LAB LAYOUT

LAYOUT KEY

1. Standard Test Jar Apparatus

2. Vacuum Oven
3. Ambient COx Monitor
4. Ambient SOx Monitor
5. Ambient NOx Monitor
6. Water Tank
7. Reverse Osmosis Apparatus
8. Chemicals in flasks and bottles
9. Flue Gas Analyzer
10. COD Meter
11. Dissolved O2 Meter
12. Turbidity Meter
13. Sound Meter
14. BOD Meter
15. Digital Bomb Calorimeter
16. UV Spectrophotometer
17. FTIR
18. Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
19. Organic Elemental Analyzer
20. Centurion Scientific
21. Heat Transfer Experiment Rig
 DETAILS OF EQUIPMENT
Standard Test Jar Apparatus
It is used to remove the turbidity in the given sample. Turbidity appears due to the presence of
suspended material in the sample. Light falling on the sample is scattered due to this matter and
because of this scattering, cloudiness appears. This cloudiness is referred to as turbidity. The
equipment is provided with the turbidity meter that measures the initial and final turbidity of the
samples before and after adding the required dosage of flocculent and coagulant. There is control
console with the provision of setting the desired RPM and time.

Chemical Oxygen Demand Equipment

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) equipment is used to find the COD of the different samples. COD is
the water quality parameter. COD value indicates the amount of oxygen that is required for the
chemical oxidation of organic matter present in the sample and indirectly the amount of organic
matter. Apparatus consist of a distillation flask, a reflux condenser for entrapping the volatile
materials, cylinders for measuring volumes and chemicals.

Dissolved Oxygen Meter

Dissolved oxygen (D.O) meter is used to find the amount of dissolved oxygen in the given sample of
water. D.O is the molecular or the gaseous oxygen present in water. It is required for the survival of
living beings. D.O concentration is very important to check whether the given water sample is perfect
for the given use or not. E.g for living species under water, the water becomes dangerous for their
lives, if D.O super-saturation is above 140%. The meter can be calibrated to give the desired readings
for the pressure in mmHg, absolute pressure in hPa, %oxygen saturation and oxygen concentration
in mg/l.

Reverse Osmosis Equipment

Reverse osmosis equipment is used for the treatment of water. It can reduce the organics, inorganics,
bacteria and particles found in contaminated drinking water to tolerable levels at lower energy costs.
Reverse (R.O) offers significant advantages. It can accomplish the removal of contaminates to the
desired degree of purity. R.O process is the reverse of osmosis that involves the selective movement
of water from one side of the membrane to the other. A specific amount of pressure is necessary to
separate the contaminants and this depends on the nature of impurities present. R.O equipment is
provided with the sediment filter, activated carbon, water softener, R.O membrane, and mercury
vapor lamp and conductivity meter

Biochemical Oxygen Demand Apparatus

Biochemical oxygen demand apparatus is used to determine the amount of oxygen required for the
biological oxidation of organic matter present in the sample. Biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D) is
the water quality parameter. B.O.D value indicates the amount of oxygen required for oxidation and
indirectly the amount of organic matter present.
NOx Measuring Unit
It measures the concentration of NOx present in the given air sample. It works on the principle of
chemilluminescence. There is a screen that displays the continuous readings for the concentration of
NO, NO2 and NOx.

SOx Measuring Unit

It measures the concentration of SOx in the air. It works on the principle of fluorescence. There is a
screen that displays the continuous readings for the concentration of SO2 and H2S.

COx Measuring Unit

It measures the concentration of COx in the air. Non-dispersive photometers are used to determine
the CO gas. In this the characteristic frequencies absorbed by CO are made use of in the
determination. There are thermal detectors that sense the temperature difference due to the
difference in the concentration of CO in sample and the reference gas

Sound Level Meter

This meter is used to determine the sound intensity at different places. There is a condenser type
microphone that is kept at a distance of 1m. A transducer is used to convert the sound energy into
the electrical signals and is displayed on the meter in the form of sound or noise intensity.
 STANDARD TEST JAR APPARATUS
OBJECTIVE
To find the optimum dosage of flocculants for the removal of the turbidity in canal water using
standard test jar apparatus.

TURBIDITY
Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that
are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key
test of water quality.

Fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. While some
suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the
container if a liquid sample is left to stand (the settable solids), very small particles will settle only
very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. These small
solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid.

Turbid water will appear cloudy, murky, or otherwise colored, affecting the physical look of the water.
Suspended solids and dissolved colored material reduce water clarity by creating an opaque, hazy or
muddy appearance. Turbidity measurements are often used as an indicator of water quality based on
clarity and estimated total suspended solids in water.

The turbidity of water is based on the amount of light scattered by particles in the water column. The
more particles that are present, the more light that will be scattered. As such, turbidity and total
suspended solids are related. However, turbidity is not a direct measurement of the total suspended
materials in water. Instead, as a measure of relative clarity, turbidity is often used to indicate changes
in the total suspended solids concentration in water without providing an exact measurement of
solids.

CAUSES OF TURBIDITY
Turbidity can come from suspended sediment such as silt or clay, inorganic materials, or organic
matter such as algae, plankton and decaying material. In addition to these suspended solids, turbidity
can also include colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), fluorescent dissolved organic matter
(FDOM) and other dyes 14. CDOM is also known as humic stain. Humic stain refers to the tea color
produced from decaying plants and leaves underwater due to the release of tannins and other
molecules.

Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton. Human activities that disturb
land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels entering water
bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. Areas prone to high bank erosion rates as well
as urbanized areas also contribute large amounts of turbidity to nearby waters, through storm
water pollution from paved surfaces such as roads, bridges and parking lots. Certain industries such
as quarrying, mining and coal recovery can generate very high levels of turbidity from colloidal rock
particles.

PROS & CONS

In drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may
develop gastrointestinal diseases. This is especially problematic for immunocompromised people,
because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended solids. The
suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the particles act as shields
for the virus and bacteria. Similarly, suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet (UV)
sterilization of water.

In water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, high turbidity levels can reduce the amount of
light reaching lower depths, which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and consequently
affect species which are dependent on them, such as fish and shellfish. High turbidity levels can also
affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. This phenomenon has been regularly
observed throughout the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern United States.

For many mangrove areas, high turbidity is needed to support certain species, such as to protect
juvenile fish from predators. For most mangroves along the eastern coast of Australia, in
particular Moreton Bay, turbidity levels as high as 600 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) are
needed for proper ecosystem health.
TURBIDITY VS SUSPENDED SOLIDS WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE?
Turbidity and total suspended solids refer to particles present in the water column. Turbidity and
water clarity are both visual properties of water based on light scattering and attenuation. All three
parameters are related to particles in the water column, whether directly or indirectly.

While turbidity and total suspended solids often overlap, there are a few outlying factors that only contribute to one or the
other.

Turbidity is determined by the amount of light scattered off of these particles. While this
measurement can then be used to estimate the total dissolved solids concentration, it will not be
exact. Turbidity does not include any settled solids or bedload. In addition, turbidity measurements
may be affected by colored dissolved organic matter. While this dissolved matter is not included in
TSS measurements, it can cause artificially low turbidity readings as it absorbs light instead of
scattering it.
Total suspended solids, on the other hand, are a total quantity measurement of solid material per
volume of water. This means that TSS is a specific measurement of all suspended solids, organic and
inorganic, by mass. TSS includes settleable solids, and is the direct measurement of the total solids
present in a water body. As such, TSS can be used to calculate sedimentation rates, while turbidity
cannot.
Water clarity is strictly relative to sunlight penetration. While this is usually determined by the
amount of suspended solids in water, it can also be affected by CDOM and other dissolved solids.
Water clarity is the most subjective measurement of these three parameters, as it is usually
determined by human observation.

Units of Measurement for Turbidity Sensors

[nm = nanometers]

Wavelength of Light Source

White or broadband: Infrared, monochromatic:
peak spectral output of typical output in 780-900
Detector Geometry 400-680 nm nm range

Single Illumination Beam Light Source

90 degrees to incident beam; single Nephelometric Turbidity Formazin Nephelometric

detector Unit (NTU) Unit (FNU)

90 degrees and other angles; multiple

detectors; instrument algorithms use Nephelometric Turbidity Formazin Nephelometric
combination of detector readings and Ratio Unit (NTRU) Ratio Unit (FNRU)
ratio techniques

3015 degrees to incident beam Formazin Backscatter Unit

Backscatter Unit (BU)
(backscatter) (FBU)

3015 degrees and other angles; multiple

detectors; instrument algorithms use Backscatter Ratio Unit Formazin Backscatter Ratio
combination of detector readings and (BRU) Unit (FBRU)
ratio techniques

180 degrees to incident beam Formazin Attenuation Unit

Attenuation Unit (AU)
(attenuation) (FAU)
TYPICAL LEVELS
In most situations, a total suspended solids concentration below 20 mg/L appears clear, while levels
over 40 mg/L may begin to appear cloudy. In comparison, a turbidity reading below 5 NTU appears
clear, while a reading of 55 NTU will start to look cloudy and a reading over 500 NTU will appear
completely opaque.

It is important to note that this is dependent on the size and nature of the suspended solids. Typical
turbidity and TSS levels are difficult to quantify due to their natural variation by season, local geology,
and water flow and weather events. During a low-flow period, most rivers and lakes are fairly clear
with a turbidity reading below 10 NTU. These readings can easily jump into the hundreds due to
runoff during a rainstorm, snowmelt or a dredging project.
Many countries and organizations have established recommended turbidity levels from a baseline of
prior measurements. In the case of drinking water, recommended levels are based on several
filtration and disinfection studies. The Ireland EPA advises treatment plants to have turbidity levels
below 0.2 NTU, with a mandatory maximum of 1 NTU for drinking water. According to the World
Health Organization, water for human consumption should have turbidity levels below 1 NTU,
though for some regions, up to 5 NTU is allowed if it can be proven to be disinfected. The American
Water Works Association suggests that a level of 5 NTU or lower is acceptable for recreation purposes.
As a state example, the North Carolina code allows up to 10 NTU for trout waters, 25 NTU for non-
trout streams and as high as 50 NTU for non-trout lakes.
Other states have determined allowable fluctuations from an established baseline. The state of
Washington does not have a standard for TSS, but it does for turbidity, depending on the body of
water. In some streams, turbidity cannot increase by more than 5 NTU from the baseline. For others,
turbidity may be allowed to fluctuate by up to 20%.
METHODS TO REMOVE TURBIDITY
Though a list of methods to remove the turbidity can be found in literature but a few simplest
methods are listed below:

Cloth Filtration
Sand Filtration
Settling and Decanting
Moringa Flocculation
Raket Flocculation
Alum Flocculation

TURBIDITY METER WORKING PRINCIPLE

It works on the principle of light scattering. If light is passed through a cell containing suspended
particles, radiation can be observed in all angles. Thus light is scattered in all direction when it is
allowed to pass through a transparent medium containing particulates is known as scattering. The
incident light Po impinges upon the sample, resulting in a transmitted intensity Pt and a scattered
intensity Ps. The amount of scattering depends upon the number of particles in the suspension, the
size of the particles and the path length. The variation of scattering [log Po/Pt] with concentration c
and path length b can be expressed as:
 log [Po/Pt] = kbc

Where k is known as turbidity constant and depends upon size and shape of the particles. The
relation between scattered radiations Ps and concentration c can be expressed as:

Ps/Po = kbc

Block diagram of s scattering photometer. The position of the detector (a) Measure the transmitted radiation. The
orientation of detector (b) allows the measurement of the scattered radiation.

Where k is a constant which depends upon the system. Two types of measurements can be made by
using a simple scattering photometer as shown in figure. First the amount of the light passed through
the solution [Po/Pt] can be observed. This measurement is known as turbidimetry. Nephelometry
applies to the measurement where the amount of the scattered radiation, which is measured at an
angle (usually at 90o), is monitored [P90/Po]. It should be noted that as the transmitted radiations
decreases, the scattered radiations increases. In line measurement is called turbidimetry and
measurement at an angle, usually at 90o, is called nephelometry.

STANDARD TEST JAR APPARATUS

Flocculation Testers (also known as Jar Testers) are designed for a range of applications - such as
testing the efficiency of flocculation or precipitation agents.

Features
Continuously variable stirring speed (lab versions only)
Digital display of stirring RPM
Timer function
Illuminated back panel for glare-free observation
Height adjustment option for the stirring blades during operation

Coagulation and flocculation are used to separate the suspended solids portion from the water. This
process occurs in the successive steps, allowing particles collision and growth of floc. This is then
followed by sedimentation.
Coagulant chemicals with charges opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to
neutralize the negative charges on non-settable solids (such as clay and color producing organic
substances). Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking
together. These slightly large particles are called microflocs and are not visible to naked eye. A high
energy, rapid mix to properly disperse coagulant and promote particle collision is needed to achieve
good coagulation.
Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from submicroscopic microfloc to
visible large suspended particles. Microfloc particles collide, causing them to bond to produce larger,
visible flocs called pinflocs. Folc size continues to build with additional collisions and Macroflocs are
formed. Once floc has reached its optimum size and strength, water is ready for sedimentation.

Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation

APPARATUS
Standard test jar apparatus
pH meter
Turbidity Meter

CHEMICALS
Alum potash as coagulant
Magna 616 as flocculent

PROCEDURE
1. Solution preparation
- Dissolve 1 gram alum in 100 ml of distilled water
- Dissolve 1 gram flocculants in 1000 ml of distilled water
2. Measure the turbidity and pH of the sample.
3. Take 50 ml of canal water in each beaker and put 0.5 ml of alum solution in each beaker (the
concentration of alum in each beaker would be 10ppm)
4. Place the beaker at jar apparatus and run the apparatus at 100 rpm for 10 minutes.
5. Add 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 ml flocculants solution in each beaker respectively.
6. Strive the solution in the apparatus at 100 rpm for 5 minutes and then at 20 rpm for 30
minutes.
7. Remove the beakers from the apparatus and place them at the balanced place for 15 minutes
to give them a suitable settling time to lumps of particles.
8. Measure the final turbidity of the canal water and plot a graph of final turbidity vs. amount of
flocculent used.

CALCULATIONS

Sample Initial turbidity Final turbidity Flocculent used ( mL )

1 1235 1010 0.1
2 1319 1009 0.2
3 1173 1008 0.3
4 1224 1008 0.4
5 1190 1008 0.5
GRAPHS

1010.5

1010
Final turbidity (FTU )

1009.5

1009

1008.5

1008

1007.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Flocculent amount ( mL )

RESULT
From the results it is evident that 0.4 mL is the optimum dosage because it results in the maximum
decrease in turbidity.

EXPERIMENTAL PRECAUTIONS
Make sure agitators are not touching the base of the beakers.
Stir the initial sample properly to ensure uniform mixing.
Remember to measure the initial turbidity of each sample in each beaker.
Use slightly higher rpm than that recommended to compensate for friction in the mechanical
parts.
 AMBIENT SOx, NOx, & COx MONITORS
AIR EMISSIONS AIR POLLUTION

Emitted Sulphur Oxides (SOx), Nitrogen Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

substances Oxides (NOx), Particulate Matter

Origin of Combustion processes, either in CO2 - Result from combustion

Emissions Internal Combustion engines on- processes where oxidation of carbon
board, boilers, incinerators, gas occurs. Carbon dioxide and water is the
turbines. results of complete combustion of fossil
fuels where carbon molecules undergo
SOx emitted when fuels an oxidation process.
containing sulphur are consumed.
Carbon Monoxide (CO), a toxic
NOx Result of endothermic poisonous gas, is the result of
reaction between Nitrogen and incomplete combustion processes
Oxygen during combustion where full oxidation of carbon
processes, at high temperatures. molecules did not occur.

PM - Sum of all solid and liquid

particles suspended in air many of
which are hazardous.

Combustion of fossil fuels such as

coal, oil, and petrol can produce:

coarse particles from the release

of non-combustible materials such
as fly ash

fine particles from the

condensation of materials vaporized
during combustion

Secondary particles through the

atmospheric reactions of sulphur
oxides and nitrogen oxides initially
released as gases.

Environmental SOx - Local/regional impact. SO2 CO2 increase of anthropogenic CO2 to

Impact contributes to acid deposition
which, in turn, affects the quality of
soils and water. SOx are known as
precursors for Particulate Matter
formation.
the atmosphere with consequential
contribution to Greenhouse Gas effect
and Global Warming.
Climate Change, amongst other direct
effects of global temperature increase.
 NOx reacts with ammonia to form
nitric acid vapor and related
particles that can penetrate deeply
into sensitive lung tissue and
damage it, causing premature death
in extreme cases.

STANDARDS
The US National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are standards established by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency under authority of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.)
that apply for outdoor air throughout the country. Primary standards are designed to protect human
health, with an adequate margin of safety, including sensitive populations such as children, the
elderly, and individuals suffering from respiratory diseases. Secondary standards are designed to
protect public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects of a pollutant.
LATEST DETECTION METHODS

EQUIPMENT WORKING PRINCIPLES

NOx MONITOR
When ozone (O3) is added to the sample gas containing nitrogen oxide (NOx), a part of nitrogen
monoxide (NO) in the sample gas is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO2). And some of the generated
NO2 is in the excited state (NO2*), and emits light in the de-excitation state. This phenomenon of
light emission is chemiluminescence.
NO O3 NO2* O2
NO2* NO2 hv

This reaction is extremely fast and involves only NO affected little by the other coexistent gases.
When the NO concentration is low, the light intensity is in proportion to the NO concentration. The
method using this reaction to measure NO concentration is known as the chemiluminescence
method (CLD method).
The sampled gas is divided in two flows: one is used for NOx (NO NO2) concentration
measurement by reducing NO2 to NO with a NOx converter; the other is used for NO concentration
measurement directly.
These sample gases are switched to the NOx, NO, and reference gas lines every 0.5 seconds with
solenoid valves, and are introduced to the reaction chamber in turn.
On the other hand, the open air is separately sucked through the air filter, dried by a self-reproducing-
type silica gel dryer, and used to form ozone in an ozonizer. Then, the generated ozone is introduced
into the reaction chamber.
In the reaction chamber, the sample and ozone react, and the light emission involved in the reaction
is detected by the photodiode.
This instrument calculates NO, NO2, NOx concentrations from the outputs obtained by the
photodiode, which are proportion to the NOx and NO concentrations, and outputs the results as
continuous signals.

SOx MONITOR
When a sample is irradiated with ultraviolet ray (215 nm), SO2 emits the light of a different
wavelength (peak: 320 nm, range: 240 nm to 420 nm) from that irradiated. The former, irradiated
light is referred to as excitation light, and the later, emitted light is referred to as fluorescence. The
method to obtain sample concentrations by measuring the fluorescence intensity is called the
fluorescence method. In the fluorescence method, fluorescence, which radiates in all directions, is
usually detected at the right angles to the excitation light in order to prevent interference by the
excitation light.
When excitation light is irradiated and absorbed:
SO2 + hv1 -> SO2* ...Process [I]
I = I0e-aLx ...(1)
Therefore, the amount of the excitation light absorbed in the cell, I, is:
I = I0 I = I0 (1 e-aLx) ...(2)
The number of the SO2 excited in Process [I], SO2*, is proportional to the above I.
[SO2*] = I/hv1 ...(3)
There are three ways that the SO2*, which is generated in Process [I], loses its excitation energy.

Fluorescence process: Excitation energy is emitted as fluorescence.

SO2* SO2 + hv2 ...Process [II]

Dissociation process: Excitation energy is used for dissociation.

SO2* SO + O ...Process [III]

Quenching process: Excitation energy is lost by collision with surrounding molecules, M.

SO2* + M SO2 + M [IV]

Practically, the excitation energy is lost resulting from the confluence of these three processes.
Accordingly, the number of the SO2* that goes through the fluorescence process is:
 kf x [SO2 ]
kf + kd + kq [M]
Therefore, the fluorescence intensity detected with the photomultiplier is expressed by the following
equation, using the geometric constant of the cell, G:
kf x [SO2 ]x G
=
kf + kd + kq [M]

kf x [SO2 ]x G x Io x (1 ^(aLx))
=
(kf + kd + kq [M])hv1

If the SO2 concentration is low (1000 ppm or lower), the following equality is true and the
fluorescence intensity is proportional to the SO2 concentration, x:

kf x [SO2 ]x G x Io x aLx
=
(kf + kd + kq [M])hv1

COx MONITOR
As shown in the diagram below, the monitor uses the modulation effect that occurs with infrared
absorption of sample gas itself when sample gas and zero gas are alternately sent to its cell at a
certain flow rate using a solenoid valve which is actuated at a frequency of 1 Hz. Unless the gas
concentration of the measured component is changed in the cell, the output from the detector
essentially becomes zero, therefore, the zero drift dose not occur. Since the monitor also uses the
AS-type detector, extremely high-accuracy results are obtained without no effect of the interference
component.
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

INTRODUCTION
Reverse osmosis, commonly referred to as RO, is a process where you demineralize or deionize water
by pushing it under pressure through a semi permeable reverse osmosis membrane.

OSMOSIS
To understand the purpose and process of Reverse Osmosis you must first understand the naturally
occurring process of Osmosis. Osmosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon and one of the most
important processes in nature. It is a process where a weaker saline solution will tend to migrate to a
strong saline solution. Examples of osmosis are when plant roots absorb water from the soil and our
kidneys absorb water from our blood.

Below is a diagram which shows how osmosis works. A solution that is less concentrated will have a
natural tendency to migrate to a solution with a higher concentration. For example, if you had a
container full of water with a low salt concentration and another container full of water with a high
salt concentration and they were separated by a semi - permeable membrane, then the water with
the lower salt concentration would begin to migrate towards the water container with the higher salt
concentration.

A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that will allow some atoms or molecules to pass but not
others. A simple example is a screen door. It allows air molecules to pass through but not pests or
anything larger than the holes in the screen door. Another example is Gore-tex clothing fabric that
contains an extremely thin plastic film into which billions of small pores have been cut. The pores are
big enough to let water vapor through, but small enough to prevent liquid water from passing.
Reverse Osmosis is the process of Osmosis in reverse. Whereas Osmosis occurs naturally without
energy required, to reverse the process of osmosis you need to apply energy to the more saline
solution. A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that allows the passage of
water molecules but not the majority of dissolved salts, organics, bacteria and pyrogens. However,
you need to push the water through the reverse osmosis membrane by applying pressure that is
greater than the naturally occurring osmotic pressure in order to desalinate (demineralize or
deionize) water in the process, allowing pure water through while holding back a majority of
contaminants.

Below is a diagram outlining the process of Reverse Osmosis. When pressure is applied to the
concentrated solution, the water molecules are forced through the semi-permeable membrane and
the contaminants are not allowed through.

HOW DOES REVERSE OSMOSIS WORK?

Reverse osmosis works by using a high pressure pump to increase the pressure on the salt side of the
RO and force the water across the semi -permeable RO membrane, leaving almost all (around 95%
to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in the reject stream. The amount of pressure required depends on
the salt concentration of the feed water. The more concentrated the feed water, the more pressure
is required to overcome the osmotic pressure.

In very simple terms, feed water is pumped into a Reverse Osmosis (RO) system and you end up with
two types of water coming out of the RO system: good water and bad water. The good water that
comes out of an RO system has the majority of contaminants removed and is called permeate.
Another term for permeate water is product water they mean the same thing. Permeate is the water
that was pushed through the RO membrane and contains very little contaminants.

The bad water is the water that contains all of the contaminants that were unable to pass through
the RO membrane and is known as the concentrate, reject, or brine. All three terms (concentrate,
reject, and brine) are used interchangeably and mean the same thing. Below is a simple schematic
that shows how an RO system works. As the feed water enters the RO membrane under pressure
(enough pressure to overcome osmotic pressure) the water molecules pass through the semi -
permeable membrane and the salts and other contaminants are not allowed to pass and are
discharged through the concentrate stream, which goes to drain or can be fed back into the feed
water supply in some circumstances to be recycled through the RO system to save water. The water
that makes it through the RO membrane is called permeate or product water and usually has around
95% to 99% of the dissolved salts removed from it.

WHAT WILL REVERSE OSMOSIS REMOVE FROM WATER?

Reverse Osmosis is capable of removing up to 99%+ of the dissolved salts (ions), particles, colloids,
organics, bacteria and pyrogens from the feed water (although an RO system should not be relied
upon to remove 100% of bacteria and viruses). An RO membrane rejects contaminants based on their
size and charge. Any contaminant that has a molecular weight greater than 200 is likely rejected by
a properly running RO system.

Likewise, the greater the ionic charge of the contaminant, the more likely it will be unable to pass
through the RO membrane. For example, a sodium ion has only one charge (monovalent) and is not
rejected by the RO membrane as well as calcium for example, which has two charges. Likewise, this
is why an RO system does not remove gases such as CO2 very well because they are not highly ionized
(charged) while in solution and have a very low molecular weight. Because an RO system does not
remove gases, the permeate water can have a slightly lower than normal pH level depending on CO2
levels in the feed water as the CO2 is converted to carbonic acid.

Reverse Osmosis is very effective in treating brackish, surface and ground water for both large and
small flows applications. Some examples of industries that use RO water include pharmaceutical,
boiler feed water, food and beverage, metal finishing and semiconductor manufacturing to name a
few.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LIFE OF MEMBRANE

Oxidation reduction potential (ORP) is critical to ensure that all chlorine and other oxidizing chemicals
have been removed. The perfect pH for RO membranes is between 6 and 7. This slight acidity
prevents the formation of calcium carbonate crystals on the membrane, which can result in
significantly reduced recovery as well as lower water quality. Conductivity is the single most
important and most commonly monitored system parameter in an RO plant. The conductivity of the
feed water is one of the key factors determining RO membrane flux and will significantly affect
recovery rate. The higher the conductivity, the higher the osmotic pressure, and high osmotic
pressure makes the RO system less efficient at a given pressure and temperature. It is important to
be able to identify changes in permeate flow rate due to feed conductivity fluctuations; this helps rule
out more serious problems, such as scaling or fouling. The percentage difference between the
conductivity of the feed water and that of the permeate is known as the percent reject.
Temperature directly influences the membrane flux the amount of water that permeates through
an RO membrane. The higher the temperature, the higher the flux for a given conductivity and
pressure, and it is common to assume that a 1 C change in water temperature will cause the flow
rate to change by 1.5%. pH, ORP or conductivity sensors that also measure temperature are cheaper
than installing two separate instruments. Feed pressure also directly influences RO performance.
Comparative measurements and trending of feed, permeate, concentrate and interstage pressures
ensure that the system is working at full capacity. Monitoring pressure differentials also helps the
operator identify potential first-stage fouling or second-stage scaling problems. It is common to run
an RO plant at various feed pressures to compensate for changes in feed conductivity or temperature.
The two most common ways to control system pressure are via a feed control valve or a variable-
speed high-pressure pump. Flow rate, as measured by either a Brkert magnetic or paddle flowmeter,
is another key measure of system health when expressed as percent recovery, in other words the
fraction of the feed water that ends up as permeate. A change in percent recovery without a
corresponding change in conductivity, temperature or pressure could be an early indicator of
chemical attack, scaling or fouling of the membranes.

Maintaining adequate flow through the membrane feed channels is also the single most important
factor in preventing scaling and fouling. Membrane manufacturers specify the minimum flow rates in
the feed channels of the last membrane needed to ensure turbulent flow, which is important in
removing concentrated minerals from the membrane surface. It is important to balance system
pressure and feed flow rate; commonly, a variable-speed pump or a flow control valve are used to
ensure required feed pressure, while a control valve on the concentrate line ensures adequate flow.
Both of these control loops must work together to find a proper balance.
 TEST KIT APPARATUS
IRON
Iron occurs naturally in soil, sediments and ground water and can be found in many types of rocks.
Iron can be present in water in two forms; the soluble ferrous iron or the insoluble ferric iron. Water
containing ferrous iron is clear and colorless, and when exposed to air the water turns cloudy causing
a reddish brown precipitate of ferric iron appears. Iron is an essential trace element for maintenance
of energy metabolism and the prevention of iron deficiency anemia. It can be found in food, such as
eggs; lean red meat; and beans, peas, and other legumes.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Property Value

Melting point 1535 C

Specific gravity 7.86 at 25 C

SOURCES
Aeration of iron-containing layers in the soil can affect the quality of both groundwater and surface
water if the groundwater table is lowered or nitrate leaching takes place. Dissolution of iron can occur
as a result of oxidation and decrease in pH.Iron exists naturally in rivers, lakes, and underground water.
It may also be released to water from natural deposits, industrial wastes, refining of iron ores, and
corrosion of iron containing metals. The combination of naturally occurring organic material and iron
can be found in shallow wells and surface water. This water is usually yellow or brown but may be
colorless.

IMPACT ON HEALTH
Iron is an essential nutrient for good health. It is a major component of hemoglobin, which is used to
transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. Iron deficiency can enhance lead absorption and
toxicity; anyone with increased blood lead levels should be tested for iron deficiency. The ingestion
of large quantities of iron can damage blood vessels, cause bloody vomitus/stool, and damage the
liver and kidneys, and even cause death. However, because ingestion is regulated, body tissues are
generally not exposed to high-level concentrations.

ANALYTICAL METHODS
Iron in water can be determined by atomic absorption spectrometry (detection limit 1 g/litre) or by
colorimetric methods (detection limit 5 g/litre).
STANDARD VALUE
Saskatchewans Drinking Water Quality Standards and Objectives and Health Canadas Guidelines
for Canadian Drinking Water Quality both establish an aesthetic objective (AO) of 0.3 mg/L of iron in
drinking water.

Techniques to remove iron:

phosphate compounds

ion exchange water softeners

oxidizing filters

aeration (pressure type) followed by filtration

chemical oxidation followed by filtration including Ozone.

PHOSPHATE
Phosphorous is a multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group. It is found in nature in several allotropic
forms, and is an essential element for the life of organisms.

There are several forms of phosphorous, called white, red and black phosphorous, although the their
colours are more likely to be slightly different. White phosphorous is the one manufactured industrial;
it glows in the dark, is spontaneously flammable when exposed to air and is deadly poison. Red
phosphorous can vary in colour from orange to purple, due to slight variations in its chemical structure.
The third form, black phosphorous, is made under high pressure, looks like graphite and, like graphite,
has the ability to conduct electricity

SOURCES OF PHOSPHORUS
1. Nonpoint sources: Natural: Phosphate deposits and phosphate-rich rocks release phosphorus
during weathering, erosion, and leaching. Phosphorus may be released from lake and reservoir
bottom sediments during seasonal overturns.

2. Point sources: Sewage treatment plants provide most of the available phosphorus to surface water
bodies. A normal adult excretes 1.3 - 1.5 g of phosphorus per day. Additional phosphorus originates
from the use of industrial products, such as toothpaste, detergents, pharmaceuticals, and food-
treating compounds. Primary treatment removes only 10% of the phosphorus in the waste stream;
secondary treatment removes only 30%. The remainder is discharged to the water body. Tertiary
treatment is required to remove additional phosphorus from the water. The amount of additional
phosphorus that can be removed varies with the success of the treatment technologies used.
Available technologies include biological removal and chemical precipitation.

ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Total Phosphorus and Orthophosphate: Analysis involves two procedural steps:

conversion of the phosphorus form into dissolved orthophosphate by a digestion method

colorimetric evaluation of the dissolved orthophosphate concentration.

Step 1: Digestion methods

Perchloric Acid Digestion: Recommended only for extremely difficult-to-analyze

samples, such as sediments.

Nitric Acid-Sulfuric Acid Method Recommended for most samples.

Persulfate Oxidation Method This simple method should be cross-checked with one
or more thorough techniques and adopted if results are identical.

Step 2: Colorimetric methods

Ascorbic Acid Method: Ammonium molybdate and potassium antimonyl tartrate react with
orthophosphate to form a heteropoly acid that is reduced to molybdenum blue by ascorbic
acid.
 Detection limits: Ranges change with light path used.

Range (mg/l P) Path (cm)

0.3 - 2.0 0.5

0.15 - 1.3 1.0

0.01 - 0.25 5.0

Interferences: Arsenates react with the molybdate to form a similar blue color. Nitrite and
hexavalent chromium interfere to yield results 3% less than actual at 1 mg/l and 10% to 15%
less than actual at 10 mg/l.

Standard Value:

Freshwater

Aesthetics

Federal criteria

streams/rivers: .1 mg/l

streams entering
.05 mg/l
lakes:

lakes/reservoirs: .025 mg/l

(USEPA, 1986)

example State criteria used:

Reservoirs (CO) chlorophyll a 15 ug/l

Total P .035 mg/l

(Minn.) Total P .015 mg/l

Impoundments (EPA Region 4)

water supply Total P .015 mg/l

aquatic life Total P .025 mg/l

Lakes (NC) chlorophyll a 40 ug/l

Total P .05 mg/l

mountain lakes .02 mg/l

(VT) Total P .014 mg/l

(USEPA, 1994d)

Estuaries (recommended)

Aquatic life support 0.1 ug/l elemental phosphorus (USEPA, 1994d)

maximum diversity 0.01* total phosphorus (and nitrogen < 0.1) mg/l

moderate diversity 0.1* (and nitrogen < 1.0) mg/l

APPLICATIONS
Concentrated phosphoric acids are used in fertilizers for agriculture and farm production. Phosphates
are used for special glasses, sodium lamps, in steel production, in military applications (incendiary
bombs, smoke screenings etc.), and in other applications as: pyrotechnics, pesticides, toothpaste,
detergents

REMOVAL REACTIONS
Aluminum ions combine with phosphate ions as shown by reaction:

Al+3 + PO4 -3 AlPO4

So the weight ratio of the reaction is 0.87: 1 of Al : P.

The reaction of ferric ions can be illustrated by:

Fe+3 + PO4 -3 FePO4

The stoichiometric weight ratio of this reaction is 1.8:1

Calcium ions will react with phosphate to precipitate hydroxylapatite [CA9(OH)(PO4)3]. The typical
reaction between calcium compounds and phosphorus is represented below:

5Ca2+ + 4OH + 3HPO4 Ca5OH(PO4)3 + 3H2O

 SOUND LEVEL METER
INTRODUCTION
A sound level meter is a measuring instrument used to assess noise or sound levels by measuring
sound pressure. Often referred to as a sound pressure level (SPL) meter, decibel (dB) meter, noise
meter or noise dosimeter, a sound level meter uses a microphone to capture sound. The sound is then
evaluated within the device and acoustic measurement values are displayed. The most common unit
of acoustic measurement for sound is the decibel (dB); however, some sound level meter devices also
determine the equivalent continuous sound level (Leq) and other acoustic parameters. With a
portable sound level meter, industrial hygiene and workplace safety professionals can measure sound
levels in multiple locations to ensure environmental conditions fall within recommended exposure
limits (RELs). Some sound level meter devices can be permanently installed for continuous
monitoring of sound levels at a work or job site.

PITCH OF SOUND
The sensation of a frequency is commonly referred to as the pitch of a sound. A high pitch sound
corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and a low pitch sound corresponds to a low frequency
sound wave.

AMPLITUDE
Amplitude is the fluctuation or displacement of a wave from its mean value. With sound waves, it is
the extent to which air particles are displaced, and this amplitude of sound or sound amplitude is
experienced as the loudness of sound.

FREQUENCY
Frequency is the number of complete cycles per second in alternating current direction. The SI unit
of audio frequency is the hertz (Hz). It is the property of sound that most determines pitch. The
generally accepted standard range of audible frequencies is 20 to 20,000 Hz, although the range of
frequencies individuals hear is greatly influenced by environmental factors.

Results

Lobby

Sr. no. Frequency Speed of response Max/Min dB

1 A Fast Max 76.3
2 A Fast Min 61.5
3 A Slow Max 72.4
4 A Slow Min 60.1
5 C Fast Max 75.7
6 C Fast Min 51.5
7 C Slow Max 79.3
8 C slow Min 71.9
Library

Sr. Frequency Speed Of Response Max/Min DB

No.
1 A Fast Max 70
2 A Fast Min 30.8
3 A Slow Max 64.7
4 A Slow Min 57.8
5 C Fast Max 78.6
6 C Fast Min 49.5
7 C Slow Max 65.7
8 C slow Min 55.4

Cafeteria

Sr. Frequency Speed Of Response Max/Min dB

No.
1 A Fast Max 85
2 A Fast Min 64.9
3 A Slow Max 83.9
4 A Slow Min 71
5 C Fast Max 83
6 C Fast Min 71.4
7 C Slow Max 85.4
8 C slow Min 74.7

Lobby

Sr. Frequency Speed Of Response Max/Min DB

No.
1 A Fast Max 76.3
2 A Fast Min 61.5
3 A Slow Max 72.4
4 A Slow Min 60.1
5 C Fast Max 75.7
6 C Fast Min 51.5
7 C Slow Max 79.3
8 C slow Min 71.9

Library

Sr. Frequency Speed Of Response Max/Min dB

No.
1 A Fast Max 70
2 A Fast Min 30.8
3 A Slow Max 64.7
4 A Slow Min 57.8
5 C Fast Max 78.6
 6 C Fast Min 49.5
7 C Slow Max 65.7
8 C slow Min 55.4

Cafeteria

SR. FREQUENCY SPEED OF RESPONSE MAX/MIN DB

NO.
1 A Fast Max 85
2 A Fast Min 64.9
3 A Slow Max 83.9
4 A Slow Min 71
5 C Fast Max 83
6 C Fast Min 71.4
7 C Slow Max 85.4
8 C slow Min 74.7

HEARING RANGE
Hearing range describes the range of frequencies that can be heard by humans or other animals,
though it can also refer to the range of levels. The human range is commonly given as 20 to 20,000 Hz,
though there is considerable variation between individuals, especially at high frequencies, and a
gradual loss of sensitivity to higher frequencies with age is considered normal. Sensitivity also varies
with frequency. Routine investigation for hearing loss usually involves an audiogram which shows
threshold levels relative to a normal.

Species Approximate Range (Hz)

Human 64-23,000
Dog 67-45,000
Cat 45-64,000
Cow 23-35,000
Horse 55-33,500
Sheep 100-30,000
Rabbit 360-42,000
Rat 200-76,000
Mouse 1,000-91,000
Gerbil 100-60,000
 guinea pig 54-50,000
Hedgehog 250-45,000
Raccoon 100-40,000
Ferret 16-44,000
opossum 500-64,000
chinchilla 90-22,800
Bat 2,000-110,000
beluga whale 1,000-123,000
elephant 16-12,000
porpoise 75-150,000
goldfish 20-3,000
catfish 50-4,000
tuna 50-1,100
bullfrog 100-3,000
tree frog 50-4,000
canary 250-8,000
parakeet 200-8,500
cockatiel 250-8,000
owl 200-12,000
chicken 125-2,000

MEASUREMENT
A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise. The zero on a decibel scale is at the threshold
of hearing, the lowest sound pressure that can be heard, on the scale acc. To smith, 20 db is whisper,
40 db the noise in a quiet office. 60 db is normal conversation, 80 db is the level at which sound
becomes physically painful.

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution like other pollutants is also a by- product of industrialization, urbanizations and
modern civilization. Broadly speaking , the noise pollution has two sources, i.e. industrial and non-
industrial. The industrial source includes the noise from various industries and big machines working
at a very high speed and high noise intensity. Non- industrial source of noise includes the noise
created by transport/vehicular traffic and the neighborhood noise generated by various noise
pollution can also be divided in the categories , namely, natural and manmade. Most leading noise
sources will fall into the following categories: roads traffic, aircraft, railroads, construction, industry,
noise in buildings, and consumer products.

Road Traffic Noise

In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos , smaller
trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and tall
buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic noise reverberates.

Air Craft Noise

Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to community
annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of the- earth aircraft operations over national
parks, wilderness areas , and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has claimed
national attention over recent years.

Noise From Railroads

The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting operation in rail
yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers. For example, rail car retarders can
produce a high frequency, high level screech that can reach peak levels of 120 dB at a distance of
100 feet, which translates to levels as high as 138, or 140 dB at the railroad workers ear.

Construction Noise
The noise from the construction of highways , city streets , and buildings is a major contributor to
the urban scene . Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors,
bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers.

Noise in Industry
Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise problems, neighbors of noisy
manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and compressors mounted
on the outside of buildings Interior noise can also be transmitted to the community through open
windows and doors, and even through building walls. These interior noise sources have significant
impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise- induced hearing loss is unfortunately common.
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN
The dissolved oxygen (DO) is oxygen that is dissolved in water. The oxygen dissolves by diffusion
from the surrounding air; aeration of water that has tumbled over falls and rapids; and as a waste
product of photosynthesis. An simplified formula is given below:

Photosynthesis (in the presence of light and chlorophyll):

Carbon dioxide + Water --------------> Oxygen + Carbon-rich foods

CO2 H2O O2 C6H12O6

Fish and aquatic animals cannot split oxygen from water (H2O) or other oxygen-containing
compounds. Only green plants and some bacteria can do that through photosynthesis and similar
processes. Virtually all the oxygen we breath is manufactured by green plants. A total of three-fourths
of the earths oxygen supply is produced by phytoplankton in the oceans.

THE TEMPERATURE EFFECT

If water is too warm, there may not be enough oxygen in it. When there are too many bacteria or
aquatic animal in the area, they may overpopulate, using DO in great amounts.

Oxygen levels also can be reduced through overfertilization of water plants by run-off from farm
fields containing phosphates and nitrates (the ingredients in fertilizers). Under these conditions, the
numbers and size of water plants increase. Then, if the weather becomes cloudy for several days,
respiring plants will use much of the available DO. When these plants die, they become food for
bacteria, which in turn multiply and use large amounts of oxygen. And this depleting all the oxygen.

How much DO an aquatic organism needs depends upon its species, its physical state, water
temperature, pollutants present, and more. Consequently, its impossible to accurately predict
minimum DO levels for specific fish and aquatic animals. For example, at 5 oC (41 oF), trout use about
50-60 milligrams (mg) of oxygen per hour; at 25 oC (77 oF), they may need five or six times that
amount. Fish are cold-blooded animals. They use more oxygen at higher temperatures because their
metabolic rates increase.

Numerous scientific studies suggest that 4-5 parts per million (ppm) of DO is the minimum amount
that will support a large, diverse fish population. The DO level in good fishing waters generally
averages about 9.0 parts per million (ppm).

In the graph below you can see the effect of the temperature in the DO
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Total dissolved gas concentrations in water should not exceed 110 percent. Concentrations above
this level can be harmful to aquatic life. Fish in waters containing excessive dissolved gases may suffer
from "gas bubble disease"; however, this is a very rare occurrence. The bubbles or emboli block the
flow of blood through blood vessels causing death. External bubbles (emphysema) can also occur and
be seen on fins, on skin and on other tissue. Aquatic invertebrates are also affected by gas bubble
disease but at levels higher than those lethal to fish.

HOW DISSOLVED OXYGEN AFFECTS WATER SUPPLIES

A high DO level in a community water supply is good because it makes drinking water taste better.
However, high DO levels speed up corrosion in water pipes. For this reason, industries use water with
the least possible amount of dissolved oxygen. Water used in very low pressure boilers have no more
than 2.0 ppm of DO, but most boiler plant operators try to keep oxygen levels to 0.007 ppm or less.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND AQUATIC LIFE

Dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms of life including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and plants.
These organisms use oxygen in respiration, similar to organisms on land. Fish and crustaceans obtain
oxygen for respiration through their gills, while plant life and phytoplankton require dissolved oxygen
for respiration when there is no light for photosynthesis 4. The amount of dissolved oxygen needed
varies from creature to creature. Bottom feeders, crabs, oysters and worms need minimal amounts
of oxygen (1-6 mg/L), while shallow water fish need higher levels (4-15 mg/L)

DISSOLVED OXYGEN MEASUREMENT METHODS

There are three methods available for measuring dissolved oxygen concentrations. Modern
techniques involve either an electrochemical or optical sensor. The dissolved oxygen sensor is
attached to a meter for spot sampling and laboratory applications or to a data logger, process
monitor or transmitter for deployed measurements and process control.

Dissolved oxygen can be measured by colorimetric methods, a sensor and meter or by titration.
The colorimetric method offers a basic approximation of dissolved oxygen concentrations in a sample.
There are two methods designed for high-range and low-range dissolved oxygen concentrations.
These methods are quick and inexpensive for basic projects, but limited in scope and subject to error
due to other redoxing agents that may be present in the water .

The traditional method is the Winkler titration. While this method was considered the most accurate
and precise for many years, it is also subject to human error and is more difficult to execute than the
other methods, particularly in the field .The Winkler method now exists in seven modified versions
which are still used today.

MEASURING DISSOLVED OXYGEN BY THE SENSOR METHOD

A dissolved oxygen sensor can be used in the lab or in the field. DO sensors can be designed for
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) tests, spot sampling or long-term monitoring applications. A
dissolved oxygen meter, water quality sonde or data logging system can be used to record
measurement data taken with a DO sensor.

As dissolved oxygen concentrations are affected by temperature, pressure and salinity, these
parameters need to be accounted for. These compensations can be done manually or automatically
with a dissolved oxygen meter or data logging software. Temperature is generally measured by a
thermistor within the sensor and is acquired by the meter or data logger without prompting. Many
DO meters include an internal barometer, and data logging systems can be set up with an external
barometer or water level sensor for pressure measurements. Barometric pressure can also be
manually input as altitude, true barometric pressure or corrected barometric pressure. Salinity can
be measured with a conductivity/salinity sensor and automatically compensated for, or
approximated and manually input as:
 Fresh water < 0.5 (PPT or parts per thousand)

Brackish water 0.5-30

Seawater 33-37

Saline water 30-50

Brine > 50

OPTICAL DISSOLVED OXYGEN SENSORS

An optical DO sensor consists of a semi-permeable membrane, sensing element, light-emitting diode
(LED) and photodetector . The sensing element contains a luminescent dye that is immobilized in sol-
gel, xerogel or other matrix. The dye reacts when exposed to the blue light emitted by the LED. Some
sensors will also emit a red light as a reference to ensure accuracy. This red light will not cause
luminescence, but simply be reflected back by the dye. The intensity and luminescence lifetime of
the dye when exposed to blue light is dependent on the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water
sample. As oxygen crosses the membrane, it interacts with the dye, limiting the intensity and lifetime
of the luminescence. The intensity or lifetime of the returned luminescence is measured by a
photodetector, and can be used to calculate the dissolved oxygen concentration.

The concentration of dissolved oxygen (as measured by its partial pressure) is inversely proportional
to luminescence lifetime.

ELECTROCHEMICAL DISSOLVED OXYGEN SENSORS

Electrochemical dissolved oxygen sensors can also be called amperometric or Clark-type sensors.
There are two types of electrochemical DO sensors: galvanic and polarographic. Polarographic
dissolved oxygen sensors can be further broken down into steady-state and rapid-pulsing sensors.
Both galvanic and polarographic DO sensors use two polarized electrodes, an anode and a cathode,
in an electrolyte solution . The electrodes and electrolyte solution are isolated from the sample by a
thin, semi-permeable membrane.

When taking measurements, dissolved oxygen diffuses across the membrane at a rate proportional
to the pressure of oxygen in the water . The dissolved oxygen is then reduced and consumed at the
cathode. This reaction produces an electrical current that is directly related to the oxygen
concentration 7. This current is carried by the ions in the electrolyte and runs from the cathode to the
anode 19. As this current is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen in the sample 15, it can be
calculated by the following equation: