Engineering Electromagnetics

Lecture 4 - Chapter 2
1. Wave Impedance
2. Microwave Circuits
3. Smith Charts
 Assignment 1

Part 1!
Analysis of circuits using the Smith chart!
Tx line analysis, parallel, matching!
!

Part 2!
Performance analysis of an adapter (use wave equations)!
TX line dimensioning!
MW ablation impedance matching problem

2
Impedances (con.)
 Wave Impedance

At a distance d from the load:

+ j d j d
!
V (d) V0 e + e
Z(d) = = Z
!I (d) V + e j d e j d 0
0
1+ e j 2 d 1+ d
= Z0 j 2 d
= Z0 ()
1 e 1 d

where we define:
d = e j 2 d = e jr e j 2 d = e j (r 2 d )

as the phase-shifted voltage reflection

coefficient.

Z(d) is the ratio of the total voltage (incident and reflected wave voltages) to the total current at
any point d on the line.
vs.
Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the line which relates the voltage and current of each of the
two waves individually: (Z 0 = V0+ / I 0+ = V0 / I 0 )

4
 Standing Wave Visualizations
Website:+h-p://www.rfmentor.com/reectometer

5
 Input Impedance (I)

Wave Impedance
+ j d j d
V! (d) V0 e + e
Z(d) = = Z
!I (d) V + e j d e j d 0
0
1+ e j 2 d 1+ d
= Z0 j 2 d
= Z0 ()
1 e 1 d

Reduce complex circuit into

equivalent circuit

6
 Input Impedance (II)

At a the input: d = l from the load:

1+ l
Zin = Z(l) = Z 0
1 l
j 2 l j ( r 2 l )
l = e = e
Substituting the complex reflection coefficient into the
above equation and converting the exponentials to
trigonometric functions:

zL cos l + j sin l zL + j tan l

Zin = Z 0 = Z0
cos l + zL sin l 1+ jzL tan l

7
 Example: Transmission Line Distributed Voltage & Current (I)

Question: What are the voltages and currents as a

function of time and distance for a 50 Ohm
transmission line of length 67 cm with a phase
velocity of 0.7c and a load of: Z L = (100 + j50)
The generator circuit is 1.05 GHz with a series
impedance of Zg = 10 Ohms:
vg (t) = 10sin( t + 30 o ) (V)

Answer: First find the wavelength and normalized phase constant:

up 0.7 3 10 8
= = = 0.2 (m)
f 1.05 10 9

2 2
l = l= 0.67 = 6.7 = (6.7 3* 2 ) = 0.7 = 126 o
0.2
Z L Z 0 (100 + j50) 50 j 26.6 o
Voltage reflection coefficient is then: = = = 0.45e
Z L + Z 0 (100 + j50) + 50
The input impedance is:
1+ l 1+ e j 2 l
1+ 0.45e

o o
j 26.6 j 252
e
Zin = Z 0 = Z0 j 2 l
= 50 j 26.6 o j 252 o
= (21.9 + j17.4)
1 l 1 e 1 0.45e e

8
 Example: Transmission Line Distributed Voltage & Current (I)

Answer (con.): Rewrite the generator voltage into

a cosine phasor:
vg (t) = 10sin( t + 30 o ) =
= 10 cos( t 60 ) = 10e j 60 e j t
o
o

! !
= Vg e (V) Vg = 10e
j t j 60 o

Using the equation for the incident voltage wave:

!Z (21.9 + j17.4) j126o
( )
j 60 o

+
V 1 10e j 26.6 o j126 o
1
V0 = g in
j l j l
= e + 0.45e e
Z g + Zin e + e 10 + 21.9 + j17.4
j159 o
= 10.2e (V)
We can then solve for the generalized voltage/current phasors along the line (z = -d):

V! (z) = V0+ e z + V0 e z (V) V (d) = V0 ( e + e ) = 10.2e

! + j d j d j159 o j d
(
e + 0.45e j 26.6 o j d
e )
( )
+
V V !
I! (z) =

e j d
o o

e
e (A) I (d) = 0.204e

e 0.45e
0 z 0 z j159 j d j 26.6

Z0 Z0

9
 Example: Transmission Line Distributed Voltage & Current (III)

Answer (con.): We can finally solve for the instantaneous voltages and currents as a function of
time and distance along the line:

v(d,t) = V! (d)e j t = 10.2 cos( t + d + 159 o ) + 4.55 cos( t d + 185.6 o ) (V)

i(d,t) = I! (d)e j t 0.204 cos( t + d + 159 o ) + 0.0091cos( t d + 185.6 o ) (A)

10
Microwave Circuits
 Microwave Circuits
Equivalent Capacitance

Equivalent Inductance

Inductor component

Capacitor component

Grounds Filters (Open + Short Circuits)

12
 Short Circuited Line

Applications: Stub matching, oscillators (signal generation), distributed-element filters

(filters used in EVERY communications system to remove noise and unwanted signals),
baluns (convert balanced to un-balanced lines)

13
 Short Circuited Line: Input Impedance

For a short-circuited line:

= 1
V!sc (d) = V0+ e j d e j d = 2 jV0+ sin d
+ +
V 2V
I!sc (d) = 0 e j d + e j d = 0 cos d
Z0 Z0
V!sc (d)
Z sc (d) = = jZ 0 tan d
!I sc (d)

At the input, the transmission line appears as either an

inductor or a capacitor (depending on sign of the
tangent):
j Leq = jZ 0 tan l, if tan l 0

1
= jZ 0 tan l, if tan l 0
j Ceq

14
 Example: Equivalent Reactive Elements
Question: Choose the length of a shorted 50 Ohm
lossless transmission line such that its input
impedance at 2.25 GHz is identical to that of a
capacitor with its capacitance Ceq = 4 pF. (The
wave velocity on the line is 0.75c:
u p = 0.75c = 2.25 10 8 (m/s); Z 0 = 50
f = 2.25 GHz = 2.25 10 9 Hz; Ceq = 4 10 12 F

Answer: First find the phase constant in order to calculate the tangent:
2 2 f 2 2.25 10 9
= = = = 62.8 (rad/s)
up 2.25 10 8

1 1
tan l = = = 0.354
Z 0 Ceq 50 2 2.25 10 4 10
9 12

The tangent function is negative when its argument is in the 2nd or 4th quadrants:

l1 = 2.8 rad l1 = 2.8 / = 2.8 / 62.8 = 4.46 cm

l2 = 5.94 rad l2 = 5.94 / = 5.94 / 62.8 = 9.46 cm

15
 Open-Circuited Line

Applications: Stub matching, oscillators (signal generation), distributed-element filters

(filters used in EVERY communications system to remove noise and unwanted signals),
baluns (convert balanced to un-balanced lines)

16
 Open-Circuited Line: Input Impedance

For an open-circuited line:

=1
V!oc (d) = V0+ e j d + e j d = 2V0+ cos d
+ +
V 2 jV
I!oc (d) = 0 e j d e j d = 0
sin d
Z0 Z0
V!oc (d)
Z oc (d) = = jZ 0 cot d
I!oc (d)

17
 Open & Short Circuit Comparisons
Open Circuit Short Circuit

vs.

18
 Open & Short Circuit Measurements
For a line of known length l, measurements of its input
impedance where one end is a short circuit and the other end
is an open circuit, then can calculate its characteristic
impedance and electrical length:

Characteristic Impedance

Z0 = Z Z
+ sc
in
oc
in
V!sc (l)

}
Short Circuit Z =
sc
= jZ 0 tan l
in !I sc (l)

Open Circuit V!oc (l)

Zin =
oc
= jZ 0 cot l
!I oc (l)
Z sc
tan l = in
oc
Z in
Electrical Length

19
 Input Impedance of n/2 Lines

If the length of the transmission line is a n

l=
multiple of half a wavelength (n is an integer): 2

2 n
then: tan l = tan = tan n = 0
2

Generalized input impedance equation becomes:

zL + j tan l
Zin = Z 0 = Z L for l = n / 2
1+ jzL tan l

Quarter Wavelength Transformer

When: l = / 4 + n / 2

Then the input impedance is transformed to:

Z 02
Zin =
ZL

20
 Example: Quarter Wavelength Transformer
Question: A 50 Ohm line needs to be matched
to a resistive load impedance of ZL = 100
Ohms. Find the required impedance of a
quarter wave transformer

Answer: To eliminate reflections at AA, the input impedance looking into the
Zin = 50
quarter-wave length line should be equal to the feedline characteristic impedance:

We can then calculate the required impedance of the quarter-wave transformer

from the quarter-wave transformer equation:

2
Z 02
Zin = Z 02 = Zin Z L = 50 100 = 70.7
ZL

21
 Instantaneous Power Flow

Instantaneous power P(d,t) = v(d,t)i(d,t)

DC Term

+ 2
V
P (d,t) = 1+ cos(2 t + 2 d + 2 + )
i 0

2Z 0
+ 2
V
P (d,t) = 1+ cos(2 t + 2 d + 2 + + 2 r
r 2 0

2Z 0

The power in a microwave circuit oscillates at twice the rate

of the voltage or the current

22
 Average Power

Average Power

The average incident power is (identical to the DC term of the instantaneous incident power):
+ 2
V
P =
i 0
av (W)
2Z 0 V + 2

The average reflected power is: P = = Pavi

r 2 0 2
av
2Z 0

23
 Average Power

Net average power (flowing towards and absorbed by load)

+ 2

(1 )
V
Pav = P + P =
i r 0 2
av av (W)
2Z 0

24
The Smith Chart
 Basic Smith Chart

Graph of the complex coefficient overlaid with an impedance

and/or admittance grid normalized to: Z0 = 1 Ohm 26
 Introduction

1.Developed in 1939 by P.W. Smith as a graphical tool

to analyze and design transmission-line circuits
!
2.Currently, it is used to characterize the performance
of all microwave circuits and facilitate impedance
matching
!
3.Contains almost possible real impedances (real and
imaginary). Active devices with negative resistance
can go outside the Smith chart.
!
4.Why use a Smith chart and not a Cartesian coordinate
system? Experienced RF engineer can look at a
broken microwave circuit and very quickly design a
matching network to fix the circuit

27
 Complex Plane
j
= e = r + j i j 53o
A = 0.5e = 0.3 + j0.4

j 202 o
B = 0.54e = 0.5 j0.2

28
 How to Draw a Smith Chart?
Start with the reflection coefficient:

Z L / Z 0 1 zL 1 zL 1 1+
= = = zL =
Z L / Z 0 + 1 zL + 1 zL + 1 1

We then solve for the real & imag parts of the

normalized load impedance:
(1+ r ) + j i
zL = rL + jx L =
(1 r ) j i
1 2r i2 2 i
rL = ; xL =
(1 r ) + i
2 2
(1 r )2 + i2

There are many values of pairs of Gamma that give same resistance or reactance and these can
be parameterized into circles: 2 2
rL 1 Resistance
r 1+ r + i = 1+ r
2
Circles
(x x0 ) + (y y0 ) = a
2 2 2 L L

2 2
1 1 Reactance
( r 1) + i =
2
Equation for a Circle xL xL Circles

29
 Resistance & Reactance Circles
Resistance Circles: Reactance Circles: Only
Contained within the Unit some parts contained within the
Circle Unit Circle
2 2
rL 1 1
2
1
2

r 1+ r + i = 1+ r
2
( r 1) + i =
2
L L xL xL

30
Complete Smith Chart

Positive xL Circles

rL Circles

Negative xL Circles

31
 Reflection Coefficient at the Load

One revolution: /2 (periodicity of SWR)

towards
Reflection Phase/Angle towards
generator
load
32
 Voltage Maxima & Minima
VSWR (S): numerically equal to r0 at Pmax (the
point at which the VSWR circle intersects the real
axis to the right of the charts center

Voltage Min Voltage Max

33
Input Impedance

34
 Impedance to Admittance Transformation
Admittance:
Inverse of
impedance
1
Y=
Z

z to y: Rotation by /4 on
the VSWR circle
transforms z into y

35
 Example: Smith Chart Calculations
# Steps
3
Question: Calculate S 1 1 Normalize Load Impedance
& Zin for a 50 Ohm
transmission line of Plot normalized
2
VSWR circle
length 3.3 with a
2 Draw a line from O to A,
load impedance of:
3 intersect with outer =0.135
! Z L = (25 + j50) & inner
4
4 OB = OA distance: S = 4.26
7 Calculate
5 5
7 ||=(S-1)/(S+1)=0.62

6 6 Complex
10
Voltage maximum at B;
7
Voltage minimum at C

8
Subtract multiples of /2 from
8
line length of 3.3=0.3
D: Add 0.3 to =0.135:
9
0.435
9
Draw a line from D to O,
10 OD=OA distance.
Intersection = z

11 Un-normalize z
36
 Example: Smith Chart Calculations
# Steps
3
1 1 Normalize Load Impedance

Plot normalized
2
VSWR circle
2 Draw a line from O to A,
3 intersect with outer =0.135
& inner
4
4 OB = OA distance: S = 4.26
7 Calculate
5 5
7 ||=(S-1)/(S+1)=0.62

6 6 Complex
10
Voltage maximum at B;
7
Voltage minimum at C

8
Subtract multiples of /2 from
8
line length of 3.3=0.3
D: Add 0.3 to =0.135:
9
0.435
9
Draw a line from D to O,
10 OD=OA distance.
Intersection = z

11 Un-normalize z
37
 Example: Determining Load Impedance
Question: Calculate ZLoad for a 50 Ohm transmission
line with S = 3 and first voltage minimum at 5 cm from
load (distance between adjacent minima is 20 cm
Answer: Calculate the wavelength:
= / 2 * 2 = 20 * 2 = 40 cm
Calculate dmin: dmin = 5 / 40 = 0.125

1: Draw Point A (S=3.0) on Smith Chart

2: Draw Point B for voltage min on

Smith Chart 1
2
3: Rotate away from load a length of:
0.125
4: Draw line to O, intersection is
normalized load impedance:

zL = 0.6 j0.8
Z L = 50(zL ) = (30 j40) 4

38
 Matching Networks

The purpose of a matching network is to eliminate reflections at

terminals MM for waves from the generator. Even if multiple
reflections may occur between MM & AA, only an incident wave
exists on the feedline.
If XL = 0, then the matching network reduces to a single
transformation and can use a quarter wavelength transformer. For
non-zero XL, can still use a quarter wavelength transformer that is
placed a distance dmin or dmax from the load.
39
Examples of Matching Networks

40
 Lumped Element Matching

Series Matching Network

Parallel Matching Network

If the lumped element is in Series: Use impedance for matching

If the lumped element is in Parallel: Use admittance for matching

41
 Lumped Elements Matching

Question: How to choose d & Ys to achieve a match at MM

(Shunt element can be either an inductor or capacitor)

Answer: At MM, Yd is the admittance due to the transmission-line

Yin = Yd + Ys
segment to the right and Yin (referenced to the left of MM) is:
In general, Yd is complex and Ys is purely imaginary since it Yin = (Gd + jBd ) + jBs
represents an inductor/capacitor: = Gd + j(Bd + Bs )
When all quantities are normalized to Y0: yin = gd + j(bd + bs )
In order to achieve a matched condition at MM, then: yin = 1+ j0
gd = 1 (real-part)
Equating the two equations, we get the following conditions:
bs = bd (imag-part)

42
 Ex: Lumped Elements (Analytical)
Question: A load impedance: ZL=25-j50 is M
connected to a 50 Ohm transmission line.
Using a shunt element for matching at feedline Ys YL
f=100MHz, calculate the following:
1. Location d in wavelengths
2. Type of element & value M d

Answer: Normalize load impedance/admittance: zL = Z L / Z 0 = (0.5 j1); yL = 0.4 + j0.8

1 yL j 82.9 o
Solve for the reflection coefficient at the load: = = 0.62e
1+ yL

Invert the impedance equation to solve for admittance at any location d from the end of the line:
1+ d 1 e j (r 2 d )
z(d) = yd =
1 d 1+ e j (r 2 d )
Multiply this expression by the complex conjugate of its denominator where: = r 2 d

1 e j 1 e j 1 1 sin
2

yd =
j j
= j
1+ e 1+ e 1+ + 2 cos 1+ + 2 cos
2 2

43
 Ex: Lumped Elements (Analytical)
M

feedline Ys YL

M d

Answer (con.): The real and imag parts of yd are then:

1 1 sin
2

gd = ; bd =
1+ + 2 cos 1+ + 2 cos
2 2

We then need to choose d (embedded in the definition: = r 2 d ) such that:

1
2

= 1 cos =
1+ + 2 cos
2

Since cos is negative, can be either in the second or third quadrant (polar-graph), since the
magnitude of Gamma is 0.62:
'1 = 128.3o or '2 = +128.3o

44
 Ex: Lumped Elements (Analytical)
M

feedline Ys YL

M d

Answer (con.): With: 1 = 128.3o = 2.240 rad

r = 82.9 o = 1.446 rad
= 2 /

Can then solve: = r 2 d for d: d1 =
4
( r 1) =
4
( 1.446 + 2.240 ) = 0.063

Next, we need to determine bs to satisfy the imag-part condition: bs = -bd

2 sin 2 0.62sin(128.3o )
bs = = = 1.58
1+ + 2 cos 1+ 0.62 + 2 cos(128.3 )
2 2 o

45
 Ex: Lumped Elements (Analytical)

Answer (con.): The corresponding impedance of the lumped element is then:

1 1 Z0
Zs = = = = j31.62
Ys ysY0 j1.58

Since the impedance is positive, the lumped element must be an inductor:

31.62 31.62
L= = = 50 nH
2 10 8

46
 Ex: Lumped Elements (Smith Chart)
Question: A load impedance: ZL=25-j50 is
connected to a 50 Ohm transmission line.
Using a shunt element for matching at
f=100MHz, calculate the following:
1. Location d in wavelengths
2. Type of element & value

Answer: Normalize load impedance/

admittance: zL = Z L / Z 0 = (0.5 j1)
yL = 0.4 + j0.8
Plot yL at point B with wavelength = 0.115

To achieve matching, we need to move a

distance d from the load to the generator
such that the real part of the normalized
input admittance yd = 1. This condition is
satisfied by point C where:
Ys YL
d1 = 0.063; yd1 = 1+ j1.58

d
47
 Ex: Lumped Elements (Smith Chart)

Answer (con.) To match the feedline to the

parallel element at MM:
yin = ys + yd = 1+ j0
1+ j0 = ys + 1+ j1.58
ys = j1.58
The corresponding impedance of the lumped
element is:
1 1 Z0
Zs = = = = j31.62
Ys ysY0 j1.58
Since the impedance is positive, the lumped
element must be an inductor:
31.62 31.62
L= = = 50 nH
2 10 8

48
 Lumped Elements (Smith Chart)

# Steps

Normalize load admittance

1
and plot at B
1
3
2
2 Plot gL = 1 circle

Find intersection of
3
and SWR circles

Use this value to calculate the

4 admittance of the lumped
element

Invert to impedance and

5 calculate value of lumped
element at desired frequency

49
 Single Stub Matching
The required two degrees of freedom (to
match resistance & reactance) are provided
by the length l of the stub and the distance d
from the load to the stub position.

Stub Matching

Feedline Feedline

Stub Matching
Impedance Load

If the stub is terminated in either a short or an open circuit, then

its impedance and admittance are purely reactive.
50
 Single Stub Matching Technique

Since the stub is added in parallel, it is easier

to work with admittances
First: Select the distance d to transform the
the load admittance YL=1/ZL into an
admittance of the form: Yd=Y0+jB when
looking toward the load at MM

Second: The length l of the stub line is

selected so that its input admittance Ys at
MM is equal to -jB.

The parallel sum of the two admittances at

MM yields Y0, the characteristic admittance
of the transmission line.

51
 Example: Single Stub Matching
Question: A load impedance: ZL=25-j50 is
connected to a 50 Ohm transmission line.
Using an shorted stub for matching at
f=100MHz, calculate the following:
1. Location d in wavelengths
2. Length l of stub line

Answer: Normalize load impedance/

admittance: zL = Z L / Z 0 = (0.5 j1)
yL = 0.4 + j0.8
Plot yL at point B with wavelength = 0.115

To achieve matching, we need to move a

distance d from the load to the generator
such that the real part of the normalized
input admittance yd = 1. This condition is
satisfied by point C where:
yin = ys + yd = 1+ j0
d1 = 0.063; yd1 = 1+ j1.58 ys = j1.58 1+ j0 = ys + 1+ j1.58

52
 Example: Single Stub Matching

Answer (con.) The location of the insertion

point d1 remains the same as before, but
now need to choose l1 of the shorted stubs.
To determine l1, we use the Smith Chart.
Point E is normalized admittance of a short
circuit: y = j

Plot ys at Point F with a position of 0.34. l1

is then the distance from F to E:

l1 = (0.34 0.25) = 0.09

53
 Single Stub (Smith Chart)
# Steps
4
Normalize load admittance
1
and plot at B
1
3
2 2 Plot gL = 1 circle

Find intersection of
3
and SWR circles

Use this value to calculate the

4
distance of intersection

6 5 Calculate ys and plot Point F

Calculate distance between

6 Point F and short-circuit
5 admittance (Point E)

54
Source
Smith Chart Matching

Load
Matching+Circuit+
Z1:+Series+Element+
Z2,+Z3:+Shunt+Elements

55
Technology Briefs
Antenna - power distribution

57
Smart antenna

58
Undersea transmissions

59
Summary
Summary

61
 Self-HW Problems

Chapter 1 (Week 1)!

1.1, 1.2, 1.9, 1.16, 1.21, 1.29 !
!

Chapter 3 (Week 2)!

3.12, 3.46, 3.52, 3.50, 3.55, 3.57!
!

Chapter 2 (Week 3)!

2.13, 2.19, 2.22, 2.32, 2.46, 2.50, 2.66, 2.68, 2.74

62