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Textbook: Understanding Hydraulics by Less Hamil ISBN 10 0 333-77906 -1
This chapter explores the difference between units and dimensions. It then shows how the
analysis of dimensions can be used to derive the equations that govern hydraulic phenomena.
In some cases it is possible to obtain dimensionless groupings of variables, such as the Reynolds
and Froude numbers, that have a particular hydraulic significance. Since such groupings are
dimensionless, they do not change with the size or scale of the hydraulic system concerned.
This leads to the concept of hydraulic models, where scaled down versions of a system are used
to predict the performance of a real thing. Examples include the analysis of the head discharge
characteristics of unusually shaped weirs and the determination of the equations and
performance characteristics of pumps and turbines. Thus dimensional analysis is a powerful and
useful tool that can be used to investigate and obtain solutions to real problems. The questions
include: (Textbook: Understanding Hydraulics by Less Hamil) ISBN 10 0 333-77906 -1
There are only three (3) fundamental dimensions; Mass, Length and Time. Everything else can
be expressed in M, L, and T.
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UNITS AND DIMENSIONS : (Fluid Mechanics, Volume 1 by J.F.DOUGLAS & R.D. MATTHEWS,3rd Edition)
The systems of units which still remain of importance in various parts of the world are the foot-pound-
second system (fps), the centimeter gram-second system(cgs) and the meter-kilogram-second
system(MKS), but at present the SI units are the preferred system
Table 1: page 3 (Fluid Mechanics, Volume 1 by J.F.DOUGLAS & R.D. MATTHEWS,3rd Edition)
Length ft ft cm cm m
1 slug=32.2 lb-mass
1g-force=981 dynes
The fps and the cgs system: the systems appear in two forms(The absolute system and technical
system).In the absolute system, the unit of mass is a fundamental unit and the unit of force is derived
using Newtons second law of motion, whereas in the technical system, the unit of force is the
fundamental unit and the unit of mass is derived using
In the MKS absolute units so far as mechanics is concerned, correspond with SI units and it seems
possible that MKS Technical units may continue in use for sometime alongside SI units.
In solving problems, it is essential to keep to one system of units only. if the data are in the different
systems, they should be converted immediately to the system selected.
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The System International of Units
Fundamental Units:
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Table II, (page 4, Fluid Mechanics, Volume 1 by J.F.DOUGLAS & R.D. MATTHEWS, 3rd Edition)
Kinematic
Time T second s
Velocity, Linear Distance/time LT-1 meter per second ms-1
Acceleration, Linear Linear velocity/Time LT-2 meter per second squared ms-2
Velocity, Angular Angle/time T-1 radians per second rad s-1
Acceleration, Angular Angular Velocity/Time T-2 radians per second squared rad s-2
Volume rate of Volume/Time L3T-1 cubic meters per second m3s-1
Discharge
Dynamic
Mass Force/Acceleration M kilogram kg
Force Mass x acceleration MLT-2 newton= kilogram N=kgms-
meter/second2 2
-2
Weight Force MLT newton= kilogram N=kgms-
meter/second2 2
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Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity
Dimensional homogeneity means that the dimensions of each additive term on both
sides of equations must be equal. The principle of homogeneity of dimensions can be
used to:
NOTE:
A useful theoretical equation for computing the relation between pressure, velocity, and altitude
in an steady flow of nearly inviscid, nearly incompressible fluid, with negligible heat transfer and
shaft work is the Bernoullis relation named after Daniel Bernoulli. The equation is shown below:
p0 = p + 1/2V2 + gZ
Where:
Po=stagnation pressure
P=pressure in moving fluid
V=velocity
=density
Z=altitude
G=gravitational acceleration
1. Show that the above equation satisfies the principle of dimensional homogeneity, which
states that all additive terms in a physical equation, must have the same dimensions.
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Solution:
a) p0 = p + 1/2V2 + gZ
b) ( ML-1T -2) =( ML-1T -2) + (ML-3) (LT-1)2 + (ML-3) (LT -2) (L)
c) (ML-1T -2) =( ML-1T -2) Left hand side=Right Hand Side, hence the equation is dimensionally
homogenous.
2.) Show in the above equation that consistent units results without the use of additional
conversion factors in S.I. units.
b) (N/m2) =(N/m2)
3) Show in the above equation that consistent units results without additional conversion
factors in B.G. system of units.
b) (lb/ft2) = (lb/ft2)
H) TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
a) o = hf (gA)/PL
b) Q = CAo 2gh
c) V= R2/3 S1/2/n
d) The equation for the discharge (Q) over a sharp crested rectangular weir Is:
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Chapter 2
Historically, the first person to write extensively about units and dimensional reasoning in physical
relations was Euler in 1765. Eulers ideas were far ahead of his time, as were those of Joseph Fourier,
whose 1822 book, Analytical Theory of Heat, outlined what is now called the principle of Dimensional
Homogeneity and even developed some similarity rules for heat flow. There were no further significant
advances until Lord Rayleighs book in 1877, Theory of sound, which proposed a method of
Dimensions and gave several examples of Dimensional analysis. The final breakthrough which
established the method as we know it today is generally credited to E. Buckingham in 1914, whose
paper outlined what is now called the Buckingham Pi Theorem for describing Dimensionless parameters.
However, it is now known that a Frenchman, A. Vaschy, in 1892, and a Russian, D Riabouchinsky, in 1911
had independently published papers reporting results equivalent to Pi Theorem. Following Buckinghams
paper, P.W. Bridgman published a classic book in 1922, outlining the general Theory of Dimensional
Analysis. The subject continues to be controversial because, there is so much art and subtlety in using
Dimensional Analysis. Thus, since Bridgman, there have been at least 24 books published on the
subject.. There will be probably more, but seeing the whole list might make some fledgling authors think
twice. Nor Dimensional analysis limited to neither Fluid Mechanics nor engineering. Specialized books
have been written on the application of Dimensional Analysis to Metrology, Astrphysics, economics,
building scale models, chemical processing pilot plants, social sciences, biomedical sciences, pharmacy,
fractal geometry, and even the growth of plants.
B. Definitions:
1. Dimensional Analysis is a method of Dimension. It is a mathematical
technique used in research work for design and for conducting model tests. It deals
with the dimension of the physical quantities involved in the phenomenon. All
physical quantities are measured by comparison which is made with respect to an
arbitrary fixed value. Length L, Mass M and time T are three fixed Dimensions which
are of importance to Fluid Mechanics. If in any problem in Fluid Mechanics, heat is
involved, then temperature is also taken as fixed dimension. These fixed Dimensions
are called fundamental dimension or fundamental quantity.
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4. Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical method which is of considerable
value in problems which occur in Fluid Mechanics. All physical quantities can be
expressed in terms of certain primary quantities which in mechanics are Length
(Fluid Mechanics, Volume 2, J.F.Douglas and R.D. Matthews, 3rd Edition.)
6. Dimensional Analysis also forms the basis for the design and operation of
physical scale models which are used to predict the behavior of their full sized
counterparts called the prototypes (Civil Engineering Hydraulics by Nalluri and
Featherstone, 4th Edition).
3. Dimensional analysis provides scaling laws which can convert data from a cheap
small model to design information for an expensive, large prototype.
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Pi Buckingham Theorem of Dimensional Analysis
There are several methods of reducing a number of dimensional variables into smaller
number of dimensionless groups. One of the method is the one proposed by
Buckingham in 1914 and is now called the Buckingham pi Theorem. The name pi comes
from the mathematical notation , meaning a product of variables. The dimensionless
groups found from the theorem are power products denoted by 1, 2, 3, etc. The
method allows the pis to be found in sequential order without resorting to free
exponents.
1. List and count the number of variables involved in the problem. If any important variables
are missing, Dimensional analysis will not be accurate or fail.
3. Select the variables that will be used as repeating variables. These repeating variables are
always repeated in each terms. The choice of repeating variables is governed by the
following considerations:
NOTE: In most fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be :
i) d,V, ; ii) l,V, ; iii) l,V,; or
iv) d, V,.
4. Generally, if heat is not included in the physical phenomenon, the three (3)
fundamental dimensions are only M, L and T.Subtract the total number of known
variables to three (3) and this will determine the number of Pi terms.
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5. Write the Pi terms in equation of the form f= (1, 2, 3, etc)
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B. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM (Hydraulics by Chadwick and Morfett, page 342).
As part of the development programme, scale model test have been carried out on a new
hydraulic machine. The experimental Team has presented the following data. Thrust Force
F, the flow velocity V, dynamic viscosity , and density , of the fluid. A typical size of the
system, L, is also given.
a) How to analyze or plot the data in the most informative way and
b) How to relate the performance of the model to that of the working prototype.
Given variables:
F, V, , , L
a) f (, 2) = MoLoTo
1= a , Vb, Lc, F
Power of M ; a + 1 = 0,hence a = -1
Power of T ; -b 2 = 0 b=-2
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Power of L; -3a + b +c =0 c = -2
SO;
1 = F/ V2 L2
ALSO :
2= a , Vb, Lc , = MoLoTo
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ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 2:
Textbook: Understanding Hydraulics by Less Hamil ISBN 10 0 333-77906 -1- (page362)
The theoretical discharge (Q) over a sharp crested rectangular weir is:
f ( q,b,g,H,, ) = 0
3) Number of Fundamental Dimensions is Three (M, L, and T).
4) Number of known Variables is six.
5) Number of Pi Terms = 6 3, hence there will be 3 Pi-terms.
6) The repeating variables are g,H and .
7) The final equation after evaluating each terms should be in the form:
f(1, 2, 3 ) =0.
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f (1, 2, 3) = MoLoTo
9) 1 = ga , Hb, c ,Q
2 = ga , Hb, c ,b
3 = ga , Hb, c ,
1 =. Q . 1 =. .
g1/2 H5/2 1/2
g H 3/2
For 2 : a = 0 ,b = -1 and c =0
2 =. b .
H
10) Therefore
. Q . = f{ . b . , . .}
g1/2 H5/2 H 1/2
g H 3/2
12) Or
The first term in the brackets is recognizable as the weir discharge equation, while the second
indicates that and do affect the discharge.
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Reason: Since they do not appear in the weir equation: Q = 2/3 b (2g)1/2 (H)3/2 , their effect
has to be included in the Coefficient of discharge, that is why the new weir equation becomes
Q = CD2/3 b (2g)1/2 (H)3/2 .
Also, V = (gH)1/2 , then the second term becomes HV/ , which is the Reynolds Number(Re)
.Thus:
Q = f{ b g1/2 H3/2 , Re }
Problem 1
Hydraulic machine
The quantities which are usually considered in a Dimensional analysis of Hydraulic
machines are:
Derive dimensionless groups for the Hydraulic machine the relation of power with the
other physical quantities of the Hydraulic machine.
Answer:
(1= P/N3D5) (2= Q/ND3)
Problem 2
Problem 3
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Dimensional groups. Use - Buckingham Theorem. Repeating Variables are , V
and D. See Fluid Mechanics by Nalluri and Featherstone on Dimensional
Analysis).
Problem 4
The capillary rise h of a liquid in a tube varies with the tube diameter d, gravity g, fluid density
, surface Tension and the contact angle .
Find dimensionless statement of this relation. (See Fluid Mechanics by Frank M. White.)
Quantity Units
V= Velocity of the raindrops LT-1
g=gravitational acceleration LT-2
D=diameter of drops L
a= air viscosity ML-1T-1
w =water density ML-3
a =air density ML-3
Problem 6
The theoretical discharge (Q) over a sharp crested rectangular weir is:
Problem 7 Textbook: Understanding Hydraulics by Less Hamil ISBN 10 0 333-77906 -1- (page363)
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In a turbulent flow, the headloss when the liquid flows through a smooth pipe is assumed to
depen upon the quantities below. Determine the form of the dimensionless equation using Pi-
Buckingham Theorem. Use V,D, as repeating variables
I. Hydraulic Similitude
So far we have learned about dimensional homogeneity and the Pi Theorem Method, using
power products, for converting homogenous physical relations to dimensionless form. This is
straightforward mathematically, but there are certain engineering difficulties which need to be
discussed.
First, we have more or less taken for granted that the variables which affect the process can be
listed and analyze. Actually selection of the important variables requires considerable judgment
and experience. The engineer must decide, e.g., whether viscosity can be neglected. Are there
significant temperature effects? Is surface tension important? What about wall roughness? Each
Pi group which is retained increases the expense and effort required. Judgment in selecting
variables will come through practice and experience.
Once the variables are selected and Dimensional analysis is performed, the experimenter seeks
to achieve similarity between the model tested and the prototype to be designed. With
sufficient testing, the model data will reveal the desired dimensionless function between
variables.
Each evaluated Pi terms can now be used to determine the complete similarity between the
model and the prototype, either graphically or analytically. But instead of complete similarity,
the engineering literature speaks of particular type of similarity, technically known as
SIMILITUDE.
B. Definitions
1. Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and the prototype in
every respect which means that the model and the prototype are completely
similar. Similarity between model and prototype may take three (3) different
forms: geometric similarity; kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity.
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2. Similitude is the principles and theory of predicting the behavior of full scale
hydraulic structures or prototype by conducting an experiment on a scale model
of the prototype.
The Relationship between model and prototype performance is determined by the laws of hydraulic
similarity. Since there are many laws and model cannot comply with all of them, simultaneously, the
model will not reflect totally the performance of the prototype. Some error will be incurred, which is
referred to as SCALE EFFECT. But by careful design of the model , by using a reasonably large scale,
and by judicious interpretation of the results ( experience helps), scale effects can be minimized. To
design a successful hydraulic model and use it effectively to predict the performance of the prototype
requires knowledge of similarity. There are three types of hydraulic similarity that must be considered.
There are three types of hydraulic similarity that must be considered.
b) A model or prototype is geometrically similar, if and only if, all body dimensions
in all three coordinates have the same linear scale ratio. ( Fluid Mechanics by
Frank M. White)
The quantities involved in geometric similarity are length, area and volume.
Lm/Lp = Lr
where:
Lr is the scale ratio between model and prototype
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ii) Ratio of homologous area between model and
prototype.
Am/Ap=Lm2/Lp2=Lr2
Vm/Vp=Lm3/Lp3=Lr3
Kinematic similarity introduces the concept of time as well as length. The ratio of
the time required for homologous particle to travel homologous distances in
model and prototype is
Tm/Tp = Tr
For acceleration, am/ap = ar
b) Kinematic similarity requires that the model and prototype have the same length
scale ratio and the same time scale ratio. The result is that the velocity scale ratio
will the same at all homologous points of the model and prototype ( Frank M.
White) .
3. Dynamic Similarity
Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between the model and the
prototype. Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the
prototype, if the ratios of the homologous forces between the two are equal.
Also the directions of the corresponding forces must be the same.
Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the same length
scale ratio, time scale ratio, and force scale ratio.
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The requirements therefore for Dynamic similarity must include geometric and
kinematics similarities, in addition to force scale ratio similarity. Without the two,
there can be no dynamic similarity.
In Fluid flow problems, the forces acting on a fluid mass may be anyone, or a
combination of the several of the following forces.
1. Inertia Force,(Fi)
F=ma
2. Viscous force, (Fv)
Fv = du/dy (A)
Viscosity () defined:
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It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to the gravity of
the flowing fluid. It is present in case of open surface flow.
Fg= mg
Fp= pA
It is equal to the product of surface tension per unit length and length of
surface of the flowing liquid.In formula:
Fs= L
6. Elastic Force Fe
It is equal to the area of elastic stress and the area of the flowing liquid. In
formula:
F=stress (Area)
It means that for dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the
dimensionless numbers should be the same between the two.
But since it is difficult to satisfy the condition that all dimensionless numbers
(Reynoldss No., Froude No., Weber No., Eulers No. and Mach No.), it is sufficient
that MODELS are designed on the basis of the ratio of the
FORCES DOMINATING THE FLUID FLOW.
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F. The Model Laws in Dynamic Similarity
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force of the flowing fluid.
Inertia force:
a) Fi= ma: mass=density (volume) and acceleration= velocity/time
e) Fi= (AV)(V)
f) Fi = A (V) 2
Viscous Force:
b) Fv= (V/L)(A)
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Substitute evaluated values, hence:
Re= (V) L / .
Notation;
= density
V= Velocity of flowing liquid
L = Length of section
= Dynamic viscosity
Fe = Fi/Fg
c.Fg = x Volume x g
d.Fg = x L3 x g
e.Fg = x L2 x L x g
f.Fg = x A x L x g :
Fe = (AV) 2 / x A x L x g
Fe = (V) 2 / L g
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Fe = V / L g
where :
V= Velocity
L= Length
G= gravitational pull of the earth
a. Eu = Fi/Fp
b. Fi = A(V) 2 and Fp = pA
c. Substitute to definition of Eulers Number.
Eu = A(V) 2 / pA
d. Eu = A(V) 2 / pA
e. Eu = (V) 2 / p , finally
f. Eu = V / p
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a. Fi = A(V) 2 and
Fs = L
c.Substitute inertia force and surface tension force to definition of Weber Number;
We = A(V) 2 / L , finally
We = V / /L
4.Mach Model Law
a. Fi = A(V) 2 and
M = V / fs
Note:
Velocity of sound in fluid= elastic stress/ density of fluid, mathematically,
C=fs/, hence
M= V/C
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G. Application of the different Model Laws:
Reynolds Model Law is the theoretical principle in which models are based on Reynolds
Number. Models based on Reynolds Number include;
i. pipe flow;
ii. Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes, fully immersed
bodies, etc.
A pipe of diameter 1.50 meters is required to transport an oil of specific gravity of 0.90,
viscosity 3x10 -2 poise at the rate of 300 liters per second.
Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model, using viscosity of water equal to 0.01 poise at
20 0 C.
Given :
For Prototype;
1. Diameter of prototype(Dp)=1.50 m
2. Viscosity of oil (p) =3x10 -2 poise
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3. Q for prototype (Qp) =300 liters/sec
=3.0 m3/s
4.Specific gravity for oil =0.90
Relative Density of oil = Specific gravity x density of water= 0.90 x 1000 kg /m3
For Model;
1. Diameter of model (Dm) =15 cm = 0.15m
2. Viscosity of water (m) =0.01 poise
3. Density of water (m) = 1000kg/m3
SOLUTION:
Principle of solution:
For pipe flow, the dynamic similarity will be obtained if the Reynolds number in
the model and the prototype are equal.
a. (V L / )model= ( V L / ) prototype,
b. Vm / VP = m/ p x Dm/Dp
d. Vm / VP = 3.0
or Vm = 3.0 (VP)
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Vp = 1.697 m/s
f. Vm = 3.0 (VP)
g. Finally, Q = AV,
1. The ratio of lengths of a sub-marine and its model is 40:1. The speed of
sub-marine (prototype) is 12 m/s. The model is to be tested in a wind tunnel.
Find the speed of air in wind tunnel. Also determine the ratio of the
drag (resistance) between the model and its prototype. Take the value of
kinematic viscosities for seawater and air as 0.012 stokes and 0.016 stokes
respectively. The density for seawater and air is given as 1030 kg/m3 and
1.24 kg/m3 respectively.
2. A ship 300 meters long moves in sea water, whose density is 1030 kg /m3. A
1:100 model of this ship is to be tested in a wind tunnel. The velocity of air in the
wind tunnel around the model 30 m/s and the resistance of the model is 60 N.
Determine the velocity of the ship in sea water and also the resistance of the ship
in sea water. The density of air is given is given as 1.24 kg/m3. Take the kinematic
viscosity of sea water and air as 0.012 stokes and 0.018 stokes, respectively. 1
stokes = 1 cm2/s.
At what mean air velocity will the model be correctly simulating the flow of oil?
If the head loss in the model is 10 meters for the full pipe length, what will be
the head loss in the prototype?
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4.Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 30 centimeters at a velocity of 4.00
m/s. Find the velocity of oil flowing in another pipeline of diameter 10
centimeters, if the condition of dynamic similarity should be satisfied between
the two pipes. The viscosity of water and oil is given as 0.01 poise and 0.025 poise.
The specific gravity of oil is 0.80.
5a. The hydraulic head loss in a simple pipeline is assumed to depend on the
following quantities:
Density (), dynamic viscosity (), diameter (D), Length (L) and roughness ks of
the pipe, and the typical velocity (V) of flow. Assume the repeating variables
to be , V, D.
Develop the appropriate dimensionless groups to describe the flow.
Answer:
3= ks/D 4 =L/D
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Question 2b 8 marks
The ratio of lengths of a sub-marine and its model is 40:1. The speed of sub-marine
(prototype) is 12 m/s. The model is to be tested in a wind tunnel. Find the speed of
air in wind tunnel. Also determine the ratio of the drag (resistance) between the
model and its prototype. Take the value of kinematic viscosities for seawater and
air as 0.012 stokes and 0.016 stokes respectively. The density for seawater and air is
given as 1030 kg/m3 and 1.24 kg/m3 respectively.
Given :
For Prototype;
1. Speed (VP) =10 m/s
2. Kinematic viscosity (p) =0.012 x10-4 m2/s: Note 1 stoke = cm2/s
3. Density ( P) =1000 kg/m3
For Model;
1. Speed (VP) =____ m/s
2. Kinematic viscosity (p) =0.016 x10-4 m2/s: Note 1 stoke = cm2/s
3. Density ( P) =1.24 kg/m3
SOLUTION:
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(Re) model= (Re) prototype;
Vm = m/ p x LP/Lm ( VP)
Vm =400 m/s
e) Fi= (AV)(V)
f) Fi = A (V) 2
g) Fi = L2 V2
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II. FROUDE MODEL LAW: Fe = V / L g
Froude Model Law is the law in which the models are based on Froude Number which
means for dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the Froude Number
for them should be equal.
Froude model law is applicable when the gravity force is the only predominant force, which
control the flow in addition to the force of inertia.
1. Free Surface Flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels etc.
(V / L g) model = (V / L g)prototype
If the test on the model are performed on the same place, where the prototype is to
operate, then the value of gravity will be the same, and
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(V / L) model = (V / L)prototype, simplify the equation;
Time = Length/Velocity
Tr = Tp / Tm
Tr = (Lp/Lm) x ( Vm / Vp)
Tr = L r
acceleration = velocity/time
ar = Lr x 1/ Lr
Q r = ( Lr)2.5
Fr = Lr3
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Pr = Lr 3.5
i. What height of model and what head on the model should be used?
Given values:
For Prototype
For model
SOLUTION
a. Lr= Hp/Hm for comparison between the prototype and the model
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b. 50 = 15 / Hm ; Hm =15/50, and Hm = 0. 30 m
c. Head on model
d. Width of Prototype
Bp = Lr x Bm = 50 x0.60 = 30 m
Q r = ( Lr)2.5 = Qp/Qm
Qp = 17,677 (12)
= 212,132.04 l/s
= 212,132.04/ 30
= 7,071.07 l/s.
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2A ship model of scale 1/50 is towed through sea water at a speed of 1.00
m/s. A force of 2.0 N is required to tow the model. Determine the speed of
the ship and the propulsive force on the ship, if prototype is subjected to
wave resistance only.( This means that the Froude Number for model and
prototype should be the same.)
Eulers model law is the law in which the models are designed on Eulers Number. This
means that for dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the Eulers
Number for model and Prototype should be equal.
Eulers model law is applicable when the pressure forces are alone predominant in
addition to the inertia force.
Eulers model law is applied to fluid problems, where flow is taking place in a closed pipe in
which case turbulence is fully edveloped so that the viscous force are negligible and gravity
force and surface tension is absent. This law is also used where cavitations takes place.
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Mach model law is the law in which the models are designed based on Mach number.
Mach number is the ratio of square root of inertia force to elastic force. Hence where
the forces due to elastic compression dominate the flow of fluid in addition to inertia
force, the dynamic similarity is obtained by equating the Weber number between the
model and the prototype.
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