Lecture 2

Mathematical Background
(Lathi Chapter B, B.1-B.3)

Compiled by Mr. J.H. van Wyk

with examples adopted from Dr. J.P. Jacobs

Dept Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering

ELI220 Linear Systems
 Sinusoids(1)

Consider the sinusoid

The sinusoid repeats every 1/fo seconds. fo is the frequency

(or cycles per second) of the sinusoid, measured in Hertz (Hz)
and the repetition interval or period To is given by

Two special cases for x(t):

L B.2 p 16

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Sinusoids(2)

0 is called the radian frequency (in rad/s)

The relationship between and is illustrated

in the next figure.
L B.2 p17

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Sinusoids(3)

L B.2 p18

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Sinusoids(4)

L B.2 p18

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Addition of sinusoids(1)

Two sinusoids with the same frequency but different phases

add to form a single sinusoid of the same frequency.

where

Therefore

To summarize
L B.2-1 p18

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Addition of sinusoids(2)

This addition of sinusoids can be represented by using

phasors.

L B.2-1 p19

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Addition of sinusoids(3)

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Eulers formula

Sinusoids can be expressed i.t.o. Exponentials

and inverted as

L B.2-2 p21

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Exponentially varying sinusoids

By definition:

For

multiply
and
to obtain x(t)

L B.3 p22

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Cramers rule(1)

Cramers rule offers a convenient way of solving simultaneous

linear equations. Consider a set of n linear simultaneous
equations in n unknowns x1, x2, ... , xn

Expressed in a matrix form

L B.4 p24

Dept Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering

ELI220 Linear Systems
 Cramers rule(2)

The matrix on the left-hand side formed by aij is A.

The determinant of A is denoted as |A|. If the determinant is
not zero, the set of equations has a unique solution, given by
Cramers formula

where |Dk| is obtained by replacing the kth column of |A| by

the column of the right-hand side of the matrix set (Y).

L B.4 p25

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Cramers rule Example

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Partial Fraction Expansion(1)

A rational function (a ratio of two polynomials), can be

expressed as:

L B.5 p26

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Partial Fraction Expansion(2)

L B.5 p26

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 Method of clearing Fractions

L B.5-1 p27

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Heaviside (Cover-up) Method(1)

L B.5-2 p28

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ELI220 Linear Systems
Heaviside (Cover-up) Method(2)

L B.5-2 p28

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Repeated factors of Q(x)

L B.5-3 p32

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Mixture of Heaviside Cover-up and Clearing
functions

For a function that contains several repeated and unrepeated

roots, it may be easiest to
Solve for easier roots using Heaviside
Solve remaining roots by clearing fractions

L B.5-4 p34

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 Improper F(x) with m=n

L B.5-5 p35

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Vectors and Matrices(1)

Row vector (1 x n matrix)

Column vector (m x 1 matrix)

Matrix (m x n)

When m=n the matrix is called a square matrix. L B.6 p37

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Definitions and Properties

Diagonal matrix
Transpose

Identity matrix

In represents the n x n identity matrix.

I and I are used to represent vectors and matrices.
If aij = aji the matrix is a symmetric matrix.
Two matrices of the same order are only equal if they are equal
element by element.
L B.6-1 p38

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Matrix Algebra(1)

Addition of Matrices

L B.6-2 p39

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Matrix Algebra(2)

Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar

L B.6-2 p40

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Matrix Algebra(3)

Matrix Multiplication

L B.6-2 p40

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Matrix Algebra(4)

L B.6-2 p40

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 Matrix Algebra(5)

Matrix Inversion

L B.6-2 p42

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Matrix Algebra(6)

Matrix Inversion

The matrix A must be a square matrix L B.6-2 p42

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Matrix Algebra Example

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 Derivative of a Matrix

L B.6-3 p43

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 Integral of a Matrix

L B.6-3 p44

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 Cayley-Hamilton theorem(1)

L B.6-4 p45

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ELI220 Linear Systems
 Cayley-Hamilton theorem(2)

L B.6-4 p45

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ELI220 Linear Systems
Cayley-Hamilton theorem Example

L B.6-4 p45

Dept Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering

ELI220 Linear Systems
 Formula sheet

Lathi B.7 is a summary of some useful mathematical

equations that form part of the formula sheet for this and
other modules. Please familiarize yourself with it.

L B.7 p48-52

Dept Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering

ELI220 Linear Systems