LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Functional properties, bioactive compounds, and in vitro

gastrointestinal digestion study of dried fruit pomace powders as
functional food ingredients
Virginia P. Gouw, Jooyeoun Jung, Yanyun Zhao*
Department of Food Science and Technology, 100 Wiegand Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Apple (AP), blueberry (BP), red raspberry (RP), and cranberry pomace (CP), were evaluated for their
Received 21 November 2016 physicochemical and functional properties and bioactive compounds (i.e. dietary bers and phenolics) as
Received in revised form potential functional food ingredients. Bound phenolics in AP, BP, and CP could be liberated through
2 February 2017
simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGD). Among all tested fruit pomace (FP), RP contained the highest
Accepted 9 February 2017
total phenolic content based on both chemical extraction and SGD. AP contained the highest soluble
Available online 11 February 2017
dietary ber obtained from AOAC method and SGD, while it presented the lowest insoluble dietary ber
in comparison with BP, RP, and CP. Total dietary ber content of RP and CP from SGD was signicantly
Keywords:
Fruit pomace
(P < 0.05) higher than that from AOAC method. AP exhibited a high water-holding capacity (9.27 g water/
Dietary ber g dry weight (DW)) and swelling ability (6.51 mL/g DW), while BP and CP showed high oil-adsorption
Phenolics capacity (1.96 g oil/g DW and 1.97 g oil/g DW, respectively). The differences in the functional proper-
Functional properties ties of the tested FP could be due to their distinguished ber compositions and structures. This study
In vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion demonstrated the potential of using FP as ber-rich and antioxidant functional ingredient that can be
selectively utilized in various food applications.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction hemicellulose, lignin, protein, and lipid (Blancas-Benitez et al.,

The incorporations of dietary bers (DFs) from plant materials
into various food products have been increasing as they contribute
several functional properties to food, including oil-adsorption ca-
pacity, water-holding capacity, swelling ability, free-radical scav-
enging properties, and preventing lipid oxidation (Quiros-Sauceda
et al., 2014; Xie, Wang, Wu, & Wang, 2016). Moreover, DFs could
provide biological properties, such as facilitating good colonic
health, reducing the risk of chronic diseases, and protecting cells
against oxidative damage (Quiros-Sauceda et al., 2014). Meanwhile,
phenolics extracted from plant materials have been widely studied
in respect to their antioxidant capacity and health benets (Saura-
Calixto, 2011). Despite of the presence of large amount of phenolics
in the ingested food, only a small portion (0.5e1%) is absorbed
through the digestion system (Correa-Betanzo et al., 2014) since
phenolics may be associated with food matrix, such as cellulose,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: gouwv@oregonstate.edu (V.P. Gouw), jooyeoun.jung@
oregonstate.edu (J. Jung), Yanyun.zhao@oregonstate.edu (Y. Zhao).
2015; Correa-Betanzo et al., 2014; Quiros-Sauceda et al., 2014;
Saura-Calixto, 2011).
Fruit pomace (FP), byproduct from fruit juice or concentrate
production, has been a hot research topic lately since it contains
signicant amount of bioactive compounds, especially DFs and
phenolics. Many recent studies have been focused on extraction of
bioactive compounds from FP (Struck, Plaza, Turner, & Rohm, 2016),
drying FP for long-term preservation (Jung, Cavender, & Zhao, 2015;
Tseng & Zhao, 2012), and applications of FP in various food products
(Gorecka, Pachoek, Dziedzic, & Gorecka, 2010; Walker, Tseng,
Cavender, Ross, & Zhao, 2014). However, little was studied in the
digestion capacity of DFs and phenolics in FP for evaluating their
health benets in human body. This study was thus attempted to
investigate the bioaccessibility of FP through in vitro simulated
gastrointestinal digestion (SGD) study. This method is rapid, less
expensive, and without the concern of ethical restriction (Minekus
et al., 2014).
Phenolics are usually bound to the DFs that are composed of
molecules including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, gums,
mucilage, other polysaccharides, and oligosaccharides associated

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.02.015
0023-6438/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 V.P. Gouw et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144
with plants (AACC, 2001). Hence, both compositional and
morphological properties of the complex DFs (not only the
amount, but also the type of ber) could be responsible for the
bioaccessibility of bound phenolics (Grundy et al., 2016). Bio-
accessibility is dened as the fraction of compounds released from
its matrix in the gastrointestinal tract available for the intestinal
absorption (Ferna
ndez-Garca, Carvajal-Le
rida, & Pe
rez-Ga

lvez,
2009; Galanakis, 2016). In the gastrointestinal tract, phenolics are
released from the food matrix by direct solubilization in the in-
testinal uids and through the action of digestive enzymes. Low
molecular weight of phenolics are partially absorbed in the small
intestine, while high molecular weight of phenolics in the colon can
be fermented by the microora and partially absorbed to gut
epithelial cells, acting as the counteract of prooxidants (Quiros-
Sauceda et al., 2014). Moreover, the fermentation of DFs gener-
ates short-chain fatty acids, which are benecial for human health
(Quiros-Sauceda et al., 2014). This study selected four distinguish
types of FP, including apple (AP), blueberry (BP), red raspberry (RP),
and cranberry pomace (CP), to evaluate the inuences of different
chemical and morphological properties of pomace bers on their
physicochemical and functional properties, bioactive compounds,
and bioaccessibility.
Therefore, the objectives of this study were: (1) to investigate
the physicochemical and functional properties, bioactive com-
pounds, and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of four different
types of FP, (2) to determine the inuences of chemical and
morphological properties of bers on the characteristics of FP, and
(3) to evaluate each FP as functional food ingredient in terms of
their biological properties. This study would provide baseline data
for the selection of suitable FP as functional ingredients in various
food applications for converting biowaste into high value-added
products.
2. Materials and methods
Fresh AP from apple juice process without pectic enzyme
treatment was donated by an apple juice processor, while fresh BP,
RP, and CP subjected to pectinase and/or cellulase treatments were
provided by a juice concentrate processor. Fresh pomace were
packed in plastic pails and stored in a freezer at
18  C for 24 h.
Gallic acid, D-galacturonic acid monohydrate, 3,5-
dimethylphenol, Folin & Ciocalteu's phenol (FC) reagent, a-
amylase from Aspergillus oryzae, and protease from Bacillus lichen-
iformis were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, Inc. (St. Louis, USA). L-
ascorbic acid and D-glucose anhydrous were purchased from
Amresco (Solon, USA), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and anthrone
from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, USA), pepsin (1:3000), pancreatin, and
bile salts from Ward's Science (Rochester, USA). All other solvents
and reagents were analytical grade and used without further
purication.
2.1. Preparation of dried fruit pomace
Frozen pomace (wet) was thawed at room temperature over-
night and dried in an impingement oven (Lincoln Impinger, Fort
Wayne, USA) set at 110  C for 3 h based on our previous study (Jung
et al., 2015). The dried pomace was ground using a laboratory miller
(Model No. 4, Thomas-Wiley, Philadelphia, USA) equipped with a
steel screen (0.5 mm) and then packed in Ziploc bag and stored in
desiccator before analysis.
137
2.2. Analysis of physicochemical property of wet and dried fruit
pomace
2.2.1. Moisture content (MC) and water activity (aw)
Briey, 5 g of wet or dried FP sample was weighed and dried in
an oven (Isotemp Oven Forced Draft, Fisher Scientic, Waltham,
USA) at 105  C for 24 h and MC was calculated on wet basis. The aw
was determined using a water activity meter (AquaLab, Model
Series 3, Pullman, USA) by lling the half of a sample cup with the
prepared FP.
2.2.2. pH, titratable acidity (TA), and total soluble solids (TSS)
FP were tested for their pH, TA, and TSS based on our previous
studies (Cavender et al., 2014). Briey, 10 g of wet or dried FP
sample was added into 90 g of distilled water, and blended for
1 min using a blender (Osterizer, Jarden Corporation, Mexico). The
obtained slurry was ltered through Whatman #1 lter paper
(Whatman, Buckinghamshire, UK) to remove the residue. Thirty
mL of the resultant ltrate was used to measure pH with an elec-
trolytic pH meter (Orion 9102BNWP, Thermo Scientic, Waltham,
USA), and then continued for measuring TA by titration using 0.1 M
sodium hydroxide to the endpoint of pH 8.2. TA was calculated
using malic acid as the predominant organic acid for AP, and citric
acid as the predominant organic acid for BP, RP, and CP. The
resultant ltrate was also used to determine TSS using an electronic
refractometer (Model RA-250HE, Kyoto Electronics Manufacturing
Co. Ltd. Japan).
2.2.3. Color measurement
The color of FP was analyzed using a colorimeter (LabScan XE,
Hunterlab, Reston, USA) by putting the sample on a plastic petri
dish and randomly measured six zones from the bottom of petri
dish. The color parameters, L* (lightness), hue angle, and chroma
were evaluated as the mean value of six replications.
2.3. Analysis of functional properties of dried fruit pomace
2.3.1. Oil-adsorption capacity (OAC)
OAC of FP was measured following Femenia, Lefebvre,
Thebaudin, Robertson, and Bourgeois (1997) with minor modi-
cation. In a falcon tube, 0.5 g of dried FP sample was mixed with
10 mL of olive oil, left overnight at room temperature, centrifuged
(Sorvall Instruments, Model RC-5C, Newtown, USA) at 1500  g
for 5 min, and decanted the excess oil. The dried sample with
adsorbed oil was reweighed, and OAC was expressed as g oil/g dry
weight (DW).
2.3.2. Water-holding capacity (WHC)
WHC of FP was determined following Sudha, Baskaran, and
Leelavathi (2007). In a falcon tube, 1 g of dried FP sample was
mixed with 50 mL of distilled water, centrifuged at 10,000  g for
15 min, and decanted the excess water. The dried sample with
absorbed water was reweighed, and WHC was expressed as g wa-
ter/g DW.
2.3.3. Swelling ability (SA)
SA of FP was evaluated following Femenia et al. (1997) with
minor modication. In a falcon tube, 0.5 g of dried FP sample was
vigorously mixed with 10 mL of distilled water and left overnight at
room temperature to allow the ber to swell. The SA was measured
as bed volume after equilibration in excess solvent and expressed as
mL/g DW.
138 V.P. Gouw et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144
2.4. Analysis of chemical compositions of dried fruit pomace
2.4.1. Dietary ber (DF) proling
DF prole was analyzed following AOAC method with minor
modication (Jung et al., 2015). Briey, 0.5 g of dried FP sample was
defatted twice with 25 mL of chloroform in an ultrasonic water bath
(Branson B-220H, SmithKline Co. Shelton, USA) for 10 min, and
then ltered through Whatman #1 lter paper. The mono-
saccharides and oligosaccharides in the residue were removed by
extracting the residue three times using 20 mL of 80% ethanol. The
residue was dried in a fume hood overnight, treated with 0.03 mL of
protease in 25 mL of 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5), and then
placed in a water bath (Precision, Model Shallow Form Bath, Lab-
Care America, Winchester, USA) at 60  C for 30 min. Protease
treatment that cleaved the peptide bonds was applied to remove
the protein from FP. The suspension was ltered through Whatman
#1 lter paper and the supernatant was saved for soluble DF (SDF)
analysis. The resulting residue was washed twice with 10 mL of
distilled water and the supernatants were combined with the su-
pernatant obtained from the protease treatment for determining
SDF. The residue was washed once with 20 mL of 96% ethanol,
followed by 20 mL of acetone twice, and then dried in the oven at
40  C for 24 h for insoluble DF (IDF) analysis.
SDF samples were dialyzed using dialysis membranes (Spec-
trum Laboratories, Inc. Rancho Dominguez, USA) with molecular
weight cut off of 12,000e14,000 in 1.5 L of distilled water, where
distilled water was replaced after 12 h, and stored for 48 h. The
dialyzed SDF samples were freeze-dried (Consol 4.5, The Virtis Co.
Inc. Gardiner, USA), followed by hydrolysis using 36 mL of 6% sul-
furic acid, and then autoclaved at 121  C for 1 h. The obtained so-
lutions were used for determining uronic acid (UA) and neutral
sugar (NS) (Jung et al., 2015).
IDF samples were hydrolyzed using 3 mL of 72% sulfuric acid for
1 h, followed by the addition of 86 mL of distilled water, and
autoclaved at 121  C for 1 h. The hydrolyzed samples were ltered
through medium porosity glass fritted Gooch crucibles and the
ltrates were kept for UA and NS analyses, while the residues were
used for klason lignin (KL) determination (Jung et al., 2015).
For UA analysis, 250 mL of a ltrate was mixed with 250 mL of
boric acidesodium chloride solution (0.3 g of boric acid and 0.2 g of
sodium chloride in 10 mL of distilled water) and 4 mL of 96% sul-
furic acid, vortexed, and incubated in the water bath at 70  C for
40 min. The test tube was cooled down to room temperature and
200 mL of dimethylphenol solution (10 mg of 3,5-dimethylphenol in
10 mL of acetic acid glacial) was added, vortexed, and measured the
absorbance at 400 nm and 450 nm using a spectrophotometer
(Model UV-3100PC, VWR International, LLC, Radnor, USA). The
obtained absorbance was quantied as galacturonic acid equivalent
and the result was expressed as a percentage of DW (Jung et al.,
2015).
For NS analysis, 1 mL of a ltrate was mixed with 2 mL of 75%
sulfuric acid and 4 mL of anthrone solution (0.5 g of anthrone in
250 mL of 75% sulfuric acid), vortexed, and incubated in the water
bath at 100  C for 15 min. The test tube was cooled down to room
temperature, and measured the absorbance at 578 nm using the
spectrophotometer. The obtained absorbance was quantied as
glucose equivalent and the result was expressed as a percentage of
DW (Jung et al., 2015).
KL was gravimetrically determined by drying the residue in a
medium porosity glass fritted Gooch crucible in the oven at 105  C
for 24 h and recording its weight. The dried residue in a medium
porosity glass fritted Gooch crucible was subjected to the ashing
process in a furnace (Thermolyne, Model F-A1730, Sybron Corp.
Dubuque, USA) at 525  C for 5 h and reweighed. The weight of
oven-dried sample was subtracted by the ash weight to get the KL
value that was expressed as a percentage of DW (Jung et al., 2015).
2.4.2. Pectin analysis
Pectin was analyzed using two different methods: (1) acid
extractable pectin, and (2) total fractionated pectin, including
water-soluble pectin (WSP), chelator-soluble pectin (CSP), and
hydroxide-soluble pectin (HSP).
Content of acid extractable pectin was determined by extracting
FP with hot acid solution following Canteri-Schemin, Fertonani,
Waszczynskyj, and Wosiacki (2005) with some modications.
Briey, 5 g of dried FP sample was added with 250 mL of distilled
water acidied with citric acid (pH 2.5), and incubated in the water
bath at 95  C for 30 min. The hot mixture was then ltered through
Whatman #1 lter paper to obtain the ltrate and cooled at 4  C
overnight. The cold ltrate was added with 125 mL of 96% ethanol,
stirred for 10 min, and left at room temperature overnight to pre-
cipitate the pectin. The precipitate was ltered through Whatman
#1 lter paper and dried in the oven at 55  C for 24 h. Total acid
extractable pectin was determined gravimetrically.
Content of total fractionated pectin was determined following
the method by Jung et al. (2015) with a slight modication. Briey,
1 g of dried FP sample was added with 20 mL of distilled water,
sonicated for 10 min, and ltered through Whatman #1 lter paper
to obtain the ltrate. The ltrate was added with 96% ethanol (1:5),
allowed it to precipitate overnight, ltered through a medium
porosity glass fritted Gooch crucible, and dried in the oven at 55  C
for 24 h. The precipitation was determine gravimetrically and
dened as WSP. The WSP residue was rinsed with 20 mL of 96%
ethanol in the water bath at 100  C for 10 min. The obtained residue
was extracted three times with 40 mL of 20 mM Na2EDTA (pH 8.0)
in the ultrasonic water bath for 10 min, ltered following each
extraction to obtain the ltrates, and dened as CSP. Lastly, the CSP
residue was added with 50 mL of 50 mM NaOH, sonicated for
15 min, ltered to obtain the ltrate, and dened as HSP. CSP and
HSP were measured by using UA analysis and quantied as mg
galacturonic acid equivalent as described above. The result was
converted to a percentage of DW. The total fractionated pectin was
described as the sum of WSP, CSP, and HSP.
2.5. Extraction and analysis of phenolics of dried fruit pomace
For extracting the phenolics, 3 g of dried FP sample was
extracted by 30 mL of 60% methanol acidied with 1% acetic acid
glacial in the ultrasonic water bath for 20 min based upon our
preliminary study showing the highest extraction efciency and
stability. The mixture was ltered through Whatman #1 lter pa-
per, and the obtained ltrate was evaporated using a vacuum rotary
evaporator (Brinkmann Instruments, Westbury, USA) at 40  C for
5 min to remove the volatile solvent. The concentrated ltrate was
diluted to 25 mL using distilled water to evaluate the total phenolic
content (TPC) and radical scavenging activity (RSA).
TPC was determined using FC colorimetric method (Cavender
et al., 2014). In a test tube, 0.5 mL of aqueous extract was com-
bined with 0.5 mL of FC reagent and 7.5 mL of distilled water, and
then vortexed. After 10 min, 3 mL of 20% sodium carbonate solution
was added into the test tube and vortexed again. The test tube was
incubated in the water bath at 40  C for 20 min, cooled down to
room temperature, and measured the absorbance at 765 nm using
the spectrophotometer. The obtained absorbance was reported as
mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g DW.
RSA was evaluated based on the colorimetric assay method
using a stable free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
with a slight modication (Brand-Williams, Cuvelier, & Berset,
1995). In a test tube, 0.5 mL of aqueous extract was reacted with
2 mL of DPPH solution (9 mg of DPPH in 100 mL of methanol),
 V.P. Gouw et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144
followed by vortexing and incubating at dark place for 15 min. The
absorbance of the solution was measured at 517 nm using the
spectrophotometer. The obtained absorbance was reported as mg
ascorbic acid equivalents (AAE)/g DW.
2.6. Microstructure of dried fruit pomace
The microstructure of dried FP was evaluated using a stereo-
microscope (Leica Microsystems (Schweiz) AG, Heerbrugg,
Switzerland) equipped with an extended digital camera (Q Imag-
ing, Surrey, British Columbia, Canada). The dried FP samples were
tested using AmRay 3300FE eld emission scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM) (FEI Quanta 600F, OR, USA) by placing on aluminum
stubs and coated by goldepalladium alloy with a sputter coater
(Cressington Scientic Instruments Ltd. UK) to improve their
interface conductivity. Digital images of the samples were collected
at an accelerating voltage of 5 kV.
2.7. In vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGD) test of dried
fruit pomace
SGD was tested following the method from Minekus et al.
(2014), which consisted of mouth mastication, stomach digestion,
and intestinal digestion. For mouth mastication, 1 g of dried FP
sample was mixed with 8.5 mL of 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.0),
0.5 mL of a-amylase (20 FAU/g), and 150 mL of 50 mM CaCl2. The
mixture was shaken in the water bath at 50 rpm and 37  C for
2 min. For stomach digestion, the above mixture was mixed with
5 mL of distilled water, 1 mL of 0.2% pepsin solution, and 30 mL of
50 mM CaCl2, and adjusted the pH to 3 by 1 M HCl. The volume was
then brought up to 20 mL by adding distilled water and the mixture
was shaken in the water bath at 200 rpm and 37  C for 2 h. For
intestinal digestion, the mixture was added with 10 mL of 0.05 M
phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), 3.0 mL of duodenal juice (12.5 g of bile
salts and 2 g of pancreatin in 60 mL 0.1 M of NaHCO3), 240 mL of
50 mM CaCl2, and adjusted the pH to 7 by 1 M NaOH. The volume
was brought up to 40 mL by adding 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH
7.0) and the mixture was shaken in the water bath at 200 rpm and
37  C for 2 h. The digested sample was centrifuged at 12,000  g
and 4  C for 15 min. The supernatant was used to determine the TPC
and RSA as described above. Moreover, the rest of supernatant was
subjected to dialysis, and the dialyzed sample and its residue were
freeze-dried for DF analysis as mentioned previously.
2.8. Experimental design and statistical analysis
A completely randomized design was applied in this study. All
experiments were conducted in triplicate and mean values and
standard deviations were reported. Data analysis was conducted
using SAS (SAS 9.4, SAS institute, Inc. Cary, USA) with PROC GLM to
determine the signicance of each parameter on different types of
FP. The post hoc least signicant difference test was used for the
comparisons of multiple means on the basis of a 95% condence
level.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physicochemical property of wet and dried fruit pomace
As shown in Fig. 1, wet AP (WAP) is dominated by pulp and some
skins, seeds, and stems, while seeds are the main components in
wet RP (WRP). Wet BP (WBP) had similar compositions to wet CP
(WCP) with smaller seeds and softer skins based upon visual ob-
servations. Brown color in AP was the result of enzymatic browning
reaction, while brown color in RP represented the color of the
139
seeds. Purple and red colors in BP and CP indicated the presence of
anthocyanin pigments.
Table 1 represents the physicochemical properties of FP. MC of
WAP, WBP, WRP, and WCP was 82%, 65%, 36%, and 69%, respectively.
As mentioned previously, pulp was the predominant material in
WAP (Fig. 1), containing signicant high amount of DFs that held
more water, while WRP was dominated by seeds that had low
water-holding ability. aw values of wet FP ranged between 0.985
and 0.999, thus being susceptible to the chemical and biological
reactions and microbial growth (Sales & Daeschel, 2012). For long
term storage, wet FP should be dehydrated to reduce the aw. TSS of
WAP (11%) was the highest among all tested FP, indicating that AP
was rich in sugar and other soluble materials. In regard to TA, WAP
(1.83%) had signicantly (P < 0.05) higher TA than other berry
pomace, while WRP had very limited amount of organic acids as it
mainly consists of seeds.
In respect to dried FP (Table 1), MC had similar trend to wet FP,
showing the order of dried AP (DAP) > dried CP (DCP) > dried BP
(DBP) > dried RP (DRP). The aw values of dried FP ranged between
0.152 and 0.229, low enough for minimizing any chemical and
biological reactions during the storage (Sales & Daeschel, 2012). TSS
of DAP (58%) was the highest among all FP. Interestingly, TA of DRP
(1.37%) was signicantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of WRP, which
was probably because fatty acids liberated from seeds during the
grinding process provided additional detection to the organic acids
in DRP.
3.2. Functional properties of dried fruit pomace
Fig. 2 presents the functional properties of dried FP. These
properties are related to the ber characteristics, including crys-
tallinity, the surface property (e.g. porosity, charge density, and
polar groups), and hydrophobic nature (Femenia et al., 1997;
Raghavendra et al., 2006; Xie et al., 2016), which might be varied
depending on the types of FP. OAC of DBP (1.96 g oil/g DW) and DCP
(1.97 g oil/g DW) were signicantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of
DAP (1.48 g oil/g DW) and DRP (1.13 g oil/g DW). These values were
in accordance with those from Thibault, Lahaye, and Guillon (1992),
where fruit and vegetables (apple pomace, orange, and yellow pea
hulls) had OAC less than 2 g oil/g DW. The microstructures of FP
(Fig. 3) revealed that ber was closely compacted and formed many
bundles of ber matrix in DBP and DCP, which might be due to the
bereber interactions through hydrogen bonds, van der Waals
forces, or Coulomb interactions. These bereber interactions
could thus expose the hydrophobic surface to adsorb more oil.
However, quantitative analysis of the bereber bonding mecha-
nisms should be conducted for the comprehensive understanding
of fundamental interactions between the bers in the future
studies. In regard to WHC, DAP (9.27 g water/g DW) was the
highest, followed by DCP (8.70 g water/g DW), DBP (8.29 g water/g
DW), and DRP (7.71 g water/g DW). This trend was similar to their
swelling ability (SA), where SA of DAP, DCP, DBP, and DRP was 6.51,
5.87, 3.71, and 2.88 mL/g DW, respectively. From Fig. 3, it can be
seen that DAP bers were large and had many voids, presenting
available areas for water binding. Unlike the other FP, the bers of
DRP were less entangled, as seeds were the main components and
dominantly composed of cellulose and lignin (Gorecka et al., 2010),
thus less interaction with water or oil.
In regard to acid extractable pectin (Fig. 4), no signicant dif-
ference (P < 0.05) between DAP (10.07%) and DCP (11.48%) was
observed, while DBP (7.37%) and DRP (3.20%) had signicant lower
values. These results were in accordance to other studies as AP and
CP contain appreciable amounts of protopectin (Canteri-Schemin
et al., 2005; Pappas & Schaich, 2009). In respect to total fraction-
ated pectin, DAP was the highest (9.77%), followed by DBP (3.79%),
140 V.P. Gouw et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144

p
Fig. 1. Color properties of wet and dried fruit pomace; a red () e green (
) color and b yellow () e blue (
) color; Hue tan
1 b=a; Chroma a2 b2 . (For interpretation
of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Table 1
Physicochemical properties of wet and dried fruit pomace.

Wet pomace Dried pomace

MC (%) aw TSS (%) TA (%) MC (%) aw TSS (%) TA (%)

a* c a a a b a
Apple 81.50 0.985 11.00 1.83 3.09 0.152 58.00 1.43a
Blueberry 65.08c 0.999a 2.00b 0.50c 1.96b 0.159b 6.00c 0.50d
Raspberry 36.12d 0.986b 2.00b 0.43c 0.93c 0.157b 15.00b 1.37b
Cranberry 68.92b 0.999a 1.67b 0.92b 2.20b 0.229a 6.00c 0.77c

MC Moisture content; aw Water activity; TSS Total soluble solid; TA Titratable acidity.
Experiment for each parameter was conducted in triplicate.
* Means with different lowercase superscripts in the same column indicated signicant difference (P < 0.05) among fruit pomace.

[Oil-adsorption capacity] [Water-holding capacity] [Swelling ability]

2.5 12 8
Swelling ability (ml / g dry weight)
WHC (g water / g dry weight)
OAC (g oil / g dry weight)

7
2 10
6
8
1.5 5
6 4
1 3
4
2
0.5 2
1
0 0 0

Types of fruit pomace Types of fruit pomace Types of fruit pomace

Fig. 2. Functional properties of dried fruit pomace powders. Experiment for each parameter was conducted in triplicate.

DCP (1.96%), and DRP (1.87%). DAP was dominated by WSP, indi- functional substance to improve viscosity of food systems.
cating that pectic polymers were bound weakly to the cell walls
(Christiaens et al., 2012). DBP was dominated by ionically cross- 3.3. Characterization of phenolics of dried fruit pomace from
linked pectin as reected by the CSP value. DCP mainly consisted of chemical extraction (CE) and SGD
HSP, indicating the majority of pectic polymers linked to the cell
walls through ester bonds (Christiaens et al., 2012). The different CE and SGD provided the same trend in the amount of TPC
values between acid extractable pectin and total fractionated pectin among tested FP, in which DRP has the highest TPC, followed by
were possibly due to the varied extraction efciency of applied DBP, DAP, and DCP (Fig. 5a). Overall, TPC from SGD was higher than
chemicals depending on the types of the fruit. It should be also that from CE, except for DRP. This could be explained as DRP had the
noted that acid extractable pectin is mainly used in industrial least entanglements of bers (Fig. 3), which allowed phenolics
extraction (Garna et al., 2007), while total fractionated pectin is easily liberated from the cell walls by CE and SGD. Moreover, the
usually used in analyzing fruit development and ripening (Van yield of phenolics is depending on the solvent type, method of
Buren, 2012). Considering the high acid extractable pectin and extraction, and phenolic compounds in the fruit (Turkmen, Sari, &
WSP, DAP may be utilized for forming edible lms and/or as Velioglu, 2006; Wang, Jung, Tomasino, & Zhao, 2016). SGD
 V.P. Gouw et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144
Fig. 3. Morphological properties of bers in dried fruit pomace powders by using scanning electron microscope.
signicantly enhanced the extraction amount of TPC in DBP
(15.56 mg GAE/g DW), DAP (11.99 mg GAE/g DW), and DCP (7.58 mg
GAE/g DW) in comparison to those from CE, since bound phenolics
with the macromolecules, especially DFs, were liberated through
the digestive enzymes (Quiros-Sauceda et al., 2014) and these free
phenolics could be possibly absorbed in human body. Interestingly,
even though DCP had smaller and less entangled bers than DAP
(Fig. 3), DCP gave lower TPC value than DAP. These results might
relate to the structure-activity relationship, where the phenolics in
DAP had more available free hydroxyl groups and less steric hin-
drance than DCP (Singleton, Orthofer, & Lamuela-Ravento
s, 1999).
In addition, Brand-Williams et al. (1995) explained that phenolics
with second hydroxyl group in the ortho or para position have
higher activity than in the meta position.
RSA of FP from CE showed similar trend to the TPC analysis
(Fig. 5b), showing the order of DRP > DBP > DAP > DCP, with no
signicant difference (P > 0.05) between DAP and DCP. In regard to
the RSA from SGD, DRP also had the highest value (5.69 mg AAE/g
DW), followed by DAP (5.36 mg AAE/g DW), but there was no sig-
nicant difference (P > 0.05) between DBP and DCP (4.80 and
4.85 mg AAE/g DW, respectively). Signicant difference in RSA
between CE and SGD was observed in all FP. SGD enhanced RSA of
DAP and DCP in comparison with CE, while vice versa for DBP and
DRP. These results might be due to the different antiradical com-
pounds in FP affecting the antioxidant activity with various kinetic
reactions and mechanisms (Brand-Williams et al., 1995). It could be
141
thus concluded that DRP possessed higher bioaccessibility and
biological properties as it provided higher TPC and RSA in the SGD,
compared to the other types of FP. In addition, DRP can be incor-
porated into food products that are sensitive to lipid oxidation and
are low in dietary bers for extending product shelf-life during
storage and improving their health benet.
3.4. Comparison of DF proles in dried fruit pomace obtained from
modied AOAC and SGD methods
In regard to DFs (Table 2), IDF was the main component, while
SDF only contributed minor fraction. Based on AOAC method, DAP
(2.50%) had the highest SDF, followed by DBP, DCP, and DRP.
Interestingly, IDF of DAP (29.13%) was the lowest among all tested
FP. This result was possibly affected by high TSS amount (~58%) in
DAP, which could underestimate the IDF in total weight of sample.
The IDF in DRP was dominated by NS and KL as seeds were the main
component of the pomace and this nding was similar to that from
Gorecka et al. (2010).
SDF from SGD had the same trend to that from AOAC method.
However, the values from SGD were signicantly (P < 0.05) higher
(Table 2). Total SDF of DAP, DBP, DRP, and DCP was 4.18, 1.51, 0.41,
and 0.97% from SGD in comparison to 2.50, 0.9, 0.34, and 0.75%
from AOAC method, respectively. These higher values were prob-
ably due to more compounds released from the SGD, as they were
subjected to simulated mastication, stomach digestion, and
142 V.P. Gouw et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144

Fig. 4. Pectin content of dried fruit pomace powders, as determined by different extraction methods: acid extractable pectin at the treatment of pH 2.5 and 30 min and 95  C, and
total fractionized pectin as the sum of WSP, CSP, and HSP. Experiment for each parameter was conducted in triplicate.

(a) (b)

30 Chemical extraction 50 Chemical extraction

Simulated gastrointestinal digestion Simulated gastrointestinal digestion
45
RSA (mg ascorbic acid equivalent / g dry weight)
TPC (mg gallic acid equivalent / g dry weight)

25
40

35
20
30

15 25

20
10
15

10
5
5

0 0
Apple Blueberry Raspberry Cranberry Apple Blueberry Raspberry Cranberry

Fig. 5. Total phenolic content (TPC) (a) and radical scavenging activity (RSA) (b) of dried fruit pomace powders using chemical extraction and after simulated gastrointestinal
digestion. Experiment for each parameter was conducted in triplicate.

intestinal digestion. Mastication made the cells rupture that that from AOAC method in the order of DCP > DRP > DBP > DAP
allowed the penetration of endogeneous compounds, such as en- (Table 2). It was seen that both UA and KL from SGD were signi-
zymes (pepsin and pancreatin) and acids, thus further breaking cantly (P < 0.05) higher than that from AOAC method, while vice
down the cell walls and releasing the DF components (Grundy et al., versa for NS residue. As previously discussed, it was because SGD
2016). The amount of total IDF from SGD was similarly appeared to could liberate the bound DFs from cell wall structures (Grundy
 V.P. Gouw et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 80 (2017) 136e144 143

Table 2
Dietary ber proles of dried fruit pomace powders by using modied AOAC dietary ber analysis method and simulated gastrointestinal digestion method.

Fruit pomace SDF (%) IDF (%)

UA NS Total UA NS KL Total
a*,B** a,B a,B a,B c,A d,B
AOAC method Apple 1.24 1.25 2.50 6.67 16.35 6.11 29.13d,A
Blueberry 0.56b,A 0.41b,B 0.97b,B 3.10b,B 22.61b,A 23.24b,B 48.95b,A
Raspberry 0.19c,A 0.14c,B 0.34d,B 2.97bc,B 16.31c,A 18.85c,B 38.13c,B
Cranberry 0.30c,A 0.45b,B 0.75c,B 2.55c,B 30.38a,A 24.97a,B 57.90a,B
Simulated gastrointestinal digestion Apple 2.49a,A 1.68a,A 4.18a,A 9.49a,A 4.76b,B 15.65d,A 29.91d,A
Blueberry 0.67b,A 0.84b,A 1.51b,A 5.03c,A 4.86b,B 38.30c,A 48.18c,A
Raspberry 0.01d,B 0.40d,A 0.41d,A 6.08b,A 3.80b,B 41.83b,A 51.70b,A
Cranberry 0.27c,B 0.70c,A 0.97c,A 5.72b,A 8.95a,B 46.88a,A 61.55a,A

SDF Soluble dietary ber; IDF Insoluble dietary ber; UA Uronic acid; NS Neutral sugar; KL Klason lignin.
Experiment for each parameter was conducted in triplicate.
* Means with different lowercase superscripts in the same column for each method indicated signicant difference (P < 0.05) among fruit pomace.
** Means with different uppercase superscripts in the same column for different method indicated signicant difference (P < 0.05) between fruit pomace.

et al., 2016). The lower NS residues in SGD can be explained as the
samples were treated by amylase and pancreatin, thus removing
the starch. The total IDF of DRP and DCP from SGD were signi-
cantly (P < 0.05) higher than that from AOAC method. The IDF from
SGD could include any part that is neither digested nor absorbed in
the small intestine, thus comprising not only DF, but also other
compounds that are resistant to the digestive enzymes, such as
dietary starch, resistant protein, and condensed tannins (Saura-
Calixto, Garca-Alonso, Gon ~ i, & Bravo, 2000; Saura-Calixto, Gon
~ i,
Man ~ as, & Abia, 1991). These non-digestive compounds would be
expressed as the insoluble residue e KL in this study. These results
thus revealed that DFs in FP can be liberated during the gastroin-
testinal digestion, which could further be incorporated into
different food applications to promote the health benets. How-
ever, further studies should be conducted to evaluate the major
secondary metabolites and comprehensive bioactivities on the
target cells for providing more in-depth understanding on the
biological properties of FP.
4. Conclusions
This study found that the amount, composition, and structure of
dietary bers in fruit pomace varied depending on the fruit source
that pomace was produced. The extractable amount and bio-
accessibility of phenolics in fruit pomace was related to the
chemical and morphological properties of bers in pomace. Apple,
blueberry, and cranberry pomace were high in bers, and had good
oil-adsorption and water-holding capacities. Red raspberry pomace
had the highest bioaccessibility of phenolics, while phenolics in
apple, blueberry, and cranberry pomace existed in the bound form.
This study successfully demonstrated the differences in the physi-
cochemical, functional, and biological properties of various fruit
pomace in terms of the chemical and morphological properties of
bers. For future studies, it is necessary to investigate the stability
of phenolics in dried fruit pomace during the storage, and to
incorporate them into various food products for enhancing health
benet and extending shelf-life of the products.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank Oregon Department Agriculture
Specialty Crop Block (ODA-3519-GR) grant for funding this
research.
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