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genetic algorithms
V. C. Castilho and M. C. V. Lima
Genetic algorithms (GA), a search method inspired by Darwins theory of evolution, offer an optimisation tool that
has been used very successfully to solve a variety of engineering problems. The search process it implements starts
with a set of one or more chromosomes (initial population) and, by applying selection and reproduction operators,
iteratively evolves the population into better ones, until a stopping criterion is reached. This article investigates
lattice-reinforced joist slab cost optimisation problems using a GA with continuous variables. The problem
considered concerns one-way slabs, continuous over two spans, in which only the in situ concrete characteristics
and joist spacing are varied. The design variables are: concrete layer thickness, concrete layer strength,
reinforcement, distance between joists and degree of redistribution of the continuous slabs negative moments.
The search for a solution includes an investigation into the use of discrete variables for data representation.
To obtain results that allow for a comparative empirical analysis, these problems are also evaluated by a
conventional optimisation method. The results indicate that the GA method is a viable optimisation tool for
solving lattice-reinforced joist slab cost minimisation problems.
[doi: 10.1680/stco.2007.8.3.111]
Vanessa Cristina de than that of optimisation. In the area of and the coefficient of redistribution of the
Castilho precast concrete structures, the optimisation negative moments of continuous slabs. Based
Universidade Federal de of elements is of major interest due to the on these factors, the influence of the continu-
Uberlandia, Brazil way these elements are produced. In Brazil, ous reinforcement is evaluated in the struc-
one of the most common applications of tures final cost.4,5 The variables are defined
precast concrete elements is in buildings initially as continuous and later as discrete,
Maria Cristina Vidigal
slabs. These slabs usually consist of lattice- since it is much easier to associate a discrete
de Lima
Universidade Federal de reinforced joists, prestressed concrete joists, set of values to the variables values because
Uberlandia, Brazil pre-cast double-T (TT) panels and hollow core they are more easily applied. To investigate
panels. the potential of the GA, the same problems
In precast concrete elements, part of the were addressed using a conventional method,
problem is the transitory stages of production, the Excel Solver, which uses the nonlinear
transportation and assembly, which may optimisation code Generalized Reduced
Notation impose more unfavourable loads on these Gradient (GRG2).
elements than on cast-in-place structures.
h degree of redistribution These stages consist of:1
Map negative bending moment after the
Genetic algorithm
redistribution (a) production execution of precast The genetic algorithm (GA) is an optimisation
Mel negative bending moment for concrete elements; and search method based on the concepts of
elastic-linear material (b) transportation moving from the genetics, i.e. the evolutionary mechanisms of
f (x) cost function, in R$/m2 production to the building site; populations of live beings. GAs were inspired
x1 thickness of cast-in-place concrete, (c) assembly placement of the elements in on the principles of natural selection and
in m their permanent position and execution survival of the fittest established in 1859 by
x2 compressive strength of the con- of the connections. Charles Darwin in his book The Origin of
crete, in MPa
Species. According to Darwins theory, in any
x3 distance between joists axes, in m
A robust solution to the problem of cost given population, the individuals possessing
x4 degree of redistribution, in %
minimisation of precast concrete structures good genetic characteristics have better
requires that all these stages be taken into chances for survival and reproduction than
Introduction account. the less fit individuals, who tend to disappear
This article analyses the cost optimisation of over time.
Researchers in the field of structural engineer- lattice-reinforced joist slabs based on genetic The GA simulates biological evolution by
ing have always attempted to devise optimised algorithms (GAs).2,3 The problem variables are means of a multidirectional search within the
design solutions. Indeed, few topics have the height and strength of the concrete, the space of potential solutions for the problem.
received more attention in structural analyses reinforcement, the distance between joists This algorithm maintains a constant number
Downloaded by [ UC San Diego Libraries] on [10/03/17]. Copyright ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
112 de Castilho and de Lima
of potential solutions (population), modifying Generalised reduced gradient The concrete base is moulded in metal
the population in each successive generation (GRG2) moulds to ensure the quality of the concrete,
so that good solutions can reproduce and which is applied in 2 3 cm thickness, using
pass on to the next generation, while bad The GRG2 is a nonlinear optimisation program concrete with small rich aggregates in a aggre-
solutions are discarded. GA generally uses used by the Microsoft Excel Solver to solve gate cement paste to avoid the vibration
probabilistic transition rules to select some minimisation and maximisation problems.19 operation (Figure 3).
solutions for reproduction and others to be Basically, GRG2 uses an implementation of the Lattice-reinforced joists are usually pro-
discarded. The basic principles of GA were generalised reduced gradient algorithm (GRG). duced in lengths varying from 80 300 mm,
established in Holland6 and are mentioned in To generalise the GRG algorithm, the func- with possible one-centimetre variations. Each
many bibliographical references.7 11 tions gradient is used, thus ensuring that, type of joist is identified by a set of symbols,
Each individual in a population (called a regardless of the expression, a linear relation as illustrated in the example below,25 where
chromosome) usually corresponds to a point among the variables is always obtained. in TR-08634: TR characterises the lattice-
in the search space and represents a possible A typical optimisation problem with restric- reinforced joist; 08 indicates the 8 cm high
solution to the problem this solution is also tions addressed via nonlinear programming lattice reinforcement; 6 indicates the f6 mm
called a hypothesis. The GA can explore the can be equated as shown in Figure 2. In the gauge of the lattices upper bar; 3 indicates
space of possible solutions to seek the best presence of inequalities, the equations are the f3.4 mm gauge of the diagonals; and
one by applying its reproduction mechanism transformed using fictitious variables. 4 indicates the f4.2 mm gauge of the lower
to the individuals of the current population. The solution to the optimisation problem is bars.
Instead of starting from a single point (or found starting from this typical algorithm and Lattice-reinforced joists can be produced by
potential solution) in the search space, a GA applying the characteristics of the GRG itself. In order to include additional reinforcements
is initialised with a population of potential sol- addition to all these characteristics for solving introduced in the concrete base without
utions. These potentials solutions are normally optimisation problems, unlike the GA, an initial complicating the production process.
generated randomly and represent dispersed solution must also be supplied, whether it is El Debs1 points out that the use of this type
points in the search space. feasible or not. of lattice-reinforced joist favours the appli-
A typical GA uses three operators cation of bi-directional reinforcement slabs.
selection, crossover and mutation to guide Ribbed slabs with lattice- The Brazilian Civil Construction Committee
the population (through several generations) reinforced joists is currently studying the elaboration of the
toward a convergence at the global optimal Code for Prefabricated Slabs. Therefore, the
point. After the selection, crossover and Lattice-reinforced joist slabs can be treated as calculations normally used by design engineers
mutation operators have been applied, a new monolithic structures because they are joined to to dimension and check lattice-reinforced joist
population is formed. The process is repeated cast-in-place concrete. The behaviour of these slabs are those published by manufacturers of
until a given number of generations have been slabs is similar to that of conventionally designed precast elements, according to Diniz,26 Lima27
created or another stop criterion is reached. slabs, and these precast concrete elements play a and Pereira.28
These characteristics, organised into a pro- rational role, representing low-cost and fast con-
cedure, can be rewritten as the pseudo-code struction (EF-9620 and NBR 611821).
shown in Figure 1. upper bar
Lattice-reinforced joists are structures com-
This optimisation tool is widely employed in posed of steel bars joined together by electro- diagonals
the search for solutions to innumerable pro- fusion welding at various points to form a
h
blems in the field of engineering.12 18 space lattice. In the transitory phases, the diag- concrete base
onals of these lattices confer rigidity on the set,
S(t ) population of chromosomes in generation
as well as excellent transport conditions and
t. handling, and connections between the cast-in- additional
lower bars reinforcement
place concrete and the precast concrete base.
initialise S(t ) Moreover, the lattices can be used as transversal
evaluate S(t ) reinforcements to offset shear stresses.22 24 4 Figure 3 Lattice-reinforced joists4
while (not termination-condition)
begin
Raw material
Concrete: R$/m3 123.75 4.40 4.00
Reinforcement: R$/kg 1.80 0.25
Infill blocks: R$/m3 2.00 2.00 1.20
4 Figure 4 Difference between Mel and
Factory activity: R$/m3 4.40 1.67
Map
Administration: R$/m3 10% of the overall costs
involved in raw material,
The continuous reinforcement of the factory activity
lattice-reinforced joist was determined using
as the variable the degree of the bending
moments redistribution, taking care not to
exceed the slabs bearing capacity.29 Table 2 Assembly costs
The degree of redistribution h, expressed as
Material Labour Equipment
a percentage (Figure 4), is given by
Erection: R$/m3 10.4
Map Cast-in-place concrete: R$/m3 (24.75 . fck,capa 74.25) 110.75
h 1 100(%)
Mel Reinforcement: R$/kg 8.18
Administration: R$/m3 20% of the overall costs
involved in the assembly,
where Map is the negative bending moment
cast-in-place concrete
after the redistribution and Mel is the negative and complementary
bending moment for elastic-linear material. reinforcement
Solution of the cost optimisation (the overall costs involved in administrative degree of redistribution variable was also ana-
problem of lattice-reinforced tasks and the salaries of the people lysed. The analysis comprised three lattice-
joist slabs involved in the job). A breakdown of reinforcement cases: the TR-08634 discussed
these costs is given in Table 1. by Magalhaes,4 and the TR-12645 and TR-
Costs and input for lattice- (b) External transport cost. This is the cost of 16645 available used in Brazilian market, all
reinforced joists transporting the joist from the factory to with the same loading conditions.
the construction site, comprising labour, The lattice-reinforced joist was optimised
The definition of the cost minimisation function
trucks, fuel, insurance and maintenance under the same loading conditions adopted
for the precast concrete elements studied here
costs. For the purposes of this study, we by Magalhaes:4
was based on the costs of fabrication, external
considered a construction site located
transport and application. Listed below are the
100 km from the factory.
partial values of the inputs in each stage. Note (a) Distributed uniformly along the element,
that these values correspond to an initial analy- External transport costs (R$=m3 ) 52 the loads were based on the concretes
sis of the problems evaluated in this work. dead weight (gc 25 kN/m3), expanded
All prices are given in Brazilian Real (R$). The (c) Assembly costs. The costs involved in the
polystyrene (EPS) infill blocks
conversion rate is 1.00USD 2.14BRL and assembly refer to the assembly of the
(ge 0.12 kN/m3), a permanent load of
1.00EUR 2.79BRL (at 16 May 2006). The joist, the cast-in-place concrete, the comp-
0.5 kN/m2 and a live load of 2.0 kN/m2.
costs considered here are the same as those lementary reinforcement and administra-
(b) The slabs were dimensioned considering a
adopted by Castilho.30 tive costs, as indicated in Table 2.
concrete base compressive strength of
20 MPa and a CA 60 reinforcement (yield
(a) Fabrication costs. The costs involved in the
production of precast concrete elements
Definition of the problem strength equal to 552 MPa).
correspond to the cost of raw material The solution for the problem of lattice-
(concrete, reinforcements, infill blocks), reinforced joist slab cost optimisation was
factory activities (the cost of this phase investigated here using genetic algorithms
4m 4m
corresponds to the activities that take (GAs). In addition to the traditional variables
place after moulding but before delivery of cast-in-place concrete strength, concrete
of the product), and administrative costs layer height and distance between joists, the 4 Figure 5 Static outline (span length 8 m)
(0 00122 0 127 x1 x3
0 0127 x1 0 0158 x3
(c) The resistance factor used for concrete is The cost function was represented by four 0 00395 x3
1.4 and 1.15 for steel. The load factor variables: x1 representing the height of the 1 115 (100 x4 ) 0 01)2
f (x) 2 3
used in the analysis is 1.4. cast-in-place concrete; x2 representing the con- x3 (0 219 25 x3 x1
6 7
cretes compressive strength; x3 representing 4 2 50 x1 2 50 x3 ) 5
the distance between joists; and x4 represent- (x1 0 065) 100
Figures 5 and 6 depict, respectively, the ing the degree of redistribution. (12 50 x1 x3 0 000624
static scheme and the slab section. The slabs Three joists with heights (He) of 8 cm, 1 248 x1 )
final section was completed with EPS infill 12 cm and 16 cm (TR-08634, TR-12645 and x3
blocks and a layer of concrete. TR-16645) were analysed to find a solution 120 (2 475 x2 74:25)
0 12 50 x x 0 000624 1
1 3
B 1 248 x1 C
Table 4 Values of variables, reinforced areas and cost function for two spans 2 B
@ C
x3 A
TR-08634
TR08634 34 3 x1 14 57 x2 x3
(88 8 x1 5 457)
Span 8 m Span 12 m
(22 4 x1 1 456)
GA GA Excel GA GA Excel [(100 x4 ) 0 01=
(cont_var) (disc_var) Solver (cont_var) (disc_var) Solver (4633 x1 284 713)]
(1)
x1: m 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.094 0.100 0.085
x1 x3 0 00005 0 1 x1
x2: MPa 19.3 20.0 19.0 23.0 21.0 21.8
x3: m 0.598 0.600 0.600 0.373 0.370 0.378 where x1 is cast-in-place concrete, in m; x2 is com-
x4: % 40 40 40 22 38 40 pressive strength of the concrete, in MPa; x3 is dis-
Cost function: R$/m2 19.96 20.58 20.34 39.55 38.84 35.56 tance between joists axes, in m; and x4 is degree
Negative reinforcement: 1.90 1.97 1.96 2.76 2.07 2.12
of redistribution, in %.
1024 m2
Additional reinforcement/ 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.20 1.23 1.56 Note that, after several tests, this function
joists: 1024 m2 was found to incorporate all the problem vari-
ables, offering the best representation of the
15
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
generation Conclusions
4 Figure 7 Average cost function values for TR-08634 This work investigated the use of GAs to find
solutions for the cost optimisation of lattice-
a lower slab strength was found to be case of continuous variables, and with the reinforced joists. The problems involved slabs
necessary to offset the loads. conventional optimisation method were with lattice-reinforced joists for TR-08634, TR-
practically the same. It is worth noting 12645 and TR-16645 lattices with span
Figures 7, 8 and 9 illustrate the behaviour that the values obtained by the GA with lengths of 8 m and 12 m. In addition, an
of the cost function for each generation, discrete variables were compatible with analysis was made of the design variables,
using the GA (cont_var), for the three cases those of the Excel Solver, leading us to con- some continuous and others discrete. For
listed in the tables. Note that the curves clude that the GA was effective in finding purposes of comparison, the same problems
depict the same tendency: up to the generation the solution for the lattice-reinforced joist were evaluated using a conventional method
of 500 individuals, the values of the cost func- cost optimisation problems. (Excel Solver).
tion remained practically unchanged. Most conventional optimisation methods do The results of the cost function and the vari-
The results indicate that most of the not work with discrete variables, which is a sig- ables, in the case of TR-08634, indicate that
values obtained both with the GA, in the nificant disadvantage. Another disadvantage there was an increase in the height of the con-
crete layer, leading to an increase of the com-
pression flange and an increment in the slabs
TR-12645 cost x generation strength.
26 The longer span led to increased strength in
the concrete layer. This, in turn, led to the need
25 for increasing strength in the slab, which was
also obtained by increasing the strength of
24 the cast-in-place concrete. Moreover, the dis-
tance between these same joists decreased.
cost: R$/m2
26
optimization of structures using genetic algor-
25 ithm. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
24 1992, 118, No. 5, 12331250.
16. Koumousis, V. K. and Arsenis, S. J. Genetic algor-
23 ithm in optimal detailed design of reinforced
concrete members. Computer-Aided Civil and
22
span = 8 m Infrastructure Engineering, 1998, 13, 43 52.
21 17. Prakash, A., Agarwala, S. K. and Singer, K. K.
span = 12 m
Optimum design of reinforced concrete sections.
20
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Computers & Structures. 1998, 30, No. 4, 1009
generation 1011.
18. Castilho, V. C., El Debs, M. K. and Nicoletti, M. C.
Application of Genetic Algorithm for optimiz-
ation slabs of prestressed concrete joists. In
4 Figure 9 Average cost function values for TR-16645 22nd Iberian Latin-American Congress on Com-
putational Methods in Engineering, Campinas,
Anais (CD-ROM), Campinas, 2001.
tended toward the same results. Therefore, we 5. Merlin, A. J. Momentos fletores negativos nos 19. Lasdon, L. S., Waren, A. D., Jain, A. and
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bending moment of one-way slabs continuous ming. ACM Transactions on Mathematical Soft-
of the lattice-reinforced joists analysed here.
over two spans with prestressed concrete ware, 1978, 4, No. 1, 34.
joists). Masters thesis, Escola de Engenharia de 20. Espanha, Ministerio de Fomento. EF-96.
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