recommended,
following which the holes should be sealed with a
continuous strip of adhesive tape, to prevent the
ingress of debris.
Limited inspection of the end winding is also pos-
sible, and signs of fretting, looseness, distortion of
coils, or movement of insulation, blades or coils
should be looked for. If the pole-to-pole crossover
is visible, it is advisable to examine it for signs of
fatigue cracking.
End rings should be examined for surface cracking
and, by using ultrasonic techniques, for embedded
defects. The CEGB guidelines recommend that those
end rings which are not of 18/18 material should be
removed after about 80-90 000 h in operation, and
skimmed to a depth of about 0.25 mm over the cyl-
indrical surfaces (but not the shrink face), following
which a fluorescent dye ('Zyglo' or equivalent) ex-

amination is made. Defects greater than 2 mm should
be ground out, blending in the ground area so that
there are no discontinuities. Finally, the ring must
be re-treated with its protective finish before being
refitted. The whole operation requires great skill and
experience, and though it can be carried out at site,
it is better done at the manufacturer's works, fol-
lowing which the rotor can be subjected to over speed
and balancing runs. These comments also apply to
exciter end rings.
Examination of the stator core can be carried out
by inspecting the bore for loose areas, which can
be tightened by insertions of hard insulation, or by
treating with an epoxy-based liquid having low sur-
face tension which will penetrate between the la-
minations. Ventilation ducts should be inspected for
debris, blockages and broken spacer bars. The back
of the core will reveal excessive welding of core to
core bars, or damaged core bar insulation, where
this is fitted. Some core back burning, and some
fretting products (e.g., 'cocoa dust') seems to be
innocuous. The core frame can be inspected for ob-
vious signs of damage, and patches of overheated
paint or metal should be investigated.
Every stator slot wedge should be checked for tight-
ness along its whole length, using a tightness tester
developed in 1985, or by tapping with a coin or simi-
lar object to observe the expected 'ringing', indicative
of a tight slot. Airgap flux coils can be fitted or
renewed at this stage.
Stator end windings can be more thoroughly checked
than as described in the previous section. Signs of
looseness of packings, fretting, slack fastenings, etc.,
are all indicative of movement. If there are unfilled
bags between coils, these can be filled with epoxy
resin at this stage. The surfaces should be cleaned using
a proprietary cleaner suitable for electrical windings,
but it is not recommended that repainting is under-
taken without the manufacturer's advice. If a 'worm-
hole' (made by small conducting particles) is found,
the particle should be removed and the insulation
patched rather than left in, possibly to break through
into the copper.
The state of the hoses and their connecting joints
should be checked. A leakage test on the stator wind-
ing, using vacuum or pressurised air with a tracer
gas, will reveal any significant leaks. It may be
considered prudent to renew all the rubber O-rings,
both in these locations and elsewhere, if they have
been in service for several years. Care must be taken
to follow the assembly instructions meticulously, as
overtightening may damage the joints.
The opportunity should be taken to clean the sta-
tor casing, particularly at the bottom, noting if water
has collected, and checking that the flow to the leak-
age detector is unobstructed.
Insulation resistance tests should be carried out
on the rotor winding, using a 500 or 1000 V megger,
and on excitation windings. An RSO test could also
Maintenance, testing and diagnosis
be performed on the rotor winding, with slipring
brushes lifted.
If any hot spots in the stator core are suspected,
or as a reassurance exercise, a core flux test can be
carried out. This may take the form of an hour long
test with about rated flux in the core, using about
10 turns of 11 kV cable wrapped around the core
and fed from a suitable 11 kV source, and using
an infra-red camera to scan the bore to monitor its
temperature. Easier, but less positive, is a low flux test
using one turn of light current cable and a magnetic
imperfection detector.
It is not easy to ensure that the stator winding
is dry enough to make an insulation resistance test
meaningful, though a technique of applying a vacuum
to the winding has been used. A 2 or 2.5 kV motor-
ised megger should be used, monitoring one phase at
a time, and maintaining the test for 10 minutes so
that the polarisation index can be obtained. It is
not normal to apply a high voltage test, the only ex-
ception being after some damage has occurred, possi-
bly with partial replacement of the winding, when an
agreed HV test on the remaining bars gives some
reassurance.
11.5 Reassembly
With the rotor reassembled, mechanical checks such
as alignment, axial clearances and concentricity of cou-
plings, and of the rotor in the stator, are carried out,
and that all locking plates and other devices are pro-
perly assembled. All jointing materials, such as gaskets,
O-rings, jointing compound, etc., should be renewed,
and the appropriate leakage tests carried out.
It is so important that small metallic items do not
fall into, or get left inside, the generator, where they
could be drawn into the windings, that a strict ac-
counting system for such items is recommended.
Several expensive failures have occurred a short time
after a major maintenance outage, due to this cause.
11.6 Diagnosis
If the reading of any instrument has been outside its
expected limit, or caused concern in other ways, it is
sensible to investigate its possible causes during an
outage. It may be tempting to extend the operating
regime beyond its normal level, before such an out-
age, in order to observe the effects, but this is not
recommended, since a 'stable' fault has been known
to become 'unstable' during such operation, causing
problems when the unit is recommissioned.
Specialised techniques, some in their development
phase, may be available to assist in suspected fault
location, and up to date advice should be sought.
Sometimes readings of more than one type may
be high, though not so high as to be alarming in
557
The generator
themselves. When judged jointly, clues may be ob-
tained which individual readings might not have re-
vealed.
12 Future developments
12.1 Extension of present designs
The choice of 3000 or 1500 r/min for future turbine-
generators is made almost entirely from considerations
of the steam turbine and its steam cycle. In general,
if a two-pole generator can be designed and manu-
factured at a particular rating, then so can a four-
pole generator, its overall dimensions will be a little
larger.
The present UK designs with water cooled stator
windings and hydrogen cooled stator core and rotor
can be extended to at least 1300 MW by extrapola-
tion. Increases of the order of 10% to the rotor and
casing diameters, electrical loading (ampere conductors
per metre of circumference), magnetic densities and
voltage, and perhaps 25% on length over the pre-
sent designs, would be envisaged (see Fig 6.3). The
increased diameter and length of the rotor result in
the critical speeds and alternating bending stesses
being similar to those of the present machines. A
judgement would have to be made about the number
of parallel paths in the stator winding of a two-pole
machine. If only two paths are used, the number
of slots and bars is low, but the bar forces become
very large; if four are used the circuits cannot be
exactly balanced, and circulating currents and losses
are generated. Parameters, such as reactances and effi-
ciencies, would not be very different from those of
the present machines.
12.2 Extension of water cooling
Since water cooling has been used so effectively for
the stator winding, it may be wondered why it is not
used in the rotor winding where space is at such
a premium. Water cooled rotor windings have been
successfully operated; in the UK in a 500 MW unit
with an experimental rotor for a few months, and
internationally in a few units commercially.
The more intensive cooling provided by water means
that smaller winding copper sections can be used, but
this increases the resistance and therefore the I2R
loss. In a hydrogen cooled 660 MW rotor, this loss
is about 2.5 MW at rated load, so a worthwhile
reduction in section brings an expensive loss penalty.
There are difficult problems to be solved in feeding
the water into and out of the rotating rotor, but the
major concern is that the centrifugal force imposes
very high pressures (20 MPa) in the water circuit,
558
Chapter 6
which the plumbing and insulated connections have
to withstand with no detectable leakage. Stainless
steel pipes, with some welds having to be made in
situ, were found to be necessary in the UK experience.
Nevertheless, water cooling the rotor winding and
other parts, for example, the stator core, may be an
answer if unit ratings much above 1300 MW are en-
visaged. One difficulty, that of aqueous stress cor-
rosion of rotor end rings, has been removed with
the advent of 18/18 rings. A major advantage is
that in an all-water-cooled generator, hydrogen is
no longer necessary, and the casing can be of much
lighter construction. The rotor can operate in a partial
vacuum to reduce windage losses.
12.3 Slotless generators
The very large radial dimension of the air gap in the
660 MW design appears to be a waste of space, and
prompted much activity in the 1970s into the design
of generators with slotless stators and even slotless
rotors. In a slotless stator, winding conductors oc-
cupied a radial dimension of about half the stator slot
depth, and since there were no teeth, could occupy
twice the circumferential distance. This is economical
on outer core diameter, and because the conductor
bars are not embedded in iron slots, a more eco-
nomical design of insulation should be possible.
The idea has not been pursued, largely because
it was overtaken by the superconducting generator
concept, which promised greater economies of size,
better efficiency and the prospect of much larger unit
ratings than any other design.
12.4 Superconducting generators
The phenomenon of superconductivity can be applied
to DC circuits, but cannot sensibly be used with the
rapidly changing fluxes and currents involved with
50 Hz (see Fig 6.95). It is therefore used only in the
rotor windings, where it has two advantages:
The rotor I2R loss is reduced to zero.
The rotor current and MMF can be very large, so
that higher levels of flux density can be used than
are permitted by iron saturation.
The need to maintain the rotor winding at a tem-
perature of 10 K means that only that amount of
heat which can be removed by the refrigerant can
be allowed to pass into the rotor, so that elaborate
heat shields are necessary. Liquid helium is used as
the refrigerant, the windings being made of a ni-
obium-tin alloy embedded in a copper matrix. The
rotor body is made from a stainless steel forging.

DRIVE END
TURBINE 7#sy//y//^^^
MAIN BEARING
^0- :i'X$tf;'!
FIG. 6.95 Prototype superconducting 500 MW generator
At the higher flux densities envisaged, an iron core
offers no advantages and the disadvantage of the
magnetic core loss, so a cast 'concrete' core is en-
visaged. Some form of outer environmental screen
around the core is necessary to prevent leakage flux
from inducing currents in support steelwork, etc.,
this can take the form of an annular magnetic or
conducting copper screen.
Many problems remain to be solved, and develop-
ment is ongoing in several countries. If the technique
reaches the stage where reliability is as good as for
conventional machines, it offers the possibility of up
to 5000 MW in one generating unit, a prospect not
available through any other known technology.
12.5 Auxiliary systems
The most likely other areas for new developments
are those of instrumentation, control and diagnosis.
New techniques are continually being investigated
for instrumentation, and in the environment of a gen-
erator, the means of communicating the signal non-
electrically in order to avoid the pick-up of spurious
electromagnetic signals and noise are very well worth
pursuing. Here, fibre optics are expected to be pro-
minent. Also, the use of microprocessors to relate one
parameter to others, as previously noted, will become
more common. Perhaps automatic diagnostic tech-
niques will reach a stage where they can be used with
confidence, and selective recording of non-standard
signals will be introduced more widely.
It should be recognised that generator design and
manufacturing techniques are old-established. Ma-
Other types of generator
LAMINATED IRON CORE
CONCRETE STATOR
STATOR WINDING
NON-DRIVE END
OUTER ROTOR
INNER ROTOR WITH
SUPERCONDUCTING WINDING
VACUUM
SEAL HELIUM
TRANSFER
MAIN BEARING TAIL BEARING
chines from an established design achieve a settled
reliability of better than 99%, and operate at an
efficiency of better than 98.5%. Those breakdowns
which do occur are generally due to lapses in quality
control, or if in old machines, to practices long since
overtaken. Thus the impetus for embracing new ma-
terials and technologies is not great.
13 Other types of generator
Generators, other than the 500 and 660 MW turbine-
generators and direct coupled AC exciters for tur-
bine-generators, described in the previous sections, in
operation by the CEGB include:
Turbine-generators of lower rating.
Water turbine driven salient-pole synchronous
generators.
Diesel engine driven salient-pole generators.
Induction generators.
A very brief survey of these groups follows.
13.1 Turbine-type generators of lower rating
Virtually all the steam turbine driven turbine-generators
now in operation are hydrogen cooled. At the lower
end of the range, machines of 60 MW have a rated
pressure of 0.1 bar, i.e., just above atmospheric.
Above 200 MW, water cooled stator windings are used,
559
The generator
though there are some units in which higher pressure
hydrogen is blown through the hollow conductors of
the stator winding.
In other respects, the generators are very similar
to the larger, more modern units, except that they are
less intensively rated. In some cases, a degree of
refurbishment has been carried out to extend their
operating lives beyond the 25 years or so already
achieved.
There are also a number of gas turbine driven
generators intended for peak load and synchronous
compensation duty. These have ratings up to 70 MW,
and are usually air cooled. The single-piece stators are
of lighter construction than is necessary in hydrogen
cooled units, and the auxiliary systems are minimal.
In some cases they were designed for unmanned sta-
tions, so manual monitoring equipment and sophis-
ticated logging is minimal. Brushless excitation is
universal, for reasons of minimum maintenance, and
even the fuses protecting the excitation diodes have
been omitted.
A noteworthy feature of the most recent of these
units is the facility to disengage the prime mover,
or, in the case of the Quad-Olympus units (Fig 6.96)
in which the generator is driven at both ends, both
prime movers. Then, after a period of peak load gen-
eration, the synchronous clutches are disengaged, leav-
ing the generators operating as synchronous compen-
sators, with excitation controlled to suit the require-
ments of the system. When peak load or emergency
generation is next required, the gas turbines are run-
up to speed and the clutches moved into engagement.
13.2 Water turbine driven salient-pole syn-
chronous generators
There are only a few of these on the CEGB system,
but the most recent, the pumped-storage units at
Dinorwig, rate a brief description to complement the
water turbine section in Chapter 5.
The six generators are each rated at 330 MW, 0.95
power factor, 18 kV, 500 r/min, and have a motor
rating slightly lower when operating in the reverse
direction.
The very onerous requirements included:
Full speed, no-load to full-load, in 10 s.
From rest to full-load in 100 s.
From full-load pumping to full-load generating in
90 s.
5000 stop/start cycles per year.
Multiple load cycling from 50% to 100% for system
frequency regulation.
Availability of 98% and mode change reliability of
99%.
560
Chapter 6
The comparatively low speed meant large diameters,
and on-site assembly of the stators was essential (see
Fig 6.97). Air cooling was adopted, mainly for rea-
sons of reliability. Partly on account of this, the
stator winding bars were unusually deep, with a large
number of subconductors, necessitating a 540 Roebel
transposition. The core was stacked in situ, being com-
pressed with hydraulic jacks at intervals, and bonded
together for mechanical stability.
A fabricated steel spider surrounds the forged steel
shaft and carries the keyed-on laminated rim and poles.
Great care was taken to ensure the integrity of the
welds, which are subject to an unusual amount of
cyclic stressing.
Ventilation is provided by motor-driven fans blow-
ing cooled air onto the stator end windings top and
bottom, with some booster fans for the centre of the
core. Water cooled heat exchangers are mounted at
the outside diameter of the core.
The thrust bearing has an arduous duty, having
a load of 510 tonnes and requiring larger thrust
pads, at the specific loading, than had previously
been used at the specific loading and speed. Each
pad rests on a 'mattress' of coiled springs, and is
arranged to pivot centrally to allow for rotation in
both directions. Lubrication is by oil bath and natu-
ral oil circulation, with an immersed water cooled
heat exchanger.
13.2.1 Excitation and control
Two variable-frequency starting equipments are pro-
vided for the station, each rated at 14.8 MVA, consist-
ing of air cooled thyristor rectifier/AC connector/
inverter banks.
On starting as a pump, the stator winding is fed
with low frequency AC from the starter, using forced
commutation at speeds below 10% and natural com-
mutation thereafter. It is run to just above 500 r/min
and is synchronised as it runs down through syn-
chronous speed. There are also arrangements for start-
ing one unit as a pump from another, being driven
up to speed by its turbine.
Excitation power is taken from the generator ter-
minals, through a transformer to a thyristor bridge,
whose output is controlled by the AVR, and then to
the sliprings which are located at the top end of the
rotor shaft.
The synchronous operation of such machines fol-
lows very closely that of steam-driven turbine-gen-
erators. The electromagnetic loading is considerably
less, leading to a smaller radial air gap. The very
different magnetic path presented by a pole centre
line and an inter-pole gap results in marked differ-
ences in direct axis and quadrature axis synchronous
reactances, compared to a turbine-generator in which
they are almost identical; this is the 'saliency' effect.
By applying excitation in the reverse direction to
normal, an increase in the steady state stability can
 AUTOMATIC DRY ROLL TYPE GAS GENERATOR AIR
AIR INTAKE FILTERS INTAKE FILTER HOUSE
BYPASS DOORS

A C GENERATOR AIR
INTAKE FILTER HOUSE

GAS GENERATOR
ACOUSTIC CELL
POWER TURBINE AND GENERATOR
LUB. OIL PACKAGE
POWER TURBINE ACOUSTIC SCREEN
EXHAUST SILENCING
A C GENERATOR

POWER TURBINE EXHAUST DUCTING MAIN GENERATOR CONNECTIONS

BRUSHLESS EXCITER
OLYMPUS GAS GENERATOR
GAS GENERATOR INSTRUMENTATION CLUTCH AND BEARING ASSEMBLY
PANEL POWER TURBINE ASSEMBLY
GAS GENERATOR LUB. OIL SYSTEM

FUEL VALVE CABINET CORNER BEND

561
FIG. 6.96 Quad-Olympus generator
Other types of generator
 The generator
FlG. 6.97 Dinorwig motor-generator during site winding
(see also colour photograph between pp 482 and 483)
be gained, i.e., operation further into the leading
reactive regime becomes possible.
13.2.2 Other features
Other features peculiar to these machines include the
continuing integrity of stator bar insulation in an air
environment, the continuing stability of the bonded
stator core and the built-up rotors, the vacuum ex-
traction of dust from the shaft brakes, and the very
high overspeeds possible; e.g., a transient value of 1.5
for Dinorwig.
13.3 Diesel engine driven salient-pole
generators
These machines, with ratings of a few MW, are in-
562
Chapter 6
stalled in a few stations for emergency duty. The
generators are standard industrial units with proven
high reliability. The need for sudden run-up after long
periods at standstill means that brushless excitation
and casing heaters are essential.
13.4 Induction generators
These machines, rated usually at less than 1 MW,
are used in remotely controlled run-of-the-river hydro
plants, and in wind generators on an experimental
basis. Such machines do not operate synchronously,
but have a characteristic similar to induction motors
except that they run at above synchronous speed. A
greater input from the prime mover increases the
power output. Like all induction machines, they draw
their magnetising current from the system and there-
fore do not require an excitation supply.
 SUBJECT INDEX

Acceleration Austenitic steels

feedback blading, 72
governors, 130 wet steam turbines, 229
Acceptance tests rotors
condensers, 373 endrings,461
procedures, 374 Automatic voltage regulators, 523
Acid cleaning auto follow-up circuit, 525
condensers, 372 digital, 525
Actuator pistons dual channel, 524
governor valve relays, 145 manual follow up, 525
Adiabatic flow with friction protection, 525
pressure control valves rotor angles, 527
noise, 211,216 steam turbines
Advanced gas-cooled reactors run-up, 134
feedwater Auxiliary systems
temperature, 46 generators, 559
steam turbines instrumentation, 174
sizes, 122
Air Back-pressure turbines
inleakage feedwater heaters, 46
condensers, 366 Baffle plates
leakage feedwater heaters
measurement, 368 vertical, 301
leaks Baffles
location, 367 de-aerating feedheaters, 308
Air blanketing feedwater heaters, 297
condensers, 375 Balance meters
tubenests automatic voltage regulators, 525
condensers, 352 Balancing
Air cooling rotors, 96,470
condensers, 352,381 dynamic, 97
Air ejector/pump systems multi-plane, 97
condensers, 383 static, 97
Air extraction Ball-jointed tip ties
condensers blades, 68
equipment, 381 Bars
mechanism, 380 stators, 475,482
multi-point, 382 vibration
quantity determination, 380 stator windings, 548
single, 382 Base level governors, 141
Air extraction pumps Base load
condensers, 378-390 steam turbines, 217
Air gap flux coils Baumann exhaust
generators blading, 68
monitoring, 552 Baumann exhaust turbines, 4
Air pumps Bearing pedestals
liquid-ring on-line monitoring, 104
condensers, 383,388 vibrations
Air stagnation instrumentation, 173
tubenests Bearing supports
condensers, 352 foundations
Alarms slave units, 175
governing systems, 134 Bearings {see also Journal bearings; Thrust bearings)
steam temperatures, 174 boiler feed pumps, 405
Alignment forced lubrication, 181
rotors, 103 rotors, 106,472
technique, 104 steam turbines, 105-112
Ammonia Blades
steam side corrosion clearances
condensers, 340 efficiency, 12
Amplidynes efficiency, 9
exciters erosion, 75
turbine generators, 504 fixed
voltage regulation, 523 construction, 65, 66
Annulus loss ideal impulse-stage
steam turbines efficiency, 10
efficiency, 13 ideal reaction-stage
Anti-foaming agents efficiency, 10
lubricating oils, 194 length
Arcton 12 turbine efficiency, 29
air leak detection moving
condensers, 368 construction, 65, 66

563
Subject Index

efficiency, 8 maintenance, 555

root attachments, 68 rotors, 465
profile loss Bubbler devices
efficiency, 12 cooling water
secondary loss leakage, 369,370
efficiency, 12 tube leak detection
tip leakage condensers, 371
efficiency, 12 Bulleting
tip restraint, 67 cleaning
vibration condensers, 372
control, 73 Butterfly valves, 228
natural frequencies, 73 By-pass systems
sources, 73 capacity, 61
B lading fossil-fired plant, 213
aerodynamic constraints, 67 malfunctions, 62
design nuclear plant, 212
feedwater heating systems, 250 pressure control valves, 211
impulse pressurised water reactors, 62
high pressure turbines, 93 problems, 215
impulse stages, 65 start-up, 63
low pressure stages, 67 steam turbines, 59, 211-216
materials, 71 wet steam plant, 64
mechanical constraints, 67 By-pass valves
modern designs, 10 feedwater heating systems, 265,267
reaction stages, 66
steam turbines, 65-76 Caisson extraction pumps
developments, 123 vertical, 403
double-flow, 3 Calcium phosphate
low pressure, 10 solubility, 372
reversed-flow, 3 Campbell diagrams
single-flow, 3 blades
velocity-compounded stage, 65 vibration, 75
Blaydon Burn Capability charts
feedheating generators, 535
regenerative, 242 Capital costs
Bled-steam connections turbine-generators, 41
steam turbine casings, 86 Carbon dioxide
Boiler feed pumps, 243,402^17 hydrogen cooling systems
advanced class, 406 turbine-generators
construction, 405 Camot cycles
axial thrust, 407 reheat, 30
bearings, 405 Carrier rings
casings cylinders, 87
construction, 405 Cartridge filters
designs, 417 lubricating oil, 190
developments, 404 Casings
diffusers, 407 stators, 489
drives, 411 core frame, 490
efficiency, 416 steam turbines, 76-90
feed suction pumps, 412 alignment, 87
forced cooling, 407 alignment keys, 88, 89
future trends, 416 construction, 76
glands glands, 87
sealing, 408 high pressure, 77
impellers, 405 horizontal joints, 81
layout, 411 intermediate pressure, 78
light load protection, 414 low pressure, 79
suction filters, 280 materials, 86
testing, 414 supports, 87, 88, 89
thrust bearings, 408 Category A trips, 165
Boilers exhaust pressure, 167
master load controllers, 129 Category B trips, 165
pressure control, 129 low relay fluid pressure, 167
turbine master load controllers, 129 Cavitation
Bolting hydraulic turbines, 423
steam turbine casings, 84 specific speed, 425
Bolts pumps
couplings, 102 governing systems, 150
high temperature visual tests
steam turbine casings, 87 air extraction pumps, 392
tightening Cavitation performance breakdown
flanges, 84 air extractor pumps
British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association condensers, 391
condenser design, 345 CEGB
Brittle fracture condensers
rotors, 98 specifications, 347
Brushgear cycles, 31
generators Central Electricity Generating Board see CEGB

564
 Subject Index

Centrifugal force Condensers {see also Integral condensers; Pannier condensers;

stress Underslung condensers), 323-421
generators, 542 air cooling, 381
Centrifugal pumps air inleakage, 366
hydraulic aspects axial
condensers, 390-393 steam turbine casings, 79
net positive suction head, 391 branches, 365
Centrifugal separation bridge
lubricating oil, 191 steam turbine casings, 79
Chemical injection pumps, 418^19 by-pass steam, 61
Chevron separating elements capital costs, 42
wet steam turbines, 233 cleaning, 370
Chlorination off-load, 372
cooling water on-load, 370
condensers, 370 cleanliness, 366
Chlorofluorocarbons compartmentalisation, 352
air leak detection use, 355
condensers, 368 computer-assisted design, 355
Chording connections, 365
harmonics, 456 construction, 357
Chromium alloy steel construction materials, 355
blading cooling water
wet steam turbines, 229 leakage, 368
Chromium molybdenum vanadium steels design
rotors, 94 phase 1,330
Chromium steels phase 2,330
blading, 71 phase 3,333
super 12% design codes, 345
blading, 72 design forces, 357
Circulating water pumps, 393^400 economic optimisation, 42
casings economics, 324-329
materials, 399 extraction pumps, 400-402
horizontal split-casing, 393 feedwater heating systems, 253
impellers filters
materials, 399 debris, 366
materials, 399 fouling, 370
scale models, 397 future developments, 376-378
testing, 397 heat load
vertical, 395 determination, 375
vertical metal-casing, 395 heat rejected, 341
Cleaning {see also Acid cleaning; Grit cleaning) heat transfer, 341
condensers, 370 historical development, 329-333
Cleanliness integral
condenser tubes, 375 steam turbine casings, 79
condensers, 366 layout, 329-333
Clearances length
blading economics, 44
efficiency, 12 manufacture, 357
steam turbine casings, 87 mechanical design, 355-366
Closed-loop control mounting position, 4
steam turbines operational life, 366
electrical load, 131 outlet temperature
Coal-fired plants economics, 43
feedheating pannier
number of stages, 46 steam turbine casings, 79
Coefficient of heat transfer poor performance
condensers, 347 causes, 352
Cold reheat pressure practices, 373
feedwater heating systems, 250 protection, 366
Cold reheat steam, 50 reinforcement, 365
Combined-cycle plant shells, 362
dual pressure, 121 tubeplate joints, 363
steam turbines, 118 shells/tube expansion, 365
Combined heat and power size
turbine-generators, 116 costs, 43
Computer-assisted design specifications, 345
condensers, 355 standards, 345
Computers stresses, 357
condensers support, 177
configuration, 327 support plates, 365
Concrete surface area, 327
thermal expansion, 177 test codes, 373
Concrete volute pumps thermal design, 341-355
air extraction theory, 341
condensers, 395 thermal performance tests, 373
materials, 399 three-dimensional effects, 354
Condensate extraction pumps use, 355
spray water, 61,206 titanium

565
Subject Index

economics, 45 thermal design, 341-355

transverse underslung, 360, 361 velocity
design, 359 economics, 44
waterboxes, 362 Cooling water plant, 323^21
tube leak detection Copper alloys
bubblers, 371 condensers, 333,340
tube surface area tube failure, 336
economics, 43 Core end plates
tube-to-tubeplate fixing, 364 stators, 482
tubenests, 362 Core frame bars
tubeplates, 362 stators
tubes insulation, 480
cleaning systems, 366 Core frames
inundation, 354 stators, 476,481
tubeplate joints, 363 casings, 490
tubing Core monitors
thermal performance, 377 generators, 552
turbine joints, 365 Core plates
Condition lines stators, 474
steam turbines, 13 grain-oriented steel, 475
Condition monitoring Corrosion {see also Fireside corrosion; Hot spot corrosion;
generators, 550,552 Waterside corrosion)
instrumentation, 551 cooling water
instrumentation, 174 prevention, 333
Conductors cyclone separators
stators, 481 wet steam turbines, 230
Contamination inhibition
chemical lubricating oils, 193
hydraulic fluids, 153 journal bearings, 108
water Corrosion fatigue
hydraulic fluids, 153 condensers, 340
Control unit type 1 Corrosion fatigue cracking
governor valve relays, 145,146 condensers, 339
Control unit type 2 Corrosion resistance
governor valve relays, 147, 148 chromium steels
Control unit type 3 blading, 72
governor valve relays, 149 titanium
Control valves blading, 72
feedwater heating systems Couplings
low pressure feed systems, 285 bolts, 102
Coolers flexible, 101
hydraulic fluids half, 102
governing systems, 151 rigid, 101
Cooling {see also Air cooling; Forced-air cooling) semi-flexible, 101
rotors shaft length, 100
intermediate pressure, 93 shrink-on, 102
steam turbines, 224 steam turbines, 90-105
thyristors, 522 Cover seals
Cooling systems {see also Exhaust spray cooling systems) steam chests, 158
heated water discharge direct-cooled, 324 Coverbands
turbine generators, 491-504 arch
Cooling towers blades, 68
economics, 44 blades
heat dissipation, 324 steam turbines, 65
Cooling water Creep
culvert system rotors, 92,94
capital costs, 42 Creep strength
economic optimisation, 42 blading
facilities, 324 chromium steels, 72
flow Critical speed bands
condensers, 327 steam turbines
foundation movement governing systems, 133
monitoring, 175 Critical speeds
historical development, 329-333 rotors, 97
inlet temperature Current measurement
economic optimisation, 44 excitation system, 515
economics, 43 Cyclone separators
layout, 329-333 high velocity
leakage wet steam turbines, 231
condensers, 368 wet steam turbines, 230
pumping Cylinders
costs, 43 bolting, 84
pumps, 324 efficiency, 13
capital costs, 42 steam cycle, 22
quality expansions
environment, 333 instrumentation, 173
temperature external efficiency, 13
generators, 550 internal efficiency, 13

566
 Subject Index

low pressure Diodes

steam turbine casings, 86 excitation, 510
steam turbines, 4 protection, 511
supports, 87 negative DC
Cylindrical rotor generators, 447 excitation, 514
Disc stack
Dampers pressure control valves
rotors, 464 noise, 211
Damping Disc windage
vibration steam turbines
blades, 75 efficiency, 13
Damping torque, 527 Display units
De-aeration generators
feedwater, 49 instrumentation, 550
De-aerators (see also Stork de-aerators) Distribution factor, 455
construction District heating
feedwater heating systems, 308 steam turbines, 118
elevation, 275 Double reheat
feedheaters, 305-308 Rankine cycle, 30
feedwater heating systems, 250, 272-281, 289, 320 Draft tube valves
water level, 253 pump-turbines, 444
heaters, 272, 274 Drain valves, 210
pipework, 279 Drains (see also System drains)
protection systems, 277 continuous, 209
storage tank, 272 feedwater heating systems, 268
tanks low pressure feedwater heating systems
sloshing, 274 forward pumping, 282
waterspray/steam injection-type, 50 start-up, 209
Debris stators, 491
condensers, 370 water flow
filters control, 209
condensers, 366 Drains cooling, 46
Degassing Drains pumping
hydrogen cooling systems feedheating, 46
turbine generators, 491 Drains systems, 209-210
Dehydration wet steam turbines, 237
hydraulic fluids Drax Completion power station
governing systems, 154 feedheaters, 247
Deionisation feedwater heaters
feedwater heating systems, 315 pipework, 273
Demineralisers Droop adjustment
water speed loop, 128
stator winding cooling systems, 502 Drum rotor, 9
Desuperheaters Dry stage efficiency
gland sealing systems steam turbines, 16
cooling water, 202 Ductility
gland steam, 203 blading
gland temperature control, 200 chromium steels, 72
Detergents Dump pistons
lubricating oils, 194 governor valve relays, 145
Diaphragms Dump tubes
construction, 70 by-pass systems, 212
cylinders, 87 Duplex filters
kinematic support, 70 lubricating oil, 190
radial support pads, 70 Dynamic stability
steam turbines excitation systems, 530
glands, 87
support, 70 Earth leakage
Dichlorofluoromethane detection
air leak detection excitation systems, 517
condensers, 368 excitation systems, 515
Diesel engines Eccentricity
salient-pole generators, 562 shafts
Differential expansion instrumentation, 173
steam turbines steam turbines
run-up, 133 protection, 164
Diffusers run-up, 133
boiler feed pumps, 407 Economics
Dinorwig power station condensers, 324329
fatigue life, 439 Economisers
guide vanes, 443 feedheating, 45
machine layout, 439 Eddy current losses
main inlet valves, 442,443 stator cores, 476
pump-turbines, 440 Eddy currents
pumped storage, 433 stator conductors, 482
section, 438 Efficiency
site plan, 437 instrumentation, 173
statistics, 445 Electric motors

567
Subject Index

feed pumps turbine-generators, 504

variable speed, 55 section, 507
variable-speed drives, 55 Exhaust pressure
variable-speed feed pump drives by-pass systems, 61
efficiency category A trips, 167
Electrical erosion economic optimisation, 42
journal bearings, 108 high
Electrical tripping trips, 170
turbine protection, 167 optimum
Electricity distribution economics, 41
AC vs DC, 447 Rankine cycle, 28
Electromagnetic induction, 450 steam cycle
Ellipse law economics, 40
output, 8 steam turbines
Emergency stop heat rate, 41
turbine protection, 172 protection, 164
Emergency trip valves trips, 165
on-load testing, 166 unloaders, 137
turbine protection, 166 unloading gear, 130
End rings Exhaust spray cooling systems
rotors, 460 low pressure, 206-209
End windings temperature control
stators automatic, 207
supports, 483 Exhaust steam
Enthalpy-entropy diagrams low pressure
Rankine cycle, 18 temperature control, 207
Entropy, 18 Exhausts
Environment steam turbine casings, 85
condensers, 333-341 steam turbines, 4
Erosion External efficiency
blades, 75 cylinders, 13
progression, 76 Extraction pumps
shield materials, 76 condensers, 400-402
cyclone separators
wet steam turbines, 230 Fans
hydraulic turbines, 423 rotors, 465,470
protection Fatigue
wet steam turbines, 229 rotors
EssheteCRM 12 generators, 544
blading, 72 Fatigue cracking
Evaporators journal bearings, 108
bled-steam Fatigue strength
feedwater heating systems, 316 blading
flash, 316 chromium steels, 72
vertical-tube type, 316 Fault currents
feedwater heating systems, 315-317 generators, 539
assembly, 319 Feed pumps
flash back-pressure
feedwater heating systems, 319 steam turbines, 115
flash type condensing-type
feedwater heating systems, 317 steam turbines, 116
single-stage duty, 54
feedwater heating systems, 318 economics, 53
surface type elevation, 254
feedwater heating systems, 317 fluid-coupling drive
Excitation economics, 57
AC turbine generators, 506 induction-motor-driven
adaptive controllers, 526 capital costs, 57
control, 526 economics, 57
future developments, 560 running costs, 57
turbine generators, 504-532 margins, 54
Excitation equipment motor-driven
static rectifiers, 520 thermodynamic effects, 56
Excitation systems number
analysis, 530 economics, 53
brushless size
turbine generators, 509 economics, 53
Exciter field switches steam turbines, 115
field suppression, 547 through-life costs, 58
Exciters {see also Main exciters; Pilot exciters) turbine governors, 156
AC voltage regulation, 523 turbines
DC turbine generators, 504 exhaust route, 156
DC voltage regulation, 523 power rating, 157
gear driven steam supply, 156
turbine-generators, 504 variable speed, 54
performance testing, 508 variable-speed drives
transient performance capital costs, 55
turbine-generators, 506 electric motors, 55

568
 Subject Index

running costs, 55 thermal-hydraulic design, 314

variable-speed-motor-driven Feedwater heating
capital costs, 57 bled-steam connections
economics, 57 steam turbine casings, 86
running costs, 57 number of stages, 45
Feed suction pumps coal-fired plant, 46
boiler feed pumps, 412 oil-fired plant, 46
Feedwater regenerative, 242
contamination economics, 45
protection, 255,259,287 Rankine cycle, 21
de-aeration, 49 wet steam cycle, 46
temperature Feedwater heating cycle
advanced gas reactors, 46 CEGB, 33
Feedwater headers Feedwater heating plant
low pressure protection equipment, 260
flow area, 311 Feedwater heating systems, 241-322
tube thicknesses, 310, 311 component design parameters, 250
shells component levels, 253
construction, 310 configuration, 250
Feedwater heaters design, 250-261
all-tubular surface type, 251 direct contact LP heaters, 252
alternative designs functional needs, 250
construction, 304 future developments, 317-322
bled-steam, 115 high pressure, 261-272
bled-steam inlets, 297 parameters, 261
British Standards, 289 high pressure feed system, 320
condensing sections, 299 low pressure, 321
de-aerating, 305-308 low pressure feed systems
de-aerators, 289 tubular surface type HP heaters, 252
designs, 289-290 water content
desuperheating sections, 297,301 maintenance, 253
developments, 53 Ferritic stainless iron
direct contact LP blading
component level diagram, 257 wet steam turbines, 229
drain cooling sections, 299,301 Ffestiniog power station
drains, 270 pumped storage, 433,434
Drax Completion power station, 247 Field current measurement
elevation, 254 excitation systems, 519
final feed temperatures, 28 Field lead wedges
flooding, 51 rotors
flow-induced vibration, 296 generators, 543
Grain power station, 245 Field suppression
Heysham 2 AGR power station, 248 generators, 547
high pressure, 46,51, 289-305 Films
construction, 292 cooling water
horizontal, 299 leakage, 369
thermal design, 297 Filters (see also Cartridge filters; Oil filters; Suction filters)
tube thickness, 292 lubricating oil, 190
vertical, 301 Filtration
Ince B power station, 244 cooling water
Littlebrook D power station, 246 condensers, 372
low pressure, 51, 308-314 hydraulic fluids
bled-steam inlets, 312 governing systems, 151
construction, 309 Final feed temperature
direct contact, 314 feedwater heating systems, 250, 261
dished ends, 314 Fir-tree roots
drain outlets, 312, 314 blades, 69
external drain coolers, 312 Fire pumps, 419
horizontal-attitude arrangement, 283 Fire-resistant fluids
shells, 314 conditioners, 155
surface type, 308 hydraulic fluids
thermal design, 312 governing systems, 149
tube lengths, 311 packaged units, 156
tube support plates, 311 Fire risk
tube supports, 311 hydraulic fluids
low pressure direct contact, 289 governing systems, 149
low pressure tubed, 289 Fireside corrosion
on-load test facilities, 269 boiler tubes
pipework, 273 feedwater de-aeration, 49
pressurised water reactors, 48, 249 Flames
shells, 292 cooling water
thermal efficiency, 22 leakage, 369, 370
tube lengths, 295 Flange bolts
tube supports, 295 tightening, 84
tubeplate-type horizontal high pressure, 52 Flange heating
tubular surface type, 254 steam turbines
component level diagram, 256 flexibility, 222
water-to-water drain coolers Flange heating systems, 204-206

569
Subject Index

control, 205 Fuses

Flanges blown
steam turbine casings, 82 detector system, 515, 516, 519
Flashing drain coolers failure
low pressure feedwater heaters, 308, 312 detection unit, 525
thermal hydraulic design, 314 FV448
Flexibility blading, 72
steam turbines FV507
design, 217 blading, 72
efficiency, 39
Flow Gas-in-water detection
condensers generators, 550
measurement, 374 Gas-in-water detection chambers
generators stator windings
instrumentation, 550 water cooling
measurement Gas turbines
circulating water pumps, 397 combined-cycle plant, 118
turbines Gassing-up
direction, 2 hydrogen cooling systems
Fluid coupling slip turbine generators, 491
feed pumps Gearboxes
variable speed drives, 57 air extraction pumps, 395
Fluorescein circulating water pumps, 398
cooling water feed pumps
leakage, 369 variable speed drives, 57
Flux Generator phasor diagrams, 535
synchronous generators, 452 Generators, 446-562
Flux distribution 20 MW
generators air cooled, 449
on load, 545 660 MW, 448
Foaming Generators {see also Quad-Olympus generators; Synchronous
inhibition generators; Turbine-generators; Wind generators)
lubricating oils, 193 condition monitoring, 550
Foams control, 549-555
cooling water future developments, 560
leakage, 369 DC, 114
Forced-air cooling diagnosis, 555-558
main turbines, 224 efficiency, 536
Forging electrical aspects, 545-549
titanium electrical measurement, 550
blading, 73 electrically unbalanced conditions, 537
Fossil-fired plant electromagnetic aspects, 545-549
by-pass systems, 213 exciter and power systems, 527
Fouling characteristics, 529
biological fixed speed AC, 114
condensers, 370 future developments, 558-559
condensers, 370 induction, 562
Foundations losses, 536
concrete, 177 maintenance, 555-558
flexible, 176 mechanical considerations, 541-545
resonances, 176 monitoring, 549-555
spring, 180 on-load monitoring, 552
steam turbines, 175-181 open-circuit conditions, 533
movement, 175 operation, 532-541
steel, 179 operational measurement, 549-555
stiff, 176 outages
tuning, 176 maintenance, 555
Fourier equation protection, 549-555
heat transfer reassembly, 557
condensers, 347 running up to speed, 532
Fracture appearance transition temperature salient-pole
rotors, 96 diesel engines, 562
Francis turbines, 422,426 shutting down, 541
end thrust, 426 slotless, 558
Freon 12 specifications, 449
air leak detection standards, 449
condensers, 368 steady short-circuit conditions, 535
Frequency response analysis steady state stability, 534
excitation systems, 531 superconducting, 558
Fretting synchronising, 533
rotors temperature, 536
generators, 544 testing, 555-558
Fuels transformers
costs winding faults, 554
turbine-generators, 42 turbine-type
Fuller's earth lower rating, 559
filtration types, 447-450
hydraulic fluids, 154 unbalanced load faults, 554

570
 Subject Index

water turbine driven salient-pole synchronous, 560 Heat balance equation, 347
Gland sealing systems, 200, 201 Heat dissipation
pressure control, 200, 203 atmospheric, 324, 325
steam turbines, 198-204 Heat Exchanger Institute standards
temperature control, 200 steam surface condensers, 345
Gland steam condensers, 204 Heat load
Glands (see also Labyrynth glands) condensers
boiler feed pumps determination, 375
sealing, 408 Heat rate
steam turbines, 198 instrumentation, 174
Governing steam cycle, 22, 23
electronic, 134 steam turbines
high pressure, 128 exhaust pressure, 41
high pressure plus intermediate pressure, 128 test instrumentation, 174
parallel, 128 Heaters (see also Feedwater heaters)
Governing systems, 125-157 de-aerators, 272, 274
digital processing, 140 feedwater
functions, 125 elevation, 253
mechanical high pressure
reliability, 134 feedwater heating systems, 297
steam turbines Heysham 2 AGR power station
overspeed protection, 164 feedheaters, 248
Governor valve relays, 142 Heysham 2 power station
control unit type 1, 145, 146 condensers, 359
control unit type 2, 147, 148 Hogging
control unit type 3, 149 air extraction
Governor valves, 160, 162 condensers, 388
forces, 145 Hood loss
guided flow type, 163 Rankine cycle, 28
high pressure steam turbines, 15
on-load testing, 132 Hot spot corrosion
intermediate pressure condensers, 338, 339
on-load testing, 132 Humidity
mushroom type, 163 hydrogen cooling systems
pressure drop, 8 monitoring, 492
reverse flow, 163 Hydraulic fluid systems
throttling governing systems, 149
flexibility, 222 Hydraulic fluids
Governors (see also Base level governors) contamination
acceleration feedback, 130 governor valve relays, 142
characteristics, 126 Hydraulic pumps
failure air extraction
protection, 164 condensers, 381,383
inter-valve monitoring, 137 Hydraulic tightening
speed reference, 131 flange bolts, 84
speed setpoints, 129 Hydraulic turbines, 422-446
steam turbines axial flow, 422
modular arrangement, 157 impulse, 422
turbines propeller types, 422
feedpumps, 156 radial flow, 422
Grain power station reaction, 422
feedheaters, 245 running speed, 423
Greases (see also Lithium-based greases; Silicone-based specific speed, 422
greases) Hydrogen
types, 194 drying, 496
Greasing systems purity
steam turbines, 196 monitoring, 492
Grit cleaning safety, 497
condensers, 373 temperature
Guide vanes monitoring, 492
Dinorwig power station, 443 Hydrogen cooling
pumped storage, 441 stators
variable windings, 488
tubular turbines, 428 temperature
Gun drilling trips, 554
water headers turbine-generators, 447,491
tubeplates, 263 Hydrogen embrittlement
rotors, 94
Half-speed machines, 229 Hydrogen pressure
Halogen leak detectors generators
air leaks instrumentation, 550
condensers, 367 Hydrogen seals
Hand barring generators
turning gear, 111 lubricating oil, 183
Harmonics lubricating oil, 188
chorded windings, 455 Hysteresis
distributed windings, 455 stator cores, 476
generators, 546

571
Subject Index

Impellers steam turbines, 198

boiler feed pumps, 405 stepped, 199
Ince B power station tip thickness, 199
feedheaters, 244 vernier, 199
Instrumentation Labyrinth seals
auxiliary systems, 174 boiler feed pumps, 409,410
condition monitoring, 174 Lacing wires
efficiency, 173 blades
generators, 549 tip restraint, 67
journal bearings, 105 steam turbines
post-incident records, 175 efficiency, 13
protection and control equipment, 175 Lagging
turbines, 172-175 steam turbine casings, 90
classification, 173 Leading power factor
supervisory, 173 generators, 534
Insulation Leakage flows
generators by-pass systems, 216
maintenance, 557 Leaving losses
monitoring, 553 Rankine cycle, 28
rotor windings, 459 steam turbines, 15
rotors Life expenditure monitors
windings, 548 steam turbines, 224
stator windings, 548 Light-water reactors
deterioration, 549 half-speed machines, 229
Integral condensers, 4 Lithium-based greases
Inter-valve monitoring steam turbines, 194
governors, 137 Littlebrook D power station
Internal efficiency feedheaters, 246
cylinders, 13 Load
Iron oxide application
condensers, 336 generators, 533
Isceon 12 Load angles
air leak detection generators, 534
condensers, 368 Load cycling
Isolating valves steam turbines, 217
by-pass systems, 211 Load rejection controllers
feedwater heating systems, 266, 267 by-pass systems
low pressure feed systems, 285 nuclear plant, 212
Load shedding
Jacking oil pumps, 185 throttling, 8
Jacking oil systems Loading systems
steam turbines, 194,197 governing systems, 132
Joints Logarithmic mean temperature differences
bolted covers condensers, 343
boiler feed pumps, 417 Logging
condensers generators
bellows, 363 instrumentation, 550
flange, 363 Loop pipes, 157-164
horizontal Loop pipework, 160
turbine casings, 81 Low pressure feed systems
horizontal bolting feedwater heating systems, 281-289
wet steam turbines, 229 configuration, 281-289
welded control valves, 283
stator casings, 489 isolating valves, 283
Journal bearings Lubricating oils
construction, 105 acidity, 194
performance, 105 failure
steam turbines, 105 tripping, 165
life, 108 low pressure trips
Journal type seals turbine protection, 170
hydrogen cooling systems purification, 192
turbine generators, 497 regeneration, 195
steam turbines
Kaplan turbines, 422 protection, 164
blades requirements, 196
adjustment, 428 types, 193
Katharometers Lubrication
safety, 492 steam turbines
Kinematic support arrangements, 181
diaphragms, 70 requirements, 181
Lubrication systems
Labyrinth glands steam turbines, 181-198
axial-radial, 199
diameters, 200 Machine levels
flow, 200 instrumentation, 174
plain, 199 Machining
radial clearance, 200 titanium
spring-back, 199 blading, 73

572
 Subject Index

Magnetic amplifers Oil coalescers

excitation systems, 523 lubricating oil, 191
Magnetic circuits static, 193
synchronous generators, 452 Oil coolers
Magnetic pull lubricating oil, 189
generators, 547 Oil filters
Magnetostriction, 545 lubricating oil, 189
Main exciters, 510 Oil-fired plants
protection, 509 feedheating
rotating armature, 512 number of stages, 46
turbine generators, 511 Oil pumps
turbine generators, 508 lubrication
Main inlet valves main, 184,185
Dinorwig power station, 442,443 main bearings, 183
pump-turbines, 439 steam turbines, 184
Maintenance motor-driven auxiliary, 185
steam turbines Oil purifiers
efficiency, 39 lubricating oil, 191
turbine-generators static, 193
costs, 42 Oil sealing
Majority voting circuits, 137 pedestals, 111
Master load controllers Oil strainers
boilers, 129 lubricating oil, 189
steam turbines Oil tanks
boiler pressure control, 129 lubricating oil, 187
Material damping On-load testing
blading governing systems, 132
chromium steels, 72 Operational flexibility
titanium steam turbines, 216-226
blading, 73 Oscillations {see also Power system oscillations)
Maximum continuous rating inter-area, 529
synchronous generators, 452 inter-tie, 529
Mean temperature differences intra-plant modes, 529
condensers local modes, 529
standards, 345 system modes, 529
Mineral fibres Outages
lagging generators
steam turbine casings, 90 maintenance, 555
Mineral oils Output
steam turbines, 194 steam turbines
Mobrey float switches limitations, 8
feedwater heating systems, 269 Overfluxing
Moisture separator reheaters automatic voltage regulators, 527
horizontal Overspeed
wet steam turbines, 235 proof test
wet steam turbines, 230 turbine protection, 170
Mollier diagrams protection
CEGB cycles, 31 steam turbines, 164
Multi-exhausts protection systems
blading, 68 governing systems, 132
Mussels testing
condensers governing systems, 132
control, 373 Overspeed trips
cooling water, 336 governing systems, 125
steam turbines
Network frequency governing systems, 165
power generation turbine protection, 170
governing systems, 125 Oxidation
Neutral earthing inhibition
generators, 540 lubricating oils, 193
Noise Oxidation inhibitors
generators lubricating oils, 193
rotors, 545 Oxygen
pressure control valves feedwater
by-pass systems, 211 corrosion, 49
fossil-fired plant, 216
Non-return valves Pannier condensers, 4
de-aerators steam turbine casings, 79
bled-steam power-assisted, 278 Partial admission
Notch sensitivity steam turbines
blading efficiency, 16
chromium steels, 72 Pedestals
Nuclear plant bearings, 108
by-pass systems, 212 oil sealing, 111
Nuclear steam supply system, 33 steam turbines, 105-112
Pelton turbines, 422,423
Oil booster pumps Phasor diagrams, 452
turbine-driven, 184 Phosphate esters

573
Subject Index

hydraulic fluids Protective devices

governing systems, 149 steam turbines, 164-172
viscosity, 151 Pump-turbines
Pilot exciters Dinorwig power station, 440
protection, 508 testing, 444
turbine generators, 506 Pumped-storage, 431445
section, 507 Pumps {see also Air extraction pumps; Air pumps; Boiler feed
Pinned roots pumps; Caisson extraction pumps; Centrifugal
blades, 69 pumps; Chemical injection pumps; Circulating
Pipework {see also Loop pipework) water pumps; Concrete volute pumps; Condensate
crossover, 163 extraction pumps; Extraction pumps; Feed pumps;;
de-aerators, 279 Feed suction pumps; Fire pumps; Hydraulic pumps;
feedwater heaters, 273 Jacking oil pumps; Oil booster pumps; Oil pumps;
feedwater heating systems, 271 Priming pumps; Rotary pumps); 323421
governing systems condensers, 378-390
stainless steel, 154 historical development, 329-333
low pressure feedwater heating systems, 288 layout, 329-333
reheaters screw-type
pressure loss, 27 governing systems, 150
Piping submersible
lubricating oil, 188 construction, 420
Piston rings
steam turbine casings, 85 Quad-Olympus generators, 561
Pistoye slots
stators, 476,478 Radial support pads
Pitch factor, 456 diaphragms, 70
Plant operation Rankine cycle, 17
turbine-generators final feed temperatures, 28
costs, 42 superheat, 19
Plant trip controllers Reactances
by-pass systems generators
nuclear plant, 213 calculation, 546
Pole face wedges control, 546
generators, 543 Rectifier equipment
Post-incident records static diodes
instrumentation, 175 excitation equipment, 521
Power generation Rectifiers {see also Rotating rectifiers; Static rectifiers;
mechanical drive Thyristor rectifiers)
steam turbines, 114 excitation systems, 516,517
network frequency protection, 521
governing systems, 125 static thyristors
steam turbines, 112 excitation systems, 521
Power system oscillations, 527 Reheat
Power system stabilisers, 527 Carnot cycle, 30
operation, 529 conditions
Pressure steam cycle, 26
condensers double
acceptance tests, 374 Rankine cycle, 30
generators first-stage
instrumentation, 550 wet steam turbines, 237
Pressure cascading second-stage
feedheating, 46 wet steam turbines, 238
Pressure control Reheat cycle, 20, 26
boilers, 129 CEGB, 33
Pressure control valves Reheaters
by-pass systems, 211 drains
nuclear plant, 212 wet steam turbines, 239
spraywater economics, 59
fossil-fired plant, 215 governing valves, 128
Pressurised water reactors pipework
feed pumpsets, 416 pressure loss, 27
feed systems pressure loss, 27
cycle details, 242 relief valves, 149
feedheaters, 249 steam supply
feedwater heaters, 48 wet steam turbines, 237
steam cycles, 33 steam-to-steam
turbine-generators, 40 performance monitoring, 239
wet steam cycle, 46 wet steam turbines, 233
wet steam plant, 62 valves
Priming pumps pressure loss, 27
lubrication, 185 vertical
Profile loss wet steam turbines, 233
blades Reheating
efficiency, 12 steam turbines
Protection efficiency, 114
condensers, 366 Reheating plant
Protection and control equipment double-stage, 37
instrumentation, 175 single-stage, 37

574
 Subject Index

Relay fluids shafts, 456

category B trips, 167 shrink-on, 91
Release valves sizes, 472
reheaters, 149 steam turbines, 90-105
Reliability flexibility, 223
governing systems voltages, 547
definition, 134 teeth
steam turbines tensile stress, 542
efficiency, 39 testing, 96,456
Relief valves thermal stability, 96
reheaters, 149 threading, 470
Residual magnetism torque
shafts generators, 542
generators, 547 turbine-generators, 456
Resistance elements vibration, 470
temperature measurement weight, 472
generators, 549 welded disc, 91
Resonances windings, 459,463
foundations, 176 coils, 459
Reversible pump-turbines, 433 earth fault indication, 553
Rigidity slip-stick, 544
foundations, 176 temperature measurement, 466
Rim generator turbines, 432 voltage, 548
design, 431 Routine operational tests
Root locus condensers, 373
excitation systems, 531 Run-up
Rotary pumps automatic
air extraction governing systems, 132
condensers, 381 steam turbines
Rotating amplifers governing systems, 125
exciters Runaway speed
turbine-generators, 504 hydraulic turbines, 423
Rotating diodes Runner blades
excitation systems tubular turbines, 428
monitoring, 519 Rust inhibitors
Rotating phasors lubricating oils, 193
synchronous generators, 452
Rotating rectifiers Safety
excitation hydrogen cooling, 497
turbine-generators, 513 Scale
excitation systems condensers, 370
protection, 519 cleaning, 372
Rotors Scavenging
alignment, 103,470 hydrogen cooling systems
axial position turbine-generators, 491
instrumentation, 173 Screening plant
balancing, 96 cooling water, 324
body, 456 Screens
brushless stators, 482
connections, 469 Seal oil pressure
built-up, 91 generators
construction, 90 instrumentation, 550
cooling, 93 Seal oil systems
critical speeds, 97 hydrogen cooling systems
current limiters, 526 turbine-generators, 497
drum type, 91 Seals (see also Labyrynth seals)
end rings, 460 mechanical
fans, 465 boiler feed pumps, 411
fast fracture rotors, 472
risk assessment, 98 steam turbines, 198
generators Seasons
maintenance, 556 cooling water
residual magnetism, 547 temperature, 44
high pressure Secondary loss
materials, 94 blades
stress control, 129 efficiency, 12
high temperature operation, 92 Self-shifting synchronous clutches
integral, 90 turning gear
intermediate pressure steam turbines
materials, 94 Semiconductors
low pressure static rectifiers
materials, 94 excitation equipment, 520
main exciters, 508 Separators (see also Cyclone separators)
materials, 93,456 chevron
monobloc, 90 wet steam turbines, 232
non-destructive examination, 95 corrugated-plate
overspeed testing, 96 wet steam turbines, 232
reassembly, 557 drains

575
Subject Index

wet steam turbines, 239 governors, 129

wet steam turbines, 230 overwound, 128
wire mesh Spheroidal graphite iron
wet steam turbines, 231 bearing pedestals, 108
Service water pumps, 417-418 Split phase protection, 554
Servo-valves Sprayers
control unit type 1,145 de-aerating feedheaters, 307
electrohydraulic Spraywater
electronic governing, 142 condensate extraction pumps, 61, 206
Shaft end glands distribution systems
live steam, 226 de-aerating feedwater heaters
Shaft seals nozzles, 208
air extraction pumps, 395 pumps, 206
hydrogen cooling systems Spraywater control valves
turbine generators, 497 by-pass systems
Shafts nuclear plant, 213
boiler feed pumps, 405 Stabiliser signals
circulating water pumps choice, 529
materials, 399 Stage efficiency
current insulation steam turbines, 13
instrumentation, 553 Standard nuclear unit power plant system, 46
eccentricity Standards {see also Heat Exchanger Institute standards)
instrumentation, 173 feedheaters, 289
length Standstill seals
couplings, 100 boiler feed pumps, 410
rotors Start-up
earthing, 465,469 by-pass systems, 61-63
monitoring, 469 once-through boilers, 62
speed State variable analysis
instrumentation, 173 excitation systems, 531
vibration Static diodes
instrumentation, 174 rectifier equipment
voltage excitation equipment, 521
generators, 547 Static rectifiers
Short-circuit ratio excitation equipment, 520
generators, 535 excitation systems, 521
Short-pitching Static thyristors
harmonics, 456 rectifiers
Shutting down excitation systems, 521
generators, 541 Stator cores
Silicone-based greases cooling, 508
steam turbines, 194 Stator leakage reactance
Sinusoidal grit blasting generators, 546
condensers Stator slots, 484
cleaning, 373 Stator winding conductors, 475
Slip-stick Stator windings
rotors water pressure
windings, 544 generators, 550
Slipring induction motor Stators
feed pumps casings, 489
variable-speed drives, 55 maintenance, 557
Sliprings conductors
generators eddy currents, 482
maintenance, 555 core frame bars
instrument insulation, 480
excitation systems, 519, 520 cores, 473
rotors, 465 flux, 477
brushes, 468 maintenance, 557
brushgear, 468 electrical connections, 485
connections, 467 end windings
Slot wedges maintenance, 557
rotors insulation
generators, 542 deterioration, 549
Smoke Pistoye slots, 478
cooling water slot wedges
leakage, 369,370 maintenance, 557
Specific speed terminal bushings, 485
hydraulic turbines terminals, 485
cavitation, 425 turbine-generators, 473-491
Speed ventilation, 479
sensing winding
governors, 138 water analysis, 553
proximate transducers, 139 windings, 477
Speed reference controllers 660 MW, 486
automatic voltage regulators, 527 cooling, 485
Speed of rotation earth faults, 554
steam turbines, 4 generators, 546
Speed setpoints insulation, 548

576
 Subject Index

main exciters, 508 closed-loop control, 131

water cooling systems, 488, 500, 501 exhaust area
Steady short-circuit conditions economics, 44
generators, 535 exhaust pressure
Steady state stability economics, 40
generators, 534 exhausts, 4
Steam extraction, 116
critical pressure, 31 feed pumps
ingress back-pressure boilers, 115
steam turbines, 255 condensing-type, 116
strainers, 158 variable-speed drives, 55
supply flow
wet steam turbines, 237 direction, 2
wet foundations, 175-181
turbines, 226 full-speed
Steam chest valves, 158 efficiency, 38
mating faces, 158 governing systems
spindles, 158 overspeed protection, 164
Steam chests, 157-164 half-speed
construction, 157 economics, 40
materials, 158 efficiency, 38
Steam cycle heat rate
economics, 40-64 exhaust pressure, 41
efficiency, 22 impulse-type, 8
pressurised water reactors, 33 maintenance
terminal conditions, 25 efficiency, 39
thermodynamics, 16-40 master load controllers
Steam ejector/pump systems boiler pressure control
condensers, 385 multi-cylinder, 5
Steam header controllers operational flexibility
by-pass systems efficiency, 39
nuclear plant, 213 output, 8-16
Steam inlets pass-out, 116
steam turbine casings, 85 power generation, 112
Steam-jet air ejectors protective devices, 164-172
condensers, 381 radial-flow, 2, 3
Steam pressure reaction-type, 9
blade length, 29 relative thermal efficiencies, 39
instrumentation reliability
efficiency, 174 efficiency, 39
steam turbines, 122 reversed-flow, 3
Steam temperature rotors, 90-105
blade length, 29 single-flow, 3
Steam temperatures size
instrumentation efficiency, 38
efficiency, 174 speed of rotation, 4
Steam turbines, 1-123 stage efficiency, 13
applications, 112-120 steam ingress
axial-flow, 2, 3 protection, 255
backpressure, 116 tandem-compound, 4,6
blading thermodynamic optimisation
developments, 123 exhaust pressure, 40
low pressure, 10 types, 2-8
boiler feed pumps variable-speed, 7
cycle diagram, 47 water ingress
by-pass systems, 59 protection, 255
capital costs weight
economic optimisation, 42 efficiency, 38
casings, 76-90 Steam valve relays
horizontal joints, 81 pumping systems, 149
combined-cycle plant, 119 Steam valves, 157-164
condensers closing time
joints, 365 governor valve relays, 142
condition lines, 13 electronic governing, 134
construction governing systems, 125
efficiency, 38 governor valve relays, 142
cooling, 224 grease points, 198
critical speed bands linearisation characteristics, 140
governing systems, 133 positions
cross-compound, 4,6 instrumentation, 173
cylinders, 4 pressure drop, 8
flexibility, 222 relays, 126
design tripping, 165
efficiency, 9 Steel (see also Austenitic steels; Chromium alloy steels;
steam cycles, 33 Chromium molybdenum vanadium steel;
double flow, 3 Chromium steels; Super 12% Cr steels)
efficiency, 8-16 foundations, 179
electrical loads grain-oriented sheet

577
Subject Index

stators, 475 Synchronous reactance

Stiffnesses generators, 536, 546
rotors Synchronous torque, 527
vibration, 471 System drains
Stop valve pressure wet steam turbines, 239
standardisation, 242
Stop valve relays Telemetry
emergency, 145 excitation systems, 516, 518
Stop valve temperature Temperature differentials
standardisation, 242 steam turbines
Stop valves protection, 164
control unit type 1, 145 Temperature-entropy diagrams
emergency, 161 Rankine cycle, 18
high pressure Temperature measurements
on-load testing, 132 instrumentation, 173
intermediate pressure Temperature terminal differences
on-load testing, 132 feedwater heating systems, 261
on-load testing, 160 Temperatures
tripping, 165 condensers
Stork de-aerators measurement, 374
feedheaters, 307 generators
Straflo turbines, 431,432 instrumentation, 549
Strain gauges Terminals
alignment generators, 487
rotors, 104 Thermal cycling
Stress steam turbines, 217
centrifugal force Thermal fatigue
generators, 542 rotors, 92
monitors Thermal shocks
flexibility, 224 by-pass systems, 216
Stress corrosion cracking Thermal skirts
condensers, 339, 340 steam turbine casings, 85
Stresses Thermal stresses
rotors steam turbines
generators, 544 two-shifting, 222
Subsoils Thermal tightening
elasticity, 176 flange bolts, 84
Suction filters Thermocouples
boiler feed pumps, 280 generators, 549
Suction specific speed Thermodynamics
air extractor pumps, 393 steam cycle, 16-40
Super 12% Cr steels Thermometers
blading, 72 generators, 549
Superconductivity Throttling
generators, 558 load shedding, 8
Supercritical plant Thrust bearings
steam turbines, 122 boiler feed pumps, 408
Superheat failure
Rankine cycle, 19 protection, 164
Superheat cycles, 29 steam turbines, 108
feedheating, 45 tilting-pad, 109
Superheaters wear
economics, 59 instrumentation, 173
Support plates Thrust pads
condensers, 365 wear
Surface current paths measurement, 110
generators, 537 Thrust type seals
Surge pads hydrogen cooling systems
thrust bearings, 108 turbine generators, 497
Swallowing capacity Thyristor converters
steam turbines protection, 525
output, 8 Thyristor output amplifiers
Synchronisation excitation systems
generators, 533 voltage regulation, 523
governors Thyristor rectifiers
speed reference, 131 excitation systems, 521
steam turbines Thyristors
governing systems, 125 cooling, 522
Synchronous compensation Tightening
generators, 536 hydraulic
Synchronous generators flange bolts, 84
frequency, 451 thermal
load, 451 flange bolts, 84
pole-pairs, 451 Tip leakage
power factor, 451 blades
rating, 451 efficiency, 12
speed, 451 Titanium
theory, 450-456 blading, 72

578
 Subject Index

condenser tubing, 379 condensers, 327

condensers, 340,342 Turbine-generators, 447
economics, 45 capital costs, 41
Torque components, 456-473
generators, 454 fuel costs, 41
Torque-speed loop diagrams, 528 historical background, 447
Tracer gas detectors lifetime costs, 41
air leaks maintenance
condensers, 367 costs, 41
cooling water operating costs, 41
leakage, 369,370 pressurised water reactor, 40
Transducers stators, 473-491
on-load testing, 170 Turbine moisture extraction condensers, 309
trip-initiating Turbine plant systems, 124240
turbine protection, 167 Turbine supervisory equipment
Transient reactance steam turbines
generators, 538 run-up, 133
Transient stability Turbine valves
excitation systems, 530 governors, 128
Transient stability analysis Turbines {see also Back-pressure turbines; Bauman exhaust
excitation systems, 531 turbines; Francis turbines; Gas turbines; Hydraulic
Transistor amplifiers turbines; Kaplan turbines; Pump turbines;
excitation systems Reversible pump-turbines; Rim generator turbines;
voltage regulation, 523 Steam turbines; Straflo turbines; Tubular turbines)
Tripping {see also Electrical tripping) governors
governor valve relays, 145 feedpumps, 156
operator facilities high pressure
turbine protection, 171 wet steam, 226
Trips {see also Category A trips; Category B trips; Overspeed instrumentation, 172-175
trips) wet steam, 226-240
mechanically operated Turning gear
turbine protection, 170 electrial
Tube bundles steam turbines, 111
feedwater heaters jacking oil pumps, 186
flow, 293 steam turbines, 105-112
high pressure feedwater heaters, 292 Two-shift regime
low pressure feedwater heaters, 310 steam turbines, 216
Tube support plates Two-shifting
feedwater heaters, 295 steam turbines, 217
Tube turbines, 430
Tubenests Ultrasonics
condensers, 362 cooling water
arrangement, 352 leakage, 369, 370
future developments, 377 Unbalanced phase conditions
high pressure drop, 352 generators, 538
high pressure drop before, 352 Underslung condensers, 4
steam flow approach patterns, 352 Unit ratings
thermal performance, 350 steam turbines
geometry future prospects, 120
condenser design evaluation, 350 Unit sizes
Tubeplates steam turbines
condenser shells future prospects, 120
joints, 363 Unloading gear, 130
condensers, 362 exhaust pressure, 130
manufacture, 362 Upper control level
thermal performance, 350 governors, 141
tube joints, 363
water headers Vacuum degassing
thickness, 263 rotors
Tubes materials, 94
condensers Valve actuators
cleanliness, 375 boiler feed pumps
fireside corrosion light load protection, 414
feedwater de-aeration, 49 Valve servo amplifiers, 137
waterside corrosion Valves {see also Butterfly valves; By-pass valves; Control
feedwater de-aeration, 49 valves; Draft tube valves; Drain valves; Emergency
Tubing trip valves; Governor valves; Isolating valves; Main
condensers inlet valves; Non-return valves; Pressure control
advanced geometry, 377 valves; Release valves; Relief valves; Servo valves;
roped, 377 Spraywater control valves; Steam chest valves;
thermal performance, 377 Steam valves; Stop valves; Turbine valves)
titanium, 379 governing systems
Tubular turbines, 428 on-load testing, 132
bulb, 428 low pressure feedwater heating systems, 288
Tuning pump-turbines, 439
foundations, 176 reheaters
Turbine exhaust pressures pressure loss, 27
assessment, 328 spurious opening, 135

579
Subject Index

Ventilation dished end thicknesses, 311

stators, 479 shell thicknesses, 311
Vibration wall thicknesses, 311
blades Water heaters
control, 73, 75 drum-type
sources, 73 feedwater heating systems, 304
emergency stop Water pressure
turbine protection, 172 instrumentation
flow-induced efficiency, 174
feedwater heaters, 296 Water temperatures
generators instrumentation
instrumentation, 550 efficiency, 174
journal bearings, 107 Water treatment
protection, 164 feedwater heating systems, 315-317
rotors, 470 Water washing
alignment, 103 condensers
balancing, 97 cleaning, 373
shafts Waterboxes
instrumentation, 174 low pressure feedwater heaters
steam turbines openings, compensations, 311
run-up, 133 transverse underslung condensers, 362
Viscosity index improvers Waterside corrosion
lubricating oils, 194 boiler tubes
Voltage measurement feedwater de-aeration, 49
excitation systems, 515 Watersprays
Voltage regulators {see also Automatic voltage regulators) casings
excitation systems, 523 steam turbines, 81
Voltages Wedges
excitation systems, 517 rotors, 464
Welding
Water blading
blading chromium steels, 72
protection, 164 Wet steam cycle, 33
demineralised feedheating, 46
stator winding cooling systems, 500 Wet steam plant
ingress by-pass systems, 64
by-pass systems, 216 pressurised water reactors, 62
steam turbines, 255 Wetness loss
turbine lubricating oils, 194 steam turbines, 16
stator winding cooling, 485 efficiency, 13
steam turbines, 165 Wheel chamber tests
Water-cooled reactors blades
steam turbines vibration, 74
sizes, 122 Willans line
Water cooling 660 MW unit, 24
generators, 558 Wind generators, 562
stators Windings
windings, 500,501 rotors, 459,463
Water cooling systems earth fault indication, 553
stator windings main exciters, 508
turbine generators, 505 slip-stick, 544
Water extraction temperature measurement, 466
steam voltage, 548
turbines, 229 stators, 477
Water headers 660 MW, 486
conventional hemispherical cooling, 485
manufacture, 262 earth faults, 554
feedwater heaters generators, 546
branch thickness, 294 insulation, 548
dished end thickness, 294 main exciters, 508
openings, thickness compensation, 294 water analysis, 553
shell thickness, 294 water cooling systems, 488, 500,501
wall thickness, 294 three-phase, 454
high pressure feedwater heaters, 292
low pressure feedwater heaters, 310 Zigzag spool rods
branch thicknesses, 311 blades, 68

580