Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
by
MINI-DISSERTATION
MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
in
CURRICULUM STUDIES
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
OCTOBER 1998
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My supervisor, Prof HC Geyser, for her constructive expert guidance, support and
keen interest in my work throughout the completion of this project.
My co-supervisor, Dr JHM Kock, for his inspiration, advice and unfailing encourage-
ment he wholeheartedly offered to me especially in the area of Northern Sotho.
Leonora de Villiers, Patricia Strauss, Riana Blom for all the translations, and the
other members of the Education Department at Vista University (Soweto Campus),
for all their help and support.
Veronica Martin for editing this dissertation. Her valuable contribution helped in the
final completion of this study.
The RAU library staff and the Vista library staff with special thanks to Tshidi
Mosuetsa for all the new information on OBE.
Lillygirl Kganyago, for her valuable help in the typing of this work.
Above all, I thank God, for His strength, health, love and wisdom, without which this
study would not have been completed.
iii
DEDICATION
SINOP=
Twee doelwitte vloei voort uit die hoofdoel, naamlik om riglyne vir eerstetaal-
onderrig te ontwikkel en verder om riglyne vir onderrig wat in ooreenstemming met
die uitkomsgebaseerde benadering is, te ontwerp.
Dit het aan die lig gekom dat eerstetaalonderrig volgens 'n pragmatiese benadering
nou verwant is aan die uitkomsgebaseerde benadering. Die uitkomsgebaseerde
riglyne wat in hierdie studie ontwikkel is, kan soos voig opgesom word:
In die studie is 'n eksemplaarles uitgewerk (in Engels en Noord-Sotho) wat twee
leerareas integreer, naamlik, Taal, Geletterdheid en Kommunikasie en Tegnologie.
Die Ies dien as 'n praktiese voorbeeld van die implementering van die uitkomsge-
baseerde taalonderrigbeginsels wat geidentifiseer is.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND, STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM, AIM OF STUDY, METHODOLOGY AND CLARI-
FICATION OF CONCEPTS
1.1 BACKGROUND 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 2
1.3 AIM OF STUDY 3
1.4 METHODOLOGY 3
1.5 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 4
1.5.1 Outcomes 4
1.5.2 Outcomes-based education 5
1.5.3 Curriculum 5
1.6 SUMMARY 6
2.1 INTRODUCTION 7
2.2 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
NORTHERN SOTHO 7
2.2.1 The classical period (1826-1926) 7
2.2.2 The functional period 8
2.2.3 The structural period 9
2.2.4 The modern period 10
2.3 THE DIDACTICS OF NORTHERN SOTHO 11
2.4 A HISTORICAL-LINGUISTICAL PERSPECTIVE 13
2.4.1 The comparative-descriptive approach 13
2.4.2 Ferdinand de Saussure's approach 14
2.4.3 Bloomfield's approach 15
vi'
PAGE
2.4.4 Noam Chomsky's approach 16
2.4.5 Communicative competence 17
2.4.5.1 Dell Hymes 17
2.4.5.2 Canale and Swain 19
2.4.5.3 Sandra Savignon 19
2.4.6 The functionalist approach 20
2.4.6.1 John Firth 20
2.4.6.2 Michael Halliday 20
2.4.7 The communicative approach 21
2.4.8 The pragmatic approach 23
2.5 GUIDELINES FOR FIRST LANGUAGE TEACHING 26
2.6 CONCLUSION 29
3.1 INTRODUCTION 31
3.2 THE ORIGIN OF OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION 31
3.2.1 Competency-based education 31
3.2.2 Mastery learning 32
3.2.3 Criterion-referenced assessment 32
3.3 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS 32
3.4 KEY ISSUES IN OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION 33
3.4.1 Identifying and defining outcomes versus content 33
3.4.2 Selection of an appropriate outcomes-based approach 34
3.4.3 Learner experience 36
3.4.4 Selection of learning activities in context versus teaching 37
3.4.5 Assessing outcomes versus grading 38
3.4.5.1 Why do we assess? 38
3.4.5.2 Who assesses? 39
3.4.5.3 When do they assess? 40
viii
PAGE
3.4.5.4 How do they assess? 40
3.5 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN OUTCOMES-BASED
EDUCATION 43
3.5.1 Strengths 43
3.5.2 Weaknesses 44
3.6 OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA 45
3.6.1 Motivation 45
3.6.2 Adoption of outcomes-based education 46
3.6.3 Instructional programming 51
3.7 GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING ACCORDING TO AN OUT-
COMES-BASED APPROACH 52
3.8 CONCLUSION 55
BIBLIOGRAPHY 79
1
CHAPTER 1
1.1 BACKGROUND
The new curriculum is a shift of paradigm from the objectives-based curriculum that
focuses on input from the teacher to an outcomes-based curriculum that focuses on
output from the learner. The focus of the new curriculum is transformational
outcomes-based, which, according to Spady (1994:21), "...operates with authentic
life context as the backdrop and these demand complex role performance."
According to the Gauteng Institute for Life Long Learning Development, the new
transformative outcomes-based education approach, was supposed to be phased
in, starting in 1998 in Grades 1 and 7 and moving annually to completion in 2003
with Grades 6 and 12 (South Africa, 1996:12). The intensive preparation that was
required for such implementation, in a system so foreign to the practitioners, only
made it possible for the implementation of Gradel in 1998. The demand to meet
the requirements of this new curriculum in the teaching and learning of Northern
Sotho first language, at high school level demands immediate attention.
The major research problem, which emerges, is: What are the outcomes-based
guidelines for Northern Sotho first language teaching, for Grades 7-12. This main
question can be divided into two sub-questions which can be presented as the
following:
1.4 METHODOLOGY
Step 1:
Identification of the problem, aim of study, description of methodology, and the
clarification of key concepts. These are discussed in this chapter.
Step 2:
A literature review of approaches development to date in Northern Sotho teaching
together with the study of the development of linguistics, which shall reveal various
approaches developed over the years in first language shall be undertaken in order
to develop guidelines for teaching a first language. These will be discussed in
chapter 2.
Step 3:
Outcomes-based teaching guidelines shall be developed by reviewing international
literature on outcomes-based practice and assessing the adoption of outcomes-
based education in South Africa. These will be discussed in chapter 3.
Step 4:
A set of outcomes-based guidelines, for teaching Northern Sotho as a first
language in the Senior Phase shall be established by integrating findings from
literature reviews done in chapters 2 and 3. Finally the strengths and shortcomings
pertaining to this research undertaking will be outlined. These will be discussed in
chapter 4.
The definition of concepts that will be used frequently in this research shall be given
below but they will all be preliminary definitions. Full definitions of these concepts
shall be given in chapters 2 and 3.
1.5.1 Outcomes
Different definitions exist on what outcomes are but most proponents have one
aspect in common that "they are demonstrations of learning, displayed by learners
at the end of instruction". Spady (1994:18) defines outcomes as "high quality,
5
Most proponents of this paradigm define it in a way that main properties of this
paradigm come to the fore. Capper and Jamison (1993:430-432) states that it "can
be characterised as traditional, transitional or transformational and pivots on
objectives tied to learner outcomes, core and extended curriculum, mastery
learning, accountability via information management systems and criterion-
referenced assessment". The authors here highlight the three levels at which
outcomes-based education can operate, the traditional, transitional and trans-
formational levels expounded by Spady (1994:19); the importance that this
paradigm attaches to mastery learning, learner outcomes; assessment based on
criteria and accountability that this system has to the learner and community in
general about the type of results produced. McGhan (1994:70) defines this system
similar to Capper and Jamison (1993) only in respect to "a common set of
requirements" as in the latter's "objectives tied to learner outcomes" thus outcomes
are central to this system.
1.5.3 Curriculum
There are many definitions to the concept "curriculum" as Carl (1995:31) observes,
that it is better at times to list the characteristics displayed by this concept than
define it, for example, the curriculum "...is a programme of planned activities, is an
instrument of social reconstruction where values and skills are acquired which may
6
help to improve the community" (Carl 1995:32). It is defined also as a "generic term
used to describe programmes of learning, including broad core and subject
curricular" (South Africa, 1995:1). In an outcomes-based practice though such
concepts as subject curricular will be replaced by areas or fields of knowledge.
For the purpose of this research the concept shall be limited to a programme of
planned learning activities in selected contexts, designed around learning outcomes
based on identified generic outcomes.
1.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this chapter is to develop guidelines for first language teaching. A
literature review of approaches developed to date in Northern Sotho teaching
together with a general study of the development of linguistics will be undertaken in
order to reveal various approaches developed over the years to date in language
teaching. These approaches will lead to principles that will translate into guidelines
that are relevant for first language teaching. Such conclusions are vital for this
study because Northern Sotho is a young language in its development as a first
language because of its history that shall be briefly discussed below. It is for this
reason that ongoing research has to be undertaken in this language, especially
when new changes emerge in education, as is the case with the new Curriculum
2005 for South Africa.
Four periods in the historical development of the African language since 1826 are
identified as the classical, functional, structural and the modern periods by Wilkes
(1978:108, as quoted by Kock, 1992:3). These periods also saw the historical
development of Northern Sotho as one of the African languages.
The first period can be identified as the classical period between (1826-1926),
which can be regarded as the descriptive period, traditional period or pre-Dokeian
era, during which a number of publications emerged, written mainly by missionaries
(Kock, 1992:3). This period is regarded as the classical period because the
classical European languages were used as the basis of description (Kosch,
1993:13). The first words in Northern Sotho appeared in an article written by
8
During this period, before 1926, everyone wrote Northern Sotho the way they
thought best, because there was no co-ordinating body to control the development
of this language (Esterhuyse, 1974:xiii). This led to a variety of symbols and tone
signs. The work done by Endemann (1876), Beyer (1920), Meinhof's "Ur-Bantu",
and Schwellnus' "Sepedi-Transvaal Sesotho" are examples of this period.
The classical period resulted in some grammatical classification and concepts being
forced upon the African languages without recognition of the uniqueness of their
grammatical structure. Internationally, this era was marked by emphasis on
historical and comparative studies. This trend also found its way into some African
linguistic field, as in the work of Meinhof, Bleek (1862, 1869) and Torrend (1895)
(Kosch, 1993:15). The teaching of African languages emphasised translation
exercises, a third language approach and the explanation of grammatical
phenomenon where students were expected to accept and learn in a stereotyped
way without questioning the material presented (Kosch, 1993:27). Language study
was thus based only on grammatical competence, which failed to recognise
function and negotiation of meaning in various social contexts, an approach that
would not be suitable for first language teaching. Due to these factors, this era will
only be recognised for the solid linguistic foundation that it provided for African
languages and be rejected on the grounds that it provides a narrow description of
language not relevant to this study.
This period is identified between the beginning of the twentieth century and the
early sixties. It is better known as the Dokeian period. Doke, a great missionary
linguist, addressed two major issues in African languages, namely, the identification
of the Bantu word and the classification of word categories (Kosch, 1993:30). Doke
9
defined the Bantu word as "that sound or group of sounds which is subject to one
main stress and only one" (Doke, 1935:220, as quoted by Louwrens, 1991:3). His
findings subscribe to the conjunctive method of word division. These theories made
a deep impact on Bantu grammatical description. The principles underlying Doke's
classification of word categories, which viewed function as dominating over form,
have probably been responsible for this period being labelled as the functional
period (Wilks, 1978a:150, as quoted by Kosch, 1993:31). Therefore it should not
be confused as synonymous with the functional linguistic approach of the Prague
School. It is important to note that in Northern Sotho the traditional approach was
mostly still adhered to during this era (Kosch, 1993:104). This attitude prevented
the development of Northern Sotho, which leaves this language a distance behind
as new language approaches emerges.
Internationally, this era coincided with the Bloomfieldian linguistic model.. Doke, like
Bloomfield, regarded the study of language as mechanistic in that he believed that
linguistic competence is a set of habits acquired by learning (Kosch, 1993:34/35).
Such a structural view to language study, is limiting because it is only interested in
what is observable and neglects the underlying cognitive processes of the speaker-
hearer of a language, a view more relevant to first language studies, and thus is
limited for this study.
The structural period emerged during the 1960's. It is also known as Van Wyk's
period, in order to differentiate it from the functional period which displays some
affinities with Bloomfieldian structuralism. This period is also referred to as the
"new" structural model (Kosch, 1993:53). Until this period, there were debates
around the identification and division of the Bantu word. Credit is given to Van
Wyk's doctoral thesis, titled "Woordverdeling in Noord-Sotho en Zulu", which made
him the first South African linguist to develop his own method and technique for the
identification and division of words in African languages. His theory was based on
two fundamental scientific principles, namely, isolability and mobility (Louwrens,
1991:7). His work paved the way for descriptive Bantu linguistic and thus advanced
the study of Bantu grammar as a scientific discipline (Kosch, 1993:54). Works of
10
The seventies saw the beginning of a modern period to the study of language the
transformational-generative grammar. The modern period also led to the study and
description of African languages based on synchronic studies of syntax (Kock,
1992:5). This period saw Bantu linguistic description opening to a variety of
international developments at approximately the same time. Not much work used
the transformational grammar approach in Bantu linguistics, except in word
categories like adjectives, pronouns, relative clauses and conjoined subjects, which
lend themselves to such a study. Most work done was in the Nguni languages, but
its dominance did not last because many analysis especially in Northern Sotho
used the taxonomic approach of the structural era (Kosch, 1993:75). The trend
during this era was towards other approaches as discourse analysis, functional
sentence perspective, relational grammar, rank-shifting and natural developmental
approaches (Kosch, 1993:76). Contributions done in Northern Sotho in this era
include works from Nchabeleng, Nokaneng and Louwrens, Legodi, Kock, Grobler
and Mawasha (Kosch, 1993:88-90). Louwrens' publications played a major role in
introducing the functional approach to Bantuists and he worked within a discourse
analytical perspective in the Northern Sotho doctoral thesis (Kosch, 1993:83).
Northern Sotho linguists did not use the possibilities offered by Chomsky's
transformational generative grammar because they were reluctant to exchange Van
Wyk's concrete structural approach for the more abstract theoretical approach of
11
The conclusion reached in this study, presupposes some knowledge of the didactic
of Northern Sotho to date. Such a study will supply relevant information regarding
the methodological approach practitioner employed in this language.
The various developmental eras in the history of African languages and current
studies in Northern Sotho, indicate the following approaches in the teaching of
these languages and hence Northern Sotho.
During the classical period, initial scholars in African languages were the
missionaries who used western language approaches in the teaching of these
languages and hence Northern Sotho. Subject didactic was a neglected aspect in
the African languages as the main interest in these languages was translation, a
third language approach.
The functional period saw the introduction of the audio-lingual method in the
teaching of African languages. Though a teaching model was not formulated
clearly by Doke, methods used during this era can only be inferred from the
applications of his model. Habit-producing activities, namely pattern practice, drills
and mimicry of the teacher and memorisation of dialogues included some of the
methods used. These methods were not relevant for first language teaching.
Van Wyk's era saw linguists more concerned about the structure of the word in
African languages, which placed emphasis on morphological analysis -
12
The modern era saw a number of approaches emerging. For example, Louwrens
drew Bantuists attention to a functional approach, yet many were too busy with
researching grammatical issues than concern themselves with the didactic of these
languages. The pragmatic approach was used in Northern Sotho works by
Louwrens and Sekhukhune, yet these made wonderful reading with no remarkable
results in practice.
During the late 1980's, the concern by the Department of Education and Training to
design a first language approach for the teaching of African languages was a result
of these languages being taught as second and third languages with Afrikaans or
English second approach (Masola, 1989:90). New syllabi were therefore designed
for standards five to ten between 1987 and 1989. These syllabi failed as first
language syllabi, because even though they emphasised a first language approach,
the content was "traditional", because it did not allow for differentiated teaching and
the grading of subject matter as sections of grammar were repeated in all standards
without variation (Masenya, 1991:92). The only positive move in Northern Sotho
was that these new syllabi were written in the main language unlike the previous
syllabi.
According to these linguists, the study of language was purely historical and failed
to even concentrate on the structure of any single language. Particular items were
selected that indicated changes in a number of different languages. This view was
14
thus a very narrow outlook to language study, because language was not studied
from its structure, functions and various contexts, where social interaction and
negotiation of meaning takes place. What is interesting to observe is that amidst all
the weaknesses, the influence of the nineteenth century scholars was strong, as
there are still linguists who are concerned with linguistic changes and
reconstruction of Proto-Indo European. The strength of this view is also that it did
pave a way to the following century that concentrated on the description of a single
language (Aitchison, 1992:23).
In the twentieth century the emphasis shifted from the study of language change
appearing in a number of different languages to single language description. It was
the Swiss scholar, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) whose theory published
under the title Cours de linguistique generale is regarded as a basis for the whole of
modern linguistics because few linguists would now disclaim structural thinking in
their work (Aitchison, 1992:22/23). De Saussure distinguished between:
Langue, the language system or structure
Parole, the language behaviour or speech
Language, that indicates the power to can be able to speak (Bynon, 1985:1, as
quoted by Geyser, 1992:120).
Bloomfield rejected the view that language existed in the mind. He was a
behaviourist who believed that language is a stimulus-response process.
Language enables one person to make a reaction (R) when another person has the
stimulus (S) (Bloomfield, 1967:24). He was also an advocate of structuralism.
linguistic structures being developed in the child; and the description of a child's
language as a legitimate, rule-governed consistent system (Brown, 1983:21/22).
Dell Hymes, Canale and Swain and Sandra Savignon laid a foundation for the
communicative approach.
In the early seventies, the American anthropologist, Dell Hymes, coined the term
communicative competence, which enables us to convey and interpret messages
and to negotiate meanings interpersonally and within specific contexts (Brown,
1983:199).
According to Brumfit and Johnson (1979:14), Dell Hymes listed four sectors of
competence. The first sector concerns whether or not something is "formally
possible" and is roughly equivalent to Chomsky's restricted notion of competence
as grammatical. The second, deals with whether and to what degree something is
"feasible". A sentence can be grammatically possible but be hardly feasible in
virtue of the means of implementation available. For example: The mouse the cat
the dog the man the woman married beat chased ate had a white tail.
Savignon recognised the role played by social and cultural experience, in the act of
communication aspects that were not considered by the comparative linguists of the
nineteenth century and the structuralists of the twentieth century. Her theoretical
framework thus lays a foundation for the communicative approach to language
teaching, yet communicative competence fails to strike a balance between the two
extremes, those who lay emphasis on structure and those who put stress on
function in language study. It is for this reason that this approach cannot be
20
Halliday makes connections between context, situation and language varieties, and
he developed the concept register whilst investigating the interaction of language
and the social system. The concept, register, will be an important concept in this
research. Halliday and Dell Hymes laid foundations towards a communicative
approach to language teaching whilst leaving structuralism behind.
A list of function in language study gives a third language approach element, where
language is seen as a facilitating instrument to perform certain functions and only
those that are listed. In practice, a first language performs unlimited functions in
various contexts. On the other hand, those functions cannot be performed outside
a particular structure of a language as the impression given by the functionalist
approach. For these reasons, this approach shall be unacceptable for purposes of
this study.
The term communicative approach has largely been understood to describe any
approach to language teaching that claims to be based on a view of language as
communication. According to Brown (1983:213), four interconnected charac-
teristics are given as a definition to communicative language teaching. These
characteristics include firstly, that classroom goals are focused on all the
components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or
linguistic competence. Secondly, that form is not the primary framework for
organising and sequencing lessons - function is the framework through which forms
are taught and that accuracy is secondary to conveying a message. Thirdly, that
fluency may take on more importance than accuracy because the ultimate criterion
for communicative success is the actual transmission and receiving of intended
meaning. Fourthly, that in the communicative classroom students ultimately have
to use language productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contents.
The study of pragmatics emerged in the early eighties. It is concerned with the
origin, uses and effects of utterances and is very closely related to the speech act
theory as an illocutionary act (Kosch, 1993:85). Pragmatics thus study speech acts
as goal-directed communication units which need to be understood in relation to the
particular context of the situation in which they are used (Kosch, 1993:85). Austin
with his work entitled "How to do things with words", is a person who is credited with
generating interest in pragmatics (Thomas, 1995:28). This definition of pragmatics
as a study of the language user's correct use of sentences in context, places
pragmatics on an equal footing with socio-linguistics and the communicative ability
(Van Jaarsveld, 1986:22 as quoted by Geyser, 1992:124). Pragmatics is thus
viewed as another component of linguistic theory (the communicative function of
language), next to other components being grammar and semantics (the structure
of language) (Geyser, 1992:126). Semantics are also placed in the domain of
grammar (the linguistic system or code) which is descriptive, whilst pragmatics is
regarded as the domain of the rhetoric (the implementation of the code) which is
principle governed, thus normative in nature (Leech, 1980:4).
24
This approach to language study thus closes the gap between the two extremes of
approaches to language study namely, strict formalism on one hand and strict
functionalism on the other. A pragmatic approach begins by placing the student
directly in the world of experience, because it assumes that the world is a
spatio/temporal reality with the properties of wholeness and continuity. Yet it is also
notable that pragmatics goes to related situations, not to unrelated situations.
This approach shall be regarded as relevant to this study because it begins from
forming a dynamic relationship between language functions and language structure
within particular contexts. This approach maintains that contexts is primary in the
interaction between the two poles, a component that was not envisaged in this
manner by approaches that emphasised structuralism nor those that emphasised
functionalism.
LANGUAGE
Pragmatic perspective
Pragmatics thus is concerned with two kinds of contexts. The first is the linguistic
context - the discourse. Discourse suggests the second kind of context - situational
25
Context in language teaching refers to the situation in which two or more persons
communicate. Such contexts differ depending on the function of language. For
example, language used for advertisements has a convincing, persuasive function,
and thus the context would be formal and business like, whereas the structure
would be formal since the buyers are not known people to the seller. But if the
same seller would come home to her children and talk about the products she is
selling, the function would be informative. Where such children are informally
informed about her business venture and probably seek help with no intention of
selling to the family members, the context would be informal and relaxed. Hence
the structure of the language would be informal and familiar to the home. It is for
such reasons that Halliday developed the concept of register as a variety of
language used for a specific purpose.
discourse analysis, situational context and use of language to fulfil certain functions
that will benefit learners in later life.
The starting point in first language teaching should be to identify and describe the
learning outcome, in the particular language. This will indicate the function that
language will fulfil in the life of the learner. The use of operational verbs like
analyse, organise, design, write, produce, dramatise, versus verbs like appreciate,
remember, understand, think, reflect, when writing outcomes, because with the
latter verbs internal mental processes are implied and does not directly translate
into observable action. These outcomes should indicate the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that learners will achieve after that language experience. For example:
You have been at a scene of an accident and have been called upon to be a
witness. How would you use nouns, adverbs and adjectives to describe the
scene of this accident? instead of,
Identify four types of nouns, adverbs and adjectives that you remember from
the lesson.
27
The former example provides a learner with a life situation, and the latter leaves the
learner surprised as to what is the use of such an activity in the learning of his/her
mother tongue.
The teacher should then find suitable activities and contexts relevant for a
pragmatic approach to first language teaching. Therefore such contexts and
activities should start with recognising the dynamic relationship that exist between
language structure and language functions in particular contexts. Thus, for
example, suitable paragraphs, comprehension passages, extracts from prescribed
books, available newspaper cuttings, illustrations, videos, creation of scenarios,
visits to libraries, all from the specific language content should be the suitable
contexts for language teaching. For example:
The physical contexts should cease to be mainly the classroom, because there are
areas that could require visits to the actual places, like authors, cultural artefacts,
monuments, kraals, various information. In the above activity, the learners will
need to move to the home economics centre, or visit a dietician after school for
information. These activities should integrate all language skills, that is, listening,
speaking, writing and reading. In the above example, the learners will speak to
each other during discussions, they will listen to points of views, they will read for
information on nutrition and will finally write a letter, thus integrating all four
communication skills. The teacher in the above situation has also made use of an
aid, the potato chips packets.
For first language situations such contexts and activities should be related to the
learners' previous experience, like supplying learners with a packet of potato chips,
which you know they are familiar with in the above example. Thus, the contextual
needs of learners and the needs of the language users are to be considered in the
selection. Such activities should be interdisciplinary, a need for team teaching or
rather interest in what everyone around is engaged in. Various learning strategies
28
For purposes of this study, the problem of availability of written material covering
most topics especially for interdisciplinary purposes in Northern Sotho will face
teachers and learners for some time to come. There is a need for translations,
and this will be a very important concept in the next few years, and implies that both
the Northern Sotho teachers and learners should begin to acquaint themselves with
the principles of translations to meet the demands of the new Curriculum 2005. In
the above learning activity, Northern Sotho learners shall read content in either
English or Afrikaans on proteins, carbohydrates, fat and dietary fibre.
Teachers should stimulate the learners, and engage them in the activities. When
learners are stimulated, they begin their task with enthusiasm, therefore teachers
should create stimulating situations prior to learning activities. Use a previous day
news item to initiate debate, discuss a controversial cartoon strip, supply a
stimulating learning media, for example, giving them the potato chips packets in the
above example should be stimulating to learners, depending on their level of
development. Make sure that such activities relate to the activities designed for the
lesson and are suitable to the needs and outcomes of the lesson.
The teachers together with the learners should draw conclusions for all activities
that learners were engaged in, for instance in the above example, after the
discussions about the ingredients of the packet, the groups can report back; after
reading on nutrition and visiting the home economics teacher or the dietician, they
can report back; and finally when they have discussed their findings they can report
back before writing the letters.
29
Teachers can draw such conclusions from individual learners, in pairs or in groups,
depending on the classroom setting. This is also an opportune moment for the
teacher to inculcate skills, such as critical thinking, effective learning styles, problem
solving, analysis, synthesis, by posing questions and probing whilst walking
between the groups during such activities.
2.6 CONCLUSION
This historical study of African languages also surfaced vital information regarding
the status of Northern Sotho as a first language and how it adapted to new
approaches as they emerged over the years. In the 1980's some scholars in
Northern Sotho wrote broadly on the didactic approaches that should be used for
teaching in this language. Further, these scholars did not integrate these
approaches, a situation that left teachers to adopt either functionalism or
structuralism as separate extremes, out of context; and to segregate the different
parts of the language syllabus.
30
The guidelines discussed above indicate that the key issues here are to identify and
describe learning outcomes and select only essential content in that language
which will help attaining such outcomes, that language should be taught in contexts,
considering that both the function and structure; and that activity is vital in
pragmatist, implying the active involvement of learners in all learning activities and
teachers acting as facilitators. These findings are vital for a proper framework
within which this study is to pursue.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim in this chapter is to develop guidelines for teaching according to the
outcomes-based approach. A literature review from both international and local
perspectives on outcomes-based education (OBE) shall be undertaken. Such a
study shall look into the origin of outcomes-based education, it's philosophical
premise, and it's characteristics and how this approach is implemented in schools.
The approaches of teaching according to an outcomes-based approach gathered
from such a study, together with an examination of the adoption of outcomes-based
education in the South African context shall be integrated with guidelines for first
language teaching done in chapter 2 to develop outcomes-based guidelines.
The mastery learning concept can be traced back to more than 50 years ago when
Ralph Tyler stated that a well written objective should identify both the behaviour to
be developed in the student and the area of content or of life in which the behaviour
is to be applied (King & Evans, 1991:73). Benjamin Bloom, and his colleagues
believed that mastery learning means that if proper conditions can be provided,
most of the learners can actually master most objectives. The latter confirmed the
growing concept that all students could master desired outcomes, if educators were
willing to vary the time and instructional alternatives (Malan, 1997:14).
On the other hand, outcomes are not what students feel, believe, know or
understand because these are all internal mental processes rather than clear
demonstrations of learning. Outcomes are what students actually can do with what
they know and understand (Spady, 1994:49). It is therefore important to avoid non-
demonstrable verbs, like feel, know, understand (kgoma, tseba, kweia) in defining
outcomes because "it may be unclear what students actually are supposed to do to
show that these processes exist" (Spady, 1994:58). Instead use demonstrable
verbs, like write (ngwala), design (hlama), produce (tweletta), which translate
directly into observable action and that we can directly assess (Spady, 1994:58).
Similarly, in first language teaching, the pragmatic approach also stresses the
importance of identifying and describing the learning outcomes using operational
verbs as the starting point in first language teaching and the content shall depend
on the context in which language is used. Further, such outcomes should be based
on the function of language usage, because function presupposes the various life
situations in which language is used, for example, "Diragatta dipopego tha polelo".
did not empower learners for life after school and this led amongst others, to
demotivation of some learners and facilitators of the language.
This approach is grounded on the question: "Why do schools exist in this day and
age?" and the answer to this is "...to equip all students with the knowledge,
competence, and orientations needed for success after they leave school" (Spady &
Marshall, 1991:70). The execution of the complex role performances at this level,
"require the highest degree of ownership, integration, synthesis, and application of
prior learning, because they must respond to the complexity of real-life performance
contexts" (Spady, 1994:19).
Consideration of learning experience shall be vital for this study but serious
problems in some South African schools shall be experienced where large classes
in the teaching of Northern Sotho with insufficient manpower are a norm.
Outcomes-based practice requires active learning and thus it is vital that after
identifying and describing learning outcomes, facilitators should select suitable
learning activities, in various contexts/situations, that will ensure the attainment of
such outcomes. Selection of learning activities has implications for selection of
suitable content that is essential for attainment of desired outcomes. Content is tied
to performance abilities critical for learners' future success (Spady, 1994:52). In the
old paradigm, teachers would select content and prepare thoroughly for teaching in
their first language classrooms without necessarily relating such content to
demonstrations that would benefit learners after school.
Learners are expected to be responsible for their own learning, to work to become
more independent in their thinking and be hard workers (Van der Horst &
McDonald, 1997:14) Therefore, outcomes-based education proposes active
learning, only possible through learner-centred activities versus passive learning
made possible by teacher centred activities. The pragmatic approach to first
language teaching also requires the first language teacher to design activities
around various functions of language in which learners will be expected to take an
active role, so that they should be able to distinguish the various ways in which
language is used according to specific contexts. Successful attainment of
outcomes for all learners would be facilitated by selecting the best instructional
strategies. This should include a variety of strategies that would suit different
learning styles, rates of learning, cultural values and lifestyles that affect the
learners' construction of knowledge and personal circumstances (South Africa,
1995:11/12). These strategies include, for example, role-play, music, stories, song,
dance, use of multimedia like magazines, newspapers and other resources.
Time should be used flexibly, so that each learner engages in learning activities at
their own tempo to ensure achievement of outcomes. Facilitators should provide
38
assistance to ensure that all learners succeed. Such assistance can be enhanced
by selecting optimal learning environments, which should be properly managed to
facilitate learning of students who are concurrently working towards different short-
term outcomes. Different learning contexts should be used, so that learning must
relate to real life performance contexts (Spady, 1994:18).
Learner-centred assessment requires students to think about what they are doing,
why they are doing it and how they can improve. Results can be recorded in
journals, discussed in small groups, or recorded on teacher designed forms. They
help students to learn more about themselves through introspection and reflection,
whilst the teacher is able to assess where the students is in class (Boschee &
Baron, 1993:112).
Teachers remain the key role players in assessment activities. They develop
performance assessment by firstly clearly identifying the outcomes to be assessed;
secondly, determining the purpose of the assessment and use of the results; thirdly
designing a performance task that will elicit the expected outcome; fourthly,
specifying the assessment criteria; and finally selecting and constructing the scoring
and recording instruments (South Africa, 1997:34).
The teacher must spell out criteria which assessors intend using during the
assessment process, and make them known to all the candidates and assessors
before assessment takes place (Malan, 1997:18). Teachers should also determine
whether a learner's demonstration was sufficient in terms of the learning outcomes
(Spady, 1994:18). A teacher should also decide on who will best assess outcomes
40
Portfolios
long term, for instance, covering a stage of schooling with either students or
teachers assuming responsibility for its management (South Africa, 1997:33). It is
important that a portfolio should have a clear intent and purpose that is linked to the
learning programme outcomes (South Africa, 1997:33).
It is equally important that the learners should know what the aim of the portfolio is
(Arter & Spandel, 1992:37, as quoted by Geyser, 1997:11). The purpose of
portfolios can fall into two broad categories: student purposes, for example,
empowering and motivating students as writers and encouraging self-assessment,
and teacher purposes, for example, examining teaching strategies and assessing
performance (Murphy & Smith, 1991:18).
Selection of items for the portfolio should be the responsibility of both the learner
and the teacher. Two kinds of items, namely core items like exercises and activities
which repeatedly come up in class; and optional items like short narratives of
events in the learner's own life, self assessment by the learner, are usually selected
for portfolios. (Meisels, 1993:37-38, as quoted by Geyser, 1997:13). Inclusion of
items in a portfolio should always be based on explicit criteria and these should be
supplied to the learner. Such items should also reflect the reality of life outside the
classroom (Geyser, 1997:14/15).
Activity checklist
Reflective journals
Reflective journals are used by students to write about and respond to what they
have learned, record questions and make notes of what they do not understand.
Entries should be made once or twice a week or at the end of an instructional cycle.
Teachers should read journals periodically to assess students' thought processes
and perceptions and to inform instruction (Boschee & Baron, 1993:112).
Oral interviews
Observations
The teacher observes individual or group behaviour related to academic tasks, work
habits, thinking processes and other activities related to student performance.
Observations may be overt or subtle, may focus on a single event or an
accumulation of abilities over time (Boschee & Baron, 1993:112).
3.5.1 Strengths
3.5.2 Weaknesses
arrive at "common sense decision, to make teachers teach in precisely the same
manner". Finally, that reinforcement of outcomes-based education, is said to be
facilitated by the introduction of criterion referenced assessment which will yield
expected results.
Some of the weaknesses observed, concern factors like cross-age problems which
are likely to surface as different age levels learn side by side; and demands on
parents "time and resources that will increase as time becomes flexible in learners"
attainment of learning outcomes (McGhan, 1994:70). There is also frustration of
time pressures (to complete the calendar and schedule), greater planning work and
adapting outcomes-based principles to an existing curriculum and timetable. In
conclusion, that outcomes-based programmes are designed differently (through
starting from the same premise), thus there is difficulty to adapt them easily in
various schools or communities with different needs
3.6.1 Motivation
South Africa has recently undergone a political change which led to new changes
for its entire society. In the wake of this change all South Africans want a
prosperous, democratic country, free of discrimination. There is an urgent need to
redress the inequalities of the past by focusing on economic growth and job
creation. All South Africans want to be "empowered so that they are able to
participate as active citizens" (South Africa, 1997:2). Education is regarded always
as a key to bringing about such changes.
46
It is against this background that the Minister of Education initiated a process that
would alter the framework, character, and direction of the education and training
system. The ideals towards this change were informed by various documents and
interested bodies, namely, the White Paper on Education and Training, which
envisaged "a new, flexible and appropriate curricula which cut across divisions of
skills and knowledge"; the Inter-Ministerial Working Group which organised
business, labour and representatives of the Department of Education to work
towards integration of all interested stakeholders in educational decisions, now a
major international trend (South Africa, 1997:11). This view was shared by the
African National Congress Policy Framework on Education and Training and the
National Education Policy Investigation Report (South Africa, 1997:12-13).
The National Training Strategy Initiative of the National Training Board, proposed
that Education and Training should move away from the "traditional mould" of the
past and think of education as a lifelong process. The starting point of such a
process, they suggested should be a National Qualifications Framework, specifying
learning in terms of nationally and internationally accepted outcomes. They also
suggested that the Minister should accept executive responsibility in Cabinet for the
National Qualifications Framework. This top-down planning towards an outcomes-
based education, resulted in the appointment of a ministerial task team for the
development work and implementation of a National Qualifications Framework in
October 1995 (South Africa, 1997:11-12). The emphasis was placed on the shift
from the traditional aims and objectives approach to outcomes-based education.
The ministerial task team developed a document entitled: "Lifelong learning through
a National Qualifications Framework" (1996). This document led to the appoint-
ment of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) in March 1997. It is this
that is responsible for the adoption of outcomes-based education in South Africa.
transformational and thus not suitable for a process of transformation taking place
in South Africa. This approach is clearly stated by South Africa (1996:14) that "...as
part of the commitment to transformation the focus will be on transformative OBE
with the learner being at the centre of programme development". International
experience has indicated that transitional outcomes-based education could best be
the starting point for most reforms as noted by Marzano (1994:44). South Africa is
thinking of the ideal but in practice, a giant leap from the traditional content based to
fundamental life-role performances and given the vast problems that education is
faced with in the country, implementation of transformational outcomes-based
education will be impracticable if not a dream. The adoption of this new paradigm
shift indicates a context peculiar to the South African situation.
According to South Africa (1997:19), the critical cross-fields outcomes adopted for
schooling in South Africa refers to the ability to first, identify and solve problems and
make decisions using critical and creative thinking; second to work effectively with
others as a member of a team, group, organisation and community; third, to collect,
analyse, organise and critically evaluate information; fourth, to communicate
effectively using visual, symbolic, and/or language skills in various modes; fifth, to
48
use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards
the environments and the health of others; sixth, to demonstrate an understanding
of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem solving
contexts do not exist in isolation; and seven, to understand that the world is a set of
related systems. This means that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation.
In addition to these seven critical outcomes in South Africa (1997:20) there are
another five outcomes which further maintains that in order to contribute to the full
personal development of each learner's social and economic development at large,
any programme of learning should make an individual aware of the importance of
these five outcomes, that covers, reflecting on and exploring a variety of strategies
to learn more effectively; participating as responsible citizen in the life of local,
national and global communities; being culturally and aesthetically sensitive across
a range of social contexts; exploring education and career opportunities; and
developing entrepreneurial opportunities.
These statements reflect a social, economic and political bias in that they lay
emphasis on harmonious living across cultures, being responsible citizens
(politicians can have harmony) and development of entrepreneurial opportunities,
removes the burden from the administrators who must avail job opportunities, and
leads to social development where skills can be transferable especially from one
adult entrepreneur to another. In these instances one is forced again to wonder if
the learner's individuality is not extremely neglected at the expense of the wider
community.
The next step, was the identification of learning areas within which the necessary
knowledge, skills and attitudes have to be developed and acquired. These learning
areas have to be understood as knowledge areas, which have to be seen in relation
to larger political, social and economic determinants, which facilitate the
development and sustaining of a central democracy and a vibrant economy (South
Africa, 1997:51). This selection continues to be a top-down process and in a
country that preaches "democracy", one cannot but agree with Capper and Jamison
(1993:440), that "state-level implementation of OBE is the power elite". Even the
choice of knowledge areas seems to be cloaked by mainly socio-political and
49
According to Malan (1997:19), there are eight learning areas adopted for the
General Education and Training phase for schooling in South Africa. These
learning areas include, Language, Literacy, and Communication; Mathematical
Literacy, Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences; Human and Social Sciences;
Natural Sciences; Technology; Arts and Culture; Economic and Management
Sciences; and Life Orientation.
These learning areas are related to the critical outcomes and transcend specific
subject areas to allow those relatively complex demonstrations whose competence
require application in a variety of demanding performance contexts. The present
situation in South Africa will demand new written material to integrate content
because in practice isolated subjects are still maintained under the auspices of
knowledge areas. All learners in this band will learn through these learning areas to
acquire the required knowledge, skills and attitudes of prescribed outcomes.
The learning areas relate to twelve fields in the National Qualifications Framework
(South Africa, 1997:5). Every learner's future career is identifiable under one of
these fields in the South African context. These twelve fields include, Agriculture
and nature conservation; Culture and arts; Business, commerce and management
studies; Communication studies and language; Education, training and
development; Manufacturing, engineering and technology; Human and social
studies; Law, military science and security; Health sciences and social studies;
Physical, mathematical and computer sciences; Services and life sciences; and
Physical planning and construction.
For purposes of this study, it is important to know that Northern Sotho first language
is identifiable as belonging to the field of communication studies and language. This
knowledge is important because the learner and the teacher begin from a common
point of understanding what career possibilities does the studying of Northern Sotho
have for the learner after school. Such knowledge is an incentive, especially when
we consider that in the past some students and teachers of this language were
beginning to lose interest in this subject, explaining that it has no place in the life
50
After the identification of learning areas, followed the identification and formulation
of specific outcomes for each learning area, which describe the contextually
demonstrated knowledge, skills and attitudes which will have to be assessed
whenever a learner's competence in a particular area of learning is to be
determined (Malan, 1997:20).
For purposes of this study, the seven specific outcomes identified and formulated
for the learning area of Languages, Literacy and Communication, shall be outlined
according to South Africa (1997:42) as follows:
The final step was the "formulation of assessment criteria, range statements and
performance indicators", in relation to the identified specific outcomes (Malan,
1997:21). This step was followed by the development of learning programmes by
curriculum developers, and the final steps should take place at institutions and
classrooms, where teachers should formulate their own lesson outcomes and
design their own instructional programmes or lesson plans and continuously assess
51
learners. This information is valuable because findings from this study shall lead to
instructional programming for Northern Sotho in the South African context.
which translate directly into observable action and which in turn, will be easily
assessable. For example, learners make and negotiate meaning and understanding
(South Africa, 1997:51).
For further clarification of how this process is accomplished in the South African
context, refer back to instructional programming in South Africa and lesson sample
in Chapter 4. According to Marzano (1994:46) some trends indicated that broad
outcomes are broken into learning outcomes. For example, "a self-directed learner",
can be refined into the following learning outcome, sets and carries out personal
goals, perseveres in difficult situations, pushes the limits of his or her knowledge,
and restraints impulsivity. Such refined outcomes are then used to design learning
activities that would facilitate learners to reach the desired goal in each knowledge
area.
Stating the purpose of the learning outcome to the learners before engaging them
in the activities designed to reach these outcomes, is a basic necessity for
outcomes-based practice. If the value of the outcomes that learners are to engage
in, are clearly stated, learners become motivated to work at their utmost because it
provides them with a definite purpose, something learners "would remember and be
able to do long after a particular curriculum episode ended, and were truly important
to learners in their educational and life-career futures" (Spady, 1994:51).
then specified outcomes will be accomplished. The type of activity selected will
determine the physical setting or situation in which a learning demonstration takes
place and facilitators should always indicate which learning outcome is facilitated by
a particular learning activity. If implementation of outcomes-based education is
more interested in the various future challenges and conditions of situations
learners are likely to encounter after school, then the setting will be complex,
because it will require career, home or community contexts. If, on the other hand,
activities are restricted to subject content then the setting will be simplistic. For
example, "in groups identify and describe various types of textiles", versus, "you
have been approached to design thirty six ladies work suits in a size twenty for Pick
and Pay Supermarket floor cleaners at South Gate shopping centre. Select suitable
textiles from the given range and write a suitable report to Pick and Pay
management, on the amount of material and the cost so that they can be able to
make a purchase".
The first learning activity is content-based and facilitators can use an excellent aid
to depict and describe various types of textiles for learners to learn from within the
four walls of the classroom, implying a simplistic setting. On the other hand, the
second activity requires more than one contexts compared to the former, for
example, because learners will have to visit the store to ascertain the types of suits,
sit down and make the selection using perhaps the classroom, visit textile
manufacturers to ascertain availability of material selected, and the cost, and visit
designers to ascertain the amount of material needed to complete such a
consignment and finally go back to their classroom to write out a report after the
facilitator has guided them on steps necessary for report writing.
that is, a framework of criteria used to define and assess the essential attributes of
a performance. A four-point scale could be selected where four represents the
highest achievement and one the lowest achievement. Finally, the best assessment
tool and scoring method is that selected by a facilitator because he/she knows best
what is most suitable for his/her learners.
3.8 CONCLUSION
The literature review studied in this chapter indicate that outcomes-based education
is the vision for the future, especially for a country like South Africa, which
experienced "inequality" in the provision of education for the majority of her citizens
"for the past forty years" (South Africa, 1996:2). The implementation of outcomes-
based education will not be seen as free of weaknesses, but these should be seen
as challenges that will help to improve an approach that was the best answer for
overall social development in South Africa. The adoption of this new paradigm shift
for this country, also indicate both commonalities and differences in the way of
design and implementation to international trends of outcomes-based education.
CHAPTER 4
The aim of this chapter is to develop guidelines for teaching Northern Sotho first
language according to an outcomes-based approach. In addition, a sample lesson
shall be supplied for Grade 9 in this language, according to the developed
c
0 z
_c
0 3 a) -
.0u, .cu, a) co a)
_c Es 12.
4.., a, te a) 6.
co co Cc)) a)
u) 0 co
" co a) _c c5- .-
a)
03 0 o
ca
0.
ca
0 c a) E 4- - .C
C r) a- _c -le E a)
E o CI) Cr) -..- a) z v 5 cn
O e 0 1-- a) ccs . 0 sa) -,c)
IP =
0 ca
.c CD co 0 = CO _c a) E- ca
E2 Co caC E .-E
.-
ca a; .4,,,. .c a) .0 - if, c
00 2, 0) w
ro .0 2
=
0 CL 0 47 I "C3 4- cD
_co c_,a, .,...
MT. as :2 1) E 0 ::-
2 al 5... CO
= .0 "
15 0 4e. F7) 1(.1..3 z al
,,, CD a) CD 9.) C.5 5 a;
_ o. C _ C = (I) 0 U)
-0
CD
.c
CD -6
-
C a) = -.--
o_cz-o as o
-
=
u) co o o as
o.
0 0
u_ -.;_-
0
o c7L)
co co
_c as
..0
a_
c U) a) 0 a) ...._
-
0 Eu) co c0 ....a) co2 71) co C c - m
a ) IIw
N.
L) . .G -
.
4j
( ..- f
0 a) .,_. o .51 -0 E C
0 C) *(7)
Ir--. -c 0- cnca=0=E
0 -9 2 E al r,
-0 co 0) 73 U) a) 0 .: 2 c 16, 0-
s -0 co cd ca CD
.0 co n a) - Ca x
-0 a) c V
a) -C = ." a)
c _c -a o co -0a) ,.., 03 4-.
...- ... &- -C c., 73
a) 4-'
(5 E
0 .0 Er) 6
as ? = 2 co cs) ,9-
C g. =-. -4.... M A c mo _C 0 c I-1-
0 Ctl 4... -- _C *a 1.- E '
4= CI) 1 E , ,- ct- 0 ' - .,*
0
CZ 0 o., co
a, L.? as
a) c u)
a)
0 as
a) --
,-,
... 7
(as) cv
c'o
a)
E
a) rxs
trs a) co- 1-.) E
E co > .11) E 5:, c E a) =
dentify anddescribe earning outcomes
-.... o u, CD 43 0 .0 -0 a) o L- "c)
CD o
o co o o co -a- E
0 co 03 as 2
- = -a'
C - a 0. 2 = 03 o. as o E
w = re o a) x = u) _0 al -0 = o a) o
-C3 0 CD CU o o CEoc.)o.c.)
-o o a)
6 _c co ..-.1 0 03
First language teaching guidelines
.C a) 0)
c = co
o
..-- . C ,_
a) as cxs a) 2 -4---.
c) 4:3
E as a co C "0 -0 > t - E a_ co .- .-
03 a5. o 0 =
t. a) a) E o b... 0.. o
..c 03
A o) ai -2
m 1E a)
Q) 41-:. C
t) .- ,?, c c
O = , a) as 0
cES as .._
u) .... a) 8 "8
(I)
a_ 732
c
CD 6 = _C
2
t) o u)
a _c.
0) _c
4- C as
_0 ..... a)
c=r3
(Prag matics)
2 ca_ ,_
E. _ c 2 C
.5 ._ cn -_ 1.._ a/
,_ E ... co
- o Zi iL' .c v . "2 a) = '
.- c cia)o )
ci) a)
o)
- cts W C co
u) E _c a) it a9 E E E a)
CO p. - -a 73'
a) ,..., 4-. C .1- (/) ai Ca
,.. CI) Ed 0. V as o o
-0 f E) al U) CO CD w co _c 03 "c5 2 ? - -4 -0
-0 -0 o , 0 c). 13 = a)
c as 0. 4=
c 0 .. SI o o =
al co ,_. E 41 ..- 0 0_ I-, - u)
C c c0-0 0 4.-
,...., al 0 0 --= &- a) 4-'
.0;_-, .-
0 -,..,
- 0
- ..-. a) __
C %L/
A% ./I
WO _ I -4-_,
C.)
ca a) co
= as _c ca
._
.:-. .,..
..c c cn
,_
as a) - 3 m N '14 a) c 0
cm E .o ...c. a) c
E c V -C
=
0 as c _,
..
7
--- ,w co -0 .,- "c7) u) 0
m
"4= 0 .. Es -5 o co 03 -.F.;
c o - 43) c, >, 5
.... .E. V0 o. 0 C =
ni a) = ca -c _c " 92 as as co s. , _c 0 -c 0 'c'
o re F.-. co 49 0_ .c a) Tv 0 .- to IP I-
m
73 -0 "
co
the futu re needs of the learner. Thus the learning experience the learners will Teachers should always have in mind the
learning a first lang uage shou ldbe write a chapter of a novel in which they critical cross-curricu lar outcomes
mean ingful in the life of the learner. clearly identify the type of conflict which must be achieved through the
experiencedin educationalinstitutions, achievement of the specific outco mes in
co
ca
a)
fa
C)
Unlike in outcomes-based education, and state its effect on the smooth Teachers shou ld also
where the learning outcomes are based running of such organisations. bear in mind the relevant range
on either of the three approaches, that is, statements and performance indicators
the traditional outcomes-based approach When learning outcomes are written, related to the concerned specific
a)
O
EO
U)
O
or the transitional outcomes-based operational verbs shou ldbe written. This
approach or the transformational out- is similar to first lang uage teaching.
comes-based approach, first language Such verbs as write, identify, state, Lang uage shall be based on a prag matic
approaches are interested in reaching a su mmarise as usedin the examples app roachthat seeks to interpret ling uistic
balance between the structu re of Ian- above. These verbs facilitates meaning in context. Thu s with a variety
a)
C
6
O
O
C
C
_c
O
a)
O
ca
C
C
ca
O
assessment because unlike verbs li ke of contexts, lang uage shall be taug ht
C)
C)
a)
C
O
C
_c
a)
"6
a)
a)
03
T3
O
0
0
O
0
O
O_
lang uage on the other. Thus the think, appreciate, know, these verbs can
learning outcomes should not only relate be translated into observable action many kinds of content. Northern Sotho
to gram matical competence or discourse which is assessa ble. shall thus be taug ht to strike a balance
O
ca
a)
_c)
a)
.c
V
_o
C
O
co
a)
a)
a)
0
EO
between structu ralism on the one hand
CL
competence andbe fu nctional. This will Suchlearn ing outcomes and their values andfu nctionalism on the other.
thus imply that a teacher cannot state should be clearly verbalised to the
O
_c
E
U)
a)
C.)
a)
a)
_o
O
O
a)
6
learn ing outcomes that restrict learners learners du ring the introductory phase of
to knowledge of structu re on ly, nor to the the lesson. This together with prere- ted sparingly, that is, at the most only two
fu nction of lang uage. q uisites, that is, the knowledge, skills or outcomes can be selected at a time,
0)
LO
When these learning outco mes are
written operational verbs shou ldbe used. engage successfully in the learn ing selves with this approach. These out-
Verbs as bet, pronou nce, identify, write, outcomes stated, should be explained in comes shallbe used to draw learning
nominate, compare, whichlike in this phase, so that if such prereq uisites outcomes to be achievedin a series of
outcomes -based education will be are inadequate, the facilitator can learn ing experiences. Specific out-
translatedinto observable action, which provide instruction. For example: When comes cannot be achieved within one
can be demonstrable during learners should write a memoran dum. period of a lesson. A series oflearn ing
assessme nt. They will need, for example, the neces- experiences which may take a number of
sary vocabulary, the formal structure of lessons can move towards achievement
Prag matics is also about the use of a the language, ability of using the relevant of a specific outcome.
lang uage. It is for this that performative
verbs are usedin pragmatics. When these learn ing outcomes, derived
warn as in "Iwarn you that there is a from the specific outcomes are written,
fierce dog arou nd the corner" or promise operational verbs shou ld be used if
as in "Iprom ise to do my best". On the teachers are to be said to be outcomes-
other hand, outcomes-based education based in approach. Verbs such as draw,
goes beyond a particular lang uage which write, define, synthesise, analyse,
is a particular content and asks q ues- which will translate into demonstra ble
tions like: What is the value oflearn ing? action and which willlend easy for
What type oflanguage can I use to help assess ment shouldbe used. Avoid verbs
learners achieve knowledge, skills and such as appreciate, know, think, under-
attitudes stated? stand, because these verbs cannot be
demonstrable during assessment as they
co
O
are internal processes. For example: "At
Prag matics also stresses the importance the end of the learning experience,
15O
O
The latter presupposes the learners will be able to write two stanzas
_ca)
value offirst lang uage learn ing. of a praise poem in Northern Sotho",
fu nction of language on the other hand instead of"At the end of the learning
can be shown better when appearing in experience the learners willbe able to
a suitable context. appreciate praise poems". The verb
appreciate is not easily translated into
observable action, whereas the verb
write can be translatedinto observable
action and thus make it possible during
assessment.
. b- -ci o
a.. -E,
,...
-- .,..
... a)
CO >
0
-
E
"
co co _c c.,
= Crl C 4' 1 C ca co co (1)
..... E s .2- as El. 45
< a) 0 .0 .92 0 .0 0 2 Q. Q U) il) 4... *0 0
C a) ., , _ Fr--
a) . 0) _C 0
a)
_o
t,
as
CE a)
sa
-
1 u)
a) _c a)
u) -4:3
CD t... (1) 0
Outcomes-based teaching
co -r, "0 V
a)
>
Ca
a) co _, a) co a)
a)
X)
o
"e
,= fil
'... a/
75
,TI a)
_c 0 ..E- a) E; u)
m cn 0 to
..0 .g.,
I 0 a) .0 .c .E" E ca t";cs .$-D - 2 a,
CI) = -C > C (1) 0_ 2 -9 _c -0 Z,E a)
N u) ui 0 CO,
ca u) u) ci., c
.... _c 0)
guidelines
E C co c c 92 cn 0 = C
0 0 6 0 ,- = . c CD 4-=.E To
0 c V 0 0 > "C E
-
a) - 15. 0 x _0 z.-.
= -0
.... _
c
a) 0 .0 E 'cm cp
>. ()
= cai3c0 0) "c
a)0 (0' 0=0 -00 a) "-
Cl) .... 7).
0 45 as a)
c.) a) a) .- c-) 0 "_E 2 u) _c c O. E P...) E @
c 715 'El = " 0 4 -. ES 0- 0 ca 0 _c
0 U) *5 as O -.F. as S 9. = 4- ca c.) 0 -0 4-
U)
0 C
ci) 0 ..-, = -0 .0
a- ,... 5 c . a)
First lang uage teaching g u idelines
a) F. 0 -' c.) 2
(..) E a)
_c 0 '..=. .c
s
. 0
ca
_.>
b
-4=
c.c.) a)
..c
.... u)
a) ai co .
0. a) la
Z . :E
a) a) - ro-.F.
cu al =
a o 4)3 t)
o iii
-c
0 0 a) Z.. 0 E> as. 2 .E.) a) a) , ..-
cp a) a) 0 .0 co
w a) a) 73 as > 0 ,.. .c = 0
c _c 0) .c ._ 0 -c 0- C co as I= a' 0 .0 .._
TE- .-- g .,_, ? h_ 0 - .1) a) ss -E, -c 5 al
(Prag matics)
0 ti co cu > u) co a) 2 la 2 , c in
a) c -c a u)
0 E 0
0 T w (1) -- 0
- o 0 --
, a) ,
-- --- 0 a) co "
co C ..T.;
a) a) --, w -
.44 -- .., a) --.- al o c) as u) a)
..... a)
- -
a) u) .. E co :LI
>
-- lb- x .0 = a) 4- E -
__. as - w co E.
C.)
U C :as
-....
X _0 .-
l'' c..)
0 ._
0 0) c
ni 0
C
(1)
4--
V "r6 Ca
..0 4A-4
It
ca ,.,
C cD = 0 c al .,... L.: 0 .1-
d 4). > im a 0. r
c
0 CD w t. as E -0 a) C.
CD
C.)
-0 C.) 0) 2 -0 ...c. 8 w 2. .0 0 S 8
0 0 c. ) w ES E (02 _c)
0 c _c
=
I_ 4
a) - a) -
E' p s Cl- 9;
C0
E _c co
cr) ., -0
CISQ)-5
0- E 0
Ca
o
5
.c
al
=
2.
c
. Y
. z,
C c
as "
as
(15
"
as
u)
5 c ..., u) , u)
0 0) ._
15
Q)-CCO.5 CO
"E - La w
0 E
a>).,
= r
.2 2
as -E- 0- -0
o
a) '
cz
as cr)
= c
ED a
l
C
0
-.:=
C_)
T.
0D
cu 45 E o 0 c co ca CD
.4
C 0 CO . 0 2 2 0 u)
by practitioners in outcomes -based conditions of situations that learners are identified cross-curricular outcomes.
ca
2
CL
likely to encou nter after school as Teachers should be sensitive about the C
a)
-C
a)
a)
c:-)
13
O
0
N
a)
4E.
C
0
tit
Co
Co
E
-C 7
Ira
C
4
R'
6"
E
ci)
a)
a)
a)
ca
Ea)
co
73
O
2
O
0
0
Q
0.
The selection of activities has implica- and challenging and that allow learne rs to
literature, available newspaper cuttings, tions for content selection. In outcomes- engage in high-level areas of knowledge
illustrations, videos, creation of based education, students shou ld be and skills so that such knowledge and
scenarios, visits to libraries, all from the given stimulating, challenging, in-depth skills will enable the successfu l attainment
specific language contexts are used to encounters with high-level areas of of learner's exit outcomes. Teachers
draw activities. For first language knowledge and skills. Teachers shou ld should remem ber that such activities are
learn ing, visits to actual places, to meet disting uish between content that is drawn fro m a transformational outcomes-
authors, see cultural artefacts, kraals and important in enriching learner's lives and based approach, thus should relate to life-
monuments, would make lang uage those that are tru ly essentialfor learners roles of career, work and community.
learn ing more meaningful. Such visits to develop into hig h level performe rs to These activities shou ldbe child-centred.
C
C
70"
as
')
-0
O
O
C
O
co
N
U
a)
Co
_C
O
0
reac h the exit outcomes.
entertainment. In the teac hing ofNorthern Sotho, like in
Outcomes -based practice considers prag matics, a variety of ling uistic contexts
The context in prag matics determ ine the physical context versus content context. and situational contexts shou ldbe deter-
lang uag e to be used, what MichaelHalli- In a transformational outcomes -based
day referred to as reg ister. For example, practice a much more complex context outcomes. Discourse can thus be
If a learner were to give an oral report of is req uired. For example, learne rs may designed around su itable parag raphs,
E
13
C
O
O
ca
C
co
a)
a)
a)
C
0
EO
C)
.
I-
.c
U)
a)
a)
C)
co
=
a)
ui
m
ET)
"5
El.?
U)
a)
=
O
O
U
o-
the physical situation where outcomes
C1
outcomes-based. This willbe clearly
context in prag matics dete rm ine shou ldbe achieved, and advocates that ind icatedin the lesson sample, parag raph
lang uage used, ling u istic context and the classroom should not be regarded
knowledge of the world, referred to as as the only place where learners can
situational context. The ling u istic context engag e in activities to achieve The content contexts in teac hing and
willdeterm ine how the learner above outcomes, but a variety of contexts or learn ing ofNorthern Sotho shou ld be
shallbe able to com bine se nten ces situations shou ldbe used to eng age cross-curricular ifit willbenefit the learner
together to express complex thoug hts learners in various learn ing activities. in the future, acco rding to an outcomes-
er
CD
and ideas referred to as discourse. In pragmatics the various contexts are based approach. Teachers cannot, for
Situational context shalldeterm ine the the various situations that lang uage is instance, have a lesson on adverbs and
knowledge of the world of traffic officers, used and the various ling uistic contexts adjectives as parts of speech isolated
friends, priests, and how to select in which discou rse takes place. These from the fu nction of such adverbs and
language content to suit these various contexts are the learn ing contexts adjectives in the life-roles of learners, at
contexts. Situational contexts will include wherein various content is used in home, at work andin the commun ity, after
all extra-ling uistic factors that surrou nds outcomes-based approach. they have graduated from learn ing insti-
a particu lar situation at any g iven tutions. Using another content to facilitate
moment. For example, the beliefs of the These activities should be clearly ex- the use of adverbs and adjectives, a
traffic officers, friends, priests; the subject plained to the learners at the beginning teacher can take a paragraphfrom
of conversation, in this instance the acci- of the teaching phase. They shouldbe biology that describes a human organ and
dent, the beliefs of the learner about what broken down into small steps so that how blood circulates in it. The only
the traffic office rs, friends, priests, learners can be able to follow. implications such content would have on a
>
a)
a)
.a)
0
Outcomes-based approach stresses that Northern Sotho learning experience is the
learners should engage in activities with time that teachers would spend on
To ensure that learners engage the req uired knowledge, skil ls and trans lation of material whichis currently
enthusiastically and relevantly in the attitudes that they need to be able to not available in this lang uage.
learning activities, the teacher should succeed. Th is is impliedin prag matics
that to engage in ling uistic context, These activities shou ldbe introduced in
clearly, at the beginn ing of a teaching discou rse, implies a situational context, small steps that can be followed easily to
phase. Prag matics is also about which is knowledge of the world. Thus, facilitate achievement and movement
knowledge of the world, and the latter learners will be expected to have a towards achievement of a learning
5 4
E
o
0
O
ai
..
M
a)
c
circumstances of the learners. activities, such factors should be taken and learning strateg ies should be used
outcomes-based education, pragmatics into cons ideration. to enable learners to achieve these
shall therefore have extension workfor learn ing outcomes. The Northern Sotho
the fast learner during the teaching Various su itable teaching strategies teacher with their history of teaching this
should be used by teachers to facilitate lang uage as a second or third lang uage,
achievement of outcomes. These shou ld beg in to upg rade their knowledge
strategies are used to develop the of suitable first lang uage teaching and
desiredknowledge, skills and attitudes learn ing strategies. These strateg ies
desiredfor the learners. In outcomes- should be used to develop the desired
based education practice, teachers are knowledge, skills and attitudes.
also expected to prepare extension work
for the fast learner, to be ready during The Northern Sotho teacher shou ldhave
the teaching phase. extension work readily preparedfor any
situation where a fast learner could have
completed all the core activities desig ned
for the class, during the teaching phase.
-a .CI . E c -0
w . 0)
U) ui C ,_ a)
a) :E = cy, a) co 0 >. 0) E g co
0 I.-- -0 c H.F. re C 2) 2 -0 =
Outcomes-based teaching
E -- a) , co
ccs -a 6 E
..- r, CD 0
(c1),)
ai
o
-5 M
ui _a 8
Ca. CD 0 6 CO ...
E 1-
w-. a) _ CO CO '-' CD
a. .4= C -C)
a
CO CO
.c E .0
'oc0) (s) >, ,,
0. _c co ,_ o -5 0 =
c.) co C .E si,4--g co - -c m.' 0 oc--
...- as r, co
gu idelines
cu u) .0 22
, a) CO ,._ ..,_ F- _c -c) 0 crs o ,_
CD u) 0) oci al 0 CO co o a)
CD 0-
CL
u)
Ca
0 c a) ,r,
Ye
-a
C
E ai0)
15
.4
u..0) a) C
, a)
4, 461
C CO
CZ co C .-,,
c "6 >
'4= a) 5.: ca -a a) -c E a) _c .
-a = a) `"
ert
(1)
u)
al c
i 't
Cl
g c
u)
a)
.
.= "5 E 4-. al
tcl aI S) I03
'co In-
4- 0 = al =... 13 a) ca
al
8
c
a
U)
o
E
cn
co
Ci)
U)
c)-c
a)
.91-
01
co 0 i,-; -0 -a a _ -
CO co _c
O 0 CO _ x _c CL) ac C co co Cl) 0 CO u) 0_
Eco a)(1)t)-0)a) c.) a) -4:::
co c
u)
= =
0 CO
L_
O co,-- ,-,
Q)
- .c
.-. 0)
c = = g' 0 ':E: a) o a) 0 u) a)
0 .4_ ca a) ._ C C -C > 2
E 13 9... .c .- la co
= 2 a) 0) '5 0 `) t--) .c = s' c' a co CO
0 ca. E 4.2 -a < 0 a) its' co cr. a. co > co 0.
C
E 6 o
First lang uage teac hing g u idelines
O ..=
0 a)
N c Eco
(2
c C
g
.- 6
i,- C
c E a) a)
-0 0. :E) ...= .0 c.)
O 0. co ,-- 0. -a c
E ,c 8 co vs cn E >, -0 C .=
-- - to. a) c7) o co -o
C a) Cco _c ,,_ a- _. 0 CO
w 0 .1:17), z 2
C a) a) 0 _a) 0 a' CO 4E; _c W 0
U) a) crs o
(Prag matics)
O as
=
E :E %a' E ...,.
-
cr) c.) = a) C :,=. c (t) - 2 V.;
C 7-7 C ..- _0 8 a) Z
o u)
,,, 0. '5
O co c/J -- a- -0 a) ..,. E .=
:,=. 0. 0)
05
= u) .c c Cl)
0 CD W .1-, = Cr) a) u) 4-) "C- ..,
> ,_,
C 0 c -.p 2 =0 E
u)
m
a)
_c
0 E
c '5
c7) .- - O > - u) 0)
,4, co CO a3
() = 46 4
5.
O ti CD a) - co u) E ..-
co ui c ca a) - co a) 4-. co
No co) a)
ca a)
-
._ c
o
4) c.) 0 a) 73 0 > CO . u) a.- cT, c.)
"fi -.- = s2 > CO .4CO
.7. >, CI) u) 0- >
E yi, co ...... ...0 :.-. a) c _o cz CO CO co 2
ct co 0 .,.- > "0 u) o -0
a) r_' CO C m IrZ
n4
"
E a) = 4-. 0 0
2 EL CD as Y ,..
.. - = a.- 0 T) C
= -
-E .4=
as
0- a) C 0) W CZ U) C7) *r_- a) o 4- =
CO
- 0 a- C :s-
*E 8 (7) :2 *E. 16 "6 -f:s > = co a) co
CO
N
assess ment as discussedin chapter 3
under parag raph 3.4.5.4. Northern Sotho
teachers shall again have to engage in
translation of these assess me nt tools if
they are to practice successfully in an
outcomes-based education practice.
68
tha bona. Baithuti ba kgopelwa go dula are asked to sit in groups and each
ka dihlopha gomme sehlopha se group is supplied with the following
sengwe le se sengwe se fiwa dilogwa textiles: silk, wool, cotton, asbestos and
the di latelago: siliki, wulu, leela, marela nylon.
le naelone.
Mo lebakeng le, barutii/gadi ba ka At this stage, teachers can tell learners
tsebia baithuti ka dipoelo te'a thuto le about the learning outcomes and their
mehola ya tona blab ka ge go nyakega value as is recommended in outcomes
go ya ka thuto-thewa dipoelong. based practice. Teachers will also use
Barutii/gadi ba tla omia le tsebo ya their professional experience to decide
bona ya go ruta go inaganela gore ba ka on how to implement this aspect.
diragata bjang ntlha ye.
Morutii/gadi o diragatga ditiro ta thuto The teacher implements the learning
theo a di kgethilego ge a itokietta thuto. activities which were selected during
0 laela barutwana go diragata tiro ya lesson preparation. She/he instructs
mathomo ya thuto ka moo go latelago: learners to engage in the first activity as
follows:
2. Kgato ya go ruta 2. Teaching Phase
Barutii/gadi ba swanete go ba ba dirile Teachers should have done the
boitekelo ka dilogwa ge ba itokieta experiment on textiles during
thuto, gomme ba ngwadile dipoelo ka preparations and had findings neatly
bothakga gore ba tie ba kgone go thuta recorded to be able to help learners
baithuti mo kgatong ye. during this phase.
Tiro I Activity I
Sehlopheng se sengwe le se sengwe, in each group discuss the best
boledganang ka thekniki ye kaonekaone technique that you can use to test the
yeo le ka e omiago go leka dilogwa different textiles so that you can select
the di fapanego, gore le tle le kgethe the appropriate textile for use in the
selogwa se se lebanego go ka omiwa aeroplane interior.
ka gare ga sefofane.
Teko: Teko ka morutii/gadi: Letlakala Assessment: Teacher assessment: An
la kelotlhoko leo le hlamilwego ke observation sheet compiled by the
72
The translation of material must be an integral part of all planning and preparation
in Northern Sotho because language teaching in outcomes-based practice
necessitates a variety of life-role contexts, which are provided by interdisciplinary
quality content. The lack of Northern Sotho material in most disciplines will thus
point to translation of such material as the only solution at present. For example:
the use of cartoons, newspaper cuttings, passages from magazines will need to be
translated into Northern Sotho.
process that will come to fruition only if given the time, dedication and involvement it
deserves. Teachers should upgrade their knowledge of teaching and learning
strategies and consider team teaching as ideal in outcomes-based education.
This research undertaking indicates both strengths and limitations, which shall be
discussed in this next section of this chapter. Attention will first focus on the
strengths and then turn to the limitations.
4.5.1 Strengths
There are a number of strengths that emerged during the undertaking of this
research. These strengths will benefit the Northern Sotho practitioners in
outcomes-based practice. The study of outcomes-based education, which is a new
paradigm shift in South Africa, will afford many practitioners with a basis to work
from in their daily activities. The Northern Sotho facilitators, who have been in the
background of change in language development, will benefit greatly, because this
research affords them a step by step analysis of how outcomes-based approach
lessons .should be designed in this language. First language practitioners in other
languages will also benefit from the findings of this research, especially in the
development of guidelines for first language teaching done in chapter 2. Though no
two languages are exactly the same, there are many areas of consensus and as
such this study shall be beneficial. International implementation of outcomes-based
education will benefit most researches who will find the distinction between such
practices and the South African adoption of this practice informative.
77
For instance, the notion of working from specific outcomes instead of critical
outcomes, specific outcomes classified according to the area of knowledge they
represent, may cause old practitioners to believe that this new paradigm is similar
to the old and only an implementation of new terminology, the meaning of various
concepts used in the new approach is very unclear as various newly written
materials and implementers do not reach consensus.
The various weaknesses cited from former outcomes-based practices, would help
new implementers, who mostly hold the belief that this new paradigm is without
flaws. Such a realisation will help them to begin from a position of strength. The
absence of fieldwork from this study in the South African context is beneficial,
because of absence of expertise in this field. Again, many practitioners of
outcomes-based education are still struggling with the concept, and such a study
would be more confusing than insightful. Translation of some terminology used in
outcomes-based practice shall benefit many Northern Sotho practitioners.
4.5.2 Limitations
In this section, limitations of this research study are addressed. Facilitators and
researchers in Northern Sotho and other related first languages should consider
them seriously because they will help to enrich their knowledge in this field. The
major limitation in this research is the absence of fieldwork that will probably lead to
both local and international criticism. Given its infancy in the South African context,
it would be difficult to reach conclusion from old implementers of this practice on a
language and situation very different from theirs. The lesson is based on specific
outcomes designed for a field of knowledge and not a critical cross curricular
outcome, and such a starting point may face serious criticism internationally,
because it tends to work from the traditional outcomes-based approach. The lack
of standardised Northern Sotho terminology for use in the new outcomes-based
education, may face criticism from first language speakers, who may prefer specific
terminology contrary to that used in this research in their struggle to reach
excellence.
78
4.6 CONCLUSION
The development of guidelines for first language teaching will benefit first language
practitioners. The integration of these guidelines with outcomes-based teaching
guidelines to develop guidelines for teaching Northern Sotho will greatly benefit the
learner and the practitioner in this language. Major conclusions reached showed
how closely related outcomes-based teaching key features are, to that of teaching a
first language according to pragmatics. The lesson sample indicated clearly how
teachers could implement outcomes-based guidelines in Northern Sotho first
language. Outcomes-based teaching is not about stating and describing objectives
which are content bound and teacher-centred, but about stating and describing
learning outcomes that clearly specify the knowledge, skills and attitudes that
learners should achieve after a learning experience. This was clearly evident in the
Northern Sotho lesson sample given earlier. These outcomes are learner-centred
and based on higher order competencies or life role situations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANON. 1997: New schools syllabi still has a problem. Sowetan, 24 March 1997:3.
BROWN, S; RACE, P & SMITH B 1996: 500 tips on assessment. London: Kogan
Page.
FRITZ, M 1994: Why OBE and the traditionalists are both wrong. Educational
Leadership, 51(6), 79-80.
RANTAO, J & NAIDU, E 1997: Radical changes at schools launched. The Star, 25
March 1997:1.
SOUTH AFRICA, 1994: The draft White Paper on Education and Training.
Pretoria: Government Printers.
SOUTH AFRICA, 1995: Draft curriculum framework for general and further
education and training. Pretoria: Government Printers.