3/6/2017 Chapter3:LevelsOfMeasurementAndScaling

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Chapter3:LevelsOfMeasurementAndScaling

ChapterObjectives
StructureOfTheChapter
Levelsofmeasurement
Nominalscales
Measurementscales
Comparativescales
Noncomparativescales
ChapterSummary
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
ChapterReferences

Acommonfeatureofmarketingresearchistheattempttohaverespondents
communicatetheirfeelings,attitudes,opinions,andevaluationsinsomemeasurableform.
Tothisend,marketingresearchershavedevelopedarangeofscales.Eachofthesehas
uniqueproperties.Whatisimportantforthemarketinganalysttorealiseisthattheyhave
wildelydifferingmeasurementproperties.Somescalesareatverybest,limitedintheir
mathematicalpropertiestotheextentthattheycanonlyestablishanassociationbetween
variables.Otherscaleshavemoreextensivemathematicalpropertiesandsome,holdout
thepossibilityofestablishingcauseandeffectrelationshipsbetweenvariables.

ChapterObjectives
Thischapterwillgivethereader:

Anunderstandingofthefourlevelsofmeasurementthatcanbetakenby
researchers
Theabilitytodistinguishbetweencomparativeandnoncomparative
measurementscales,and
Abasictoolkitofscalesthatcanbeusedforthepurposesofmarketing
research.

StructureOfTheChapter
Allmeasurementsmusttakeoneoffourformsandthesearedescribedintheopening
sectionofthechapter.Afterthepropertiesofthefourcategoriesofscalehavebeen
explained,variousformsofcomparativeandnoncomparativescalesareillustrated.Some
ofthesescalesarenumeric,othersaresemanticandyetotherstakeagraphicalform.
Themarketingresearcherwhoisfamiliarwiththecompletetoolkitofscaling
measurementsisbetterequippedtounderstandmarkets.

Levelsofmeasurement
Mosttextsonmarketingresearchexplainthefourlevelsofmeasurement:nominal,
ordinal,intervalandratioandsothetreatmentgiventothemherewillbebrief.However,it
isanimportanttopicsincethetypeofscaleusedintakingmeasurementsdirectly
impingesonthestatisticaltechniqueswhichcanlegitimatelybeusedintheanalysis.

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Nominalscales
This,thecrudestofmeasurementscales,classifiesindividuals,companies,products,
brandsorotherentitiesintocategorieswherenoorderisimplied.Indeeditisoften
referredtoasacategoricalscale.Itisasystemofclassificationanddoesnotplacethe
entityalongacontinuum.Itinvolvesasimplycountofthefrequencyofthecasesassigned
tothevariouscategories,andifdesirednumberscanbenominallyassignedtolabeleach
categoryasintheexamplebelow:

Figure3.1Anexampleofanominalscale

Whichofthefollowingfooditemsdoyoutendtobuyatleastoncepermonth?(Pleasetick)
Okra PalmOil MilledRice
Peppers Prawns Pasteurisedmilk

Thenumbershavenoarithmeticpropertiesandactonlyaslabels.Theonlymeasureof
averagewhichcanbeusedisthemodebecausethisissimplyasetoffrequencycounts.
Hypothesistestscanbecarriedoutondatacollectedinthenominalform.Themostlikely
wouldbetheChisquaretest.However,itshouldbenotedthattheChisquareisatestto
determinewhethertwoormorevariablesareassociatedandthestrengthofthat
relationship.Itcantellnothingabouttheformofthatrelationship,whereitexists,i.e.itis
notcapableofestablishingcauseandeffect.

Ordinalscales

Ordinalscalesinvolvetherankingofindividuals,attitudesoritemsalongthecontinuumof
thecharacteristicbeingscaled.Forexample,ifaresearcheraskedfarmerstorank5
brandsofpesticideinorderofpreferencehe/shemightobtainresponseslikethosein
table3.2below.

Figure3.2Anexampleofanordinalscaleusedtodeterminefarmers'preferences
among5brandsofpesticide.

Orderofpreference Brand
1 Rambo
2 R.I.P.
3 Killalot
4 D.O.A.
5 Bugdeath

Fromsuchatabletheresearcherknowstheorderofpreferencebutnothingabouthow
muchmoreonebrandispreferredtoanother,thatisthereisnoinformationaboutthe
intervalbetweenanytwobrands.Alloftheinformationanominalscalewouldhavegiven
isavailablefromanordinalscale.Inaddition,positionalstatisticssuchasthemedian,
quartileandpercentilecanbedetermined.

Itispossibletotestforordercorrelationwithrankeddata.Thetwomainmethodsare
Spearman'sRankedCorrelationCoefficientandKendall'sCoefficientofConcordance.
Usingeitherprocedureonecan,forexample,ascertainthedegreetowhichtwoormore
surveyrespondentsagreeintheirrankingofasetofitems.Consideragaintherankingof
pesticidesexampleinfigure3.2.Theresearchermightwishtomeasuresimilaritiesand
differencesintherankingsofpesticidebrandsaccordingtowhethertherespondents'farm
enterpriseswereclassifiedas"arable"or"mixed"(acombinationofcropsandlivestock).
Theresultantcoefficienttakesavalueintherange0to1.Azerowouldmeanthatthere
wasnoagreementbetweenthetwogroups,and1wouldindicatetotalagreement.Itis
morelikelythatananswersomewherebetweenthesetwoextremeswouldbefound.

Theonlyotherpermissiblehypothesistestingproceduresaretherunstestandsigntest.
Therunstest(alsoknownastheWaldWolfowitz).Testisusedtodeterminewhethera
sequenceofbinomialdatameaningitcantakeonlyoneoftwopossiblevaluese.g.
African/nonAfrican,yes/no,male/femaleisrandomorcontainssystematic'runs'ofone
orothervalue.Signtestsareemployedwhentheobjectiveistodeterminewhetherthere
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isasignificantdifferencebetweenmatchedpairsofdata.Thesigntesttellstheanalystif
thenumberofpositivedifferencesinrankingisapproximatelyequaltothenumberof
negativerankings,inwhichcasethedistributionofrankingsisrandom,i.e.apparent
differencesarenotsignificant.Thetesttakesintoaccountonlythedirectionofdifferences
andignorestheirmagnitudeandhenceitiscompatiblewithordinaldata.

Intervalscales

Itisonlywithanintervalscaleddatathatresearcherscanjustifytheuseofthearithmetic
meanasthemeasureofaverage.Theintervalorcardinalscalehasequalunitsof
measurement,thusmakingitpossibletointerpretnotonlytheorderofscalescoresbut
alsothedistancebetweenthem.However,itmustberecognisedthatthezeropointonan
intervalscaleisarbitraryandisnotatruezero.Thisofcoursehasimplicationsforthetype
ofdatamanipulationandanalysiswecancarryoutondatacollectedinthisform.Itis
possibletoaddorsubtractaconstanttoallofthescalevalueswithoutaffectingtheform
ofthescalebutonecannotmultiplyordividethevalues.Itcanbesaidthattwo
respondentswithscalepositions1and2areasfarapartastworespondentswithscale
positions4and5,butnotthatapersonwithscore10feelstwiceasstronglyasonewith
score5.Temperatureisintervalscaled,beingmeasuredeitherinCentigradeor
Fahrenheit.Wecannotspeakof50Fbeingtwiceashotas25Fsincethecorresponding
temperaturesonthecentigradescale,10Cand3.9C,arenotintheratio2:1.

Intervalscalesmaybeeithernumericorsemantic.Studytheexamplesbelowinfigure
3.3.

Figure3.3Examplesofintervalscalesinnumericandsemanticformats

PleaseindicateyourviewsonBalkanOlivesbyscoringthemonascaleof5downto1(i.e.5=
Excellent=Poor)oneachofthecriterialisted
BalkanOlivesare: Circletheappropriatescoreoneachline
Succulence 5 4 3 2 1
Freshtasting 5 4 3 2 1
Freeofskinblemish 5 4 3 2 1
Goodvalue 5 4 3 2 1
Attractivelypackaged 5 4 3 2 1
(a)

PleaseindicateyourviewsonBalkanOlivesbytickingtheappropriateresponsesbelow:
Excellent VeryGood Good Fair Poor
Succulent
Freshness
Freedomfromskinblemish
Valueformoney
Attractivenessofpackaging
(b)

Mostofthecommonstatisticalmethodsofanalysisrequireonlyintervalscalesinorder
thattheymightbeused.Thesearenotrecountedherebecausetheyaresocommonand
canbefoundinvirtuallyallbasictextsonstatistics.

Ratioscales

Thehighestlevelofmeasurementisaratioscale.Thishasthepropertiesofaninterval
scaletogetherwithafixedoriginorzeropoint.Examplesofvariableswhichareratio
scaledincludeweights,lengthsandtimes.Ratioscalespermittheresearchertocompare
bothdifferencesinscoresandtherelativemagnitudeofscores.Forinstancethe
differencebetween5and10minutesisthesameasthatbetween10and15minutes,and
10minutesistwiceaslongas5minutes.

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Giventhatsociologicalandmanagementresearchseldomaspiresbeyondtheinterval
levelofmeasurement,itisnotproposedthatparticularattentionbegiventothislevelof
analysis.Sufficeittosaythatvirtuallyallstatisticaloperationscanbeperformedonratio
scales.

Measurementscales
Thevarioustypesofscalesusedinmarketingresearchfallintotwobroadcategories:
comparativeandnoncomparative.Incomparativescaling,therespondentisaskedto
compareonebrandorproductagainstanother.Withnoncomparativescalingrespondents
needonlyevaluateasingleproductorbrand.Theirevaluationisindependentoftheother
productand/orbrandswhichthemarketingresearcherisstudying.

Noncomparativescalingisfrequentlyreferredtoasmonadicscalingandthisisthemore
widelyusedtypeofscaleincommercialmarketingresearchstudies.

Comparativescales
Pairedcomparison2:Itissometimesthecasethatmarketingresearcherswishtofind
outwhicharethemostimportantfactorsindeterminingthedemandforaproduct.
Converselytheymaywishtoknowwhicharethemostimportantfactorsactingtoprevent
thewidespreadadoptionofaproduct.Take,forexample,theverypoorfarmerresponse
tothefirstdesignofananimaldrawnmouldboardplough.Acombinationofexploratory
researchandshrewdobservationsuggestedthatthefollowingfactorsplayedaroleinthe
shapingoftheattitudesofthosefarmerswhofeelnegativelytowardsthedesign:

Doesnotridge
Doesnotworkforintercropping
Fartooexpensive
Newtechnologytoorisky
Toodifficulttocarry.

Supposetheorganisationresponsiblewantstoknowwhichfactorsisforemostinthe
farmer'smind.Itmaywellbethecasethatifthosefactorsthataremostimportanttothe
farmerthantheothers,beingofarelativelyminornature,willceasetoprevent
widespreadadoption.Thealternativesaretoabandontheproduct'sredevelopmentorto
completelyredesignitwhichisnotonlyexpensiveandtimeconsuming,butmaywellbe
subjecttoanewsetofobjections.

Theprocessofrankorderingtheobjectionsfrommosttoleastimportantisbest
approachedthroughthequestioningtechniqueknownas'pairedcomparison'.Eachofthe
objectionsispairedbytheresearchersothatwith5factors,asinthisexample,thereare
10pairs

In'pairedcomparisons'everyfactorhastobepairedwitheveryotherfactorinturn.
However,onlyonepairiseverputtothefarmeratanyonetime.

Thequestionmightbeputasfollows:

Whichofthefollowingwasthemoreimportantinmakingyoudecidenottobuythe
plough?

Theploughwastooexpensive
Itprovedtoodifficulttotransport

Inmostcasesthequestion,andthealternatives,wouldbeputtothefarmerverbally.
He/shethenindicateswhichofthetwowasthemoreimportantandtheresearcherticks
theboxonhisquestionnaire.Thequestionisrepeatedwithasecondsetoffactorsand
theappropriateboxtickedagain.Thisprocesscontinuesuntilallpossiblecombinations
areexhausted,inthiscase10pairs.Itisgoodpracticetomixthepairsoffactorssothat
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thereisnosystematicbias.Theresearchershouldtrytoensurethatanyparticularfactor
issometimesthefirstofthepairtobementionedandsometimesthesecond.The
researcherwouldnever,forexample,takethefirstfactor(onthisoccasion'Doesnot
ridge')andsystematicallycompareittoeachoftheothersinsuccession.Thatislikelyto
causesystematicbias.

Belowlabelshavebeengiventothefactorssothattheworkedexamplewillbeeasierto
understand.ThelettersAEhavebeenallocatedasfollows:

A= Doesnotridge
B= Fartooexpensive
C= Newtechnologytoorisky
D= Doesnotworkforintercropping
E= Toodifficulttocarry.

Thedataisthenarrangedintoamatrix.Assumethat200farmershavebeeninterviewed
andtheirresponsesarearrangedinthegridbelow.Furtherassumethatthematrixisso
arrangedthatwereadfromtoptoside.Thismeans,forexample,that164outof200
farmerssaidthefactthattheploughwastooexpensivewasagreaterdeterrentthanthe
factthatitwasnotcapableofridging.Similarly,174farmerssaidthattheplough'sinability
tointercropwasmoreimportantthantheinabilitytoridgewhendecidingnottobuythe
plough.

Figure3.4Apreferencematrix

A B C D E
A 100 164 120 174 180
B 36 100 160 176 166
C 80 40 100 168 124
D 26 24 32 100 102
E 20 34 76 98 100

Ifthegridiscarefullyread,itcanbeseenthattherankorderofthefactorsis

Mostimportant E Toodifficulttocarry
D Doesnotintercrop
C Newtechnology/highrisk
B Tooexpensive
Leastimportant A Doesnotridge.

Itcanbeseenthatitismoreimportantfordesignerstoconcentrateonimproving
transportabilityand,ifpossible,togiveitanintercroppingcapabilityratherthanfocusing
onitsridgingcapabilities(rememberthattheexampleisentirelyhypothetical).

Onemajoradvantagetothistypeofquestioningisthatwhilstitispossibletoobtaina
measureoftheorderofimportanceoffiveormorefactorsfromtherespondent,heis
neveraskedtothinkaboutmorethantwofactorsatanyonetime.Thisisespeciallyuseful
whendealingwithilliteratefarmers.Havingsaidthat,theresearcherhastobecarefulnot
topresenttoomanypairsoffactorstothefarmerduringtheinterview.Ifhedoes,hewill
findthatthefarmerwillquicklygettiredand/orbored.Itisaswelltorememberthe
formulaofn(n1)/2.Fortenfactors,brandsorproductattributesthiswouldgive45pairs.
Clearlythefarmershouldnotbeaskedtosubjecthimselftohavingthesamequestionput
tohim45times.Forpracticalpurposes,sixfactorsispossiblythelimit,giving15pairs.

Itshouldbeclearfromtheproceduresdescribedinthesenotesthatthepaired
comparisonscalegivesordinaldata.

DollarMetricComparisons3:Thistypeofscaleisanextensionofthepaired
comparisonmethodinthatitrequiresrespondentstoindicateboththeirpreferenceand
howmuchtheyarewillingtopayfortheirpreference.Thisscalingtechniquegivesthe
marketingresearcheranintervalscaledmeasurement.Anexampleisgiveninfigure3.5.

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Figure3.5Anexampleofadollarmetricscale

Whichofthefollowingtypesoffish Howmuchmore,incents,wouldyoubepreparedtopay
doyouprefer? foryourpreferredfish?
Fresh Fresh(gutted) $0.70
Fresh(gutted) Smoked 0.50
Frozen Smoked 0.60
Frozen Fresh 0.70
Smoked Fresh 0.20
Frozen(gutted) Frozen
Fromthedataabovethepreferencesshownbelowcanbecomputedasfollows:
Freshfish: 0.70 +0.70 +0.20 =1.60
Smokedfish: 0.60 +(0.20) +(0.50) =(1.10)
Freshfish(gutted): (0.70) +0.30 +0.50 =0.10
Frozenfish: (0.60) +(0.70) +(0.30) =(1.60)

TheUnitysumgaintechnique:Acommonproblemwithlaunchingnewproductsisone
ofreachingadecisionastowhatoptions,andhowmanyoptionsoneoffers.Whilsta
companymaybeanxioustomeettheneedsofasmanymarketsegmentsaspossible,it
hastoensurethatthesegmentislargeenoughtoenablehimtomakeaprofit.Itisalways
easiertoaddproductstotheproductlinebutmuchmoredifficulttodecidewhichmodels
shouldbedeleted.Onetechniqueforevaluatingtheoptionswhicharelikelytoprove
successfulistheunitysumgainapproach.

Theprocedureistobeginwithalistoffeatureswhichmightpossiblybeofferedas
'options'ontheproduct,andalongsideeachyoulistitsretailcost.Athirdcolumnis
constructedandthisformsanindexoftherelativepricesofeachoftheitems.Thetable
belowwillhelpclarifytheprocedure.Forthepurposesofthisexamplethebasicreaperis
pricedat$20,000andsomepossible'extras'arelistedalongwiththeirprices.

Thetotalvalueofthesehypothetical'extras'is$7,460buttheresearchertellsthefarmer
hehasanequallyhypothetical$3,950orsimilarsum.Theimportantthingisthatheshould
haveconsiderablylesshypotheticalmoneytospendthanthetotalvalueofthealternative
productfeatures.Inthiswaythefarmerisencouragedtorevealhispreferencesby
allowingresearcherstoobservehowhetradesoneadditionalbenefitoffagainstanother.
Forexample,wouldhepreferasiderakeattachmentona3metreheadratherthanhave
atransportertrolleyoneitherastandardor2.5mwidehead?Thefarmerhastobetold
thatanyunspentmoneycannotberetainedbyhimsoheshouldseekthebestvaluefor
moneyhecanget.

Incaseswheretheresearcherbelievesthatmentioningspecificpricesmightintroduce
someformofbiasintotheresults,thentheindexcanbeusedinstead.Thisisconstructed
bytakingthepriceofeachitemoverthetotalof$7,460andmultiplyingby100.Survey
respondentsmightthenbegivenamaximumof60pointsandthen,asbefore,areasked
howtheywouldspendthese60points.Inthiscrudeexampletheindexnumbersarenot
tooeasytoworkwithformostrespondents,soonewouldroundthemashasbeendone
intheadjustedcolumn.Itistherelativeandnottheabsolutevalueoftheitemswhichis
importantsotheprecisionoftheroundingneednotoverlyconcernus.

Figure3.6Theunitysumgaintechnique

Item AdditionalCost($s) Index AdjustedIndex

2.5wideratherthanstandard2m 2,000 27 30
Selflubricatingchainratherthanbelt 200 47 50
Siderakeattachment 350 5 10
Polymerheadsratherthansteel 250 3 5
Doubleratherthansingleedgedcutters 210 2.5 5
Transportertrolleyforreaperattachment 650 9 10
Automaticlevellingoftable 300 4 5

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Theunitysumgaintechniqueisusefulfordeterminingwhichproductfeaturesaremore
importanttofarmers.Thedesignofthefinalmarketversionoftheproductcanthenreflect
thefarmers'needsandpreferences.Practitionerstreatdatagatheredbythismethodas
ordinal.

Noncomparativescales
Continuousratingscales:Therespondentsareaskedtogivearatingbyplacingamark
attheappropriatepositiononacontinuousline.Thescalecanbewrittenoncardand
showntotherespondentduringtheinterview.Twoversionsofacontinuousratingscale
aredepictedinfigure3.7.

Figure3.7Continuousratingscales

WhenversionBisused,therespondent'sscoreisdeterminedeitherbydividingtheline
intoasmanycategoriesasdesiredandassigningtherespondentascorebasedonthe
categoryintowhichhis/hermarkfalls,orbymeasuringthedistance,inmillimetresor
inches,fromeitherendofthescale.

Whicheveroftheseformsofthecontinuousscaleisused,theresultsarenormally
analysedasintervalscaled.

Linemarkingscale:Thelinemarkedscaleistypicallyusedtomeasureperceived
similaritydifferencesbetweenproducts,brandsorotherobjects.Technically,suchascale
isaformofwhatistermedasemanticdifferentialscalesinceeachendofthescaleis
labelledwithaword/phrase(orsemantic)thatisoppositeinmeaningtotheother.Figure
3.8providesanillustrativeexampleofsuchascale.

Considertheproductsbelowwhichcanbeusedwhenfryingfood.Inthecaseofeach
pair,indicatehowsimilarordifferenttheyareintheflavourwhichtheyimparttothefood.

Figure3.8Anexampleofalinemarkingscale

Forsometypesofrespondent,thelinescaleisaneasierformatbecausetheydonotfind
discretenumbers(e.g.5,4,3,2,1)bestreflecttheirattitudes/feelings.Thelinemarking
scaleisacontinuousscale.

Itemisedratingscales:Withanitemisedscale,respondentsareprovidedwithascale
havingnumbersand/orbriefdescriptionsassociatedwitheachcategoryandareaskedto
selectoneofthelimitednumberofcategories,orderedintermsofscaleposition,thatbest
describestheproduct,brand,companyorproductattributebeingstudied.Examplesofthe
itemisedratingscaleareillustratedinfigure3.9.

Figure3.9Itemisedratingscales

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Itemisedratingscalescantakeavarietyofinnovativeformsasdemonstratedbythetwo
illustratedinfigure3.9,whicharegraphic.

Figure3.10Graphicitemisedscales

Whicheverformofitemisedscaleisapplied,researchersusuallytreatthedataasinterval
level.

Semanticscales:Thistypeofscalemakesextensiveuseofwordsratherthannumbers.
Respondentsdescribetheirfeelingsabouttheproductsorbrandsonscaleswithsemantic
labels.Whenbipolaradjectivesareusedattheendpointsofthescales,thesearetermed
semanticdifferentialscales.Thesemanticscaleandthesemanticdifferentialscaleare
illustratedinfigure3.11.

Figure3.11Semanticandsemanticdifferentialscales

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Likertscales:ALikertscaleiswhatistermedasummatedinstrumentscale.Thismeans
thattheitemsmakingupaLikenscalearesummedtoproduceatotalscore.Infact,a
Likertscaleisacompositeofitemisedscales.Typically,eachscaleitemwillhave5
categories,withscalevaluesrangingfrom2to+2with0asneutralresponse.This
explanationmaybeclearerfromtheexampleinfigure3.12.

Figure3.12TheLikertscale

Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Strongly

Agree Disagree
Ifthepriceofrawmaterialsfellfirmswould 1 2 3 4 5
reducethepriceoftheirfoodproducts.
Withoutgovernmentregulationthefirmswould 1 2 3 4 5
exploittheconsumer.
Mostfoodcompaniesaresoconcernedabout 1 2 3 4 5
makingprofitstheydonotcareaboutquality.
Thefoodindustryspendsagreatdealofmoney 1 2 3 4 5
makingsurethatitsmanufacturingishygienic.
Foodcompaniesshouldchargethesameprice 1 2 3 4 5
fortheirproductsthroughoutthecountry

LikertscalesaretreatedasyieldingIntervaldatabythemajorityofmarketingresearchers.

Thescaleswhichhavebeendescribedinthischapterareamongthemostcommonly
usedinmarketingresearch.Whilstthereareagreatmanymoreformswhichscalescan
take,ifstudentsarefamiliarwiththosedescribedinthischaptertheywillbewellequipped
todealwithmosttypesofsurveyproblem.

ChapterSummary
Therearefourlevelsofmeasurement:nominal,ordinal,intervalandratio.These
constituteahierarchywherethelowestscaleofmeasurement,nominal,hasfarfewer
mathematicalpropertiesthanthosefurtherupthishierarchyofscales.Nominalscales

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yielddataoncategoriesordinalscalesgivesequencesintervalscalesbegintorevealthe
magnitudebetweenpointsonthescaleandratioscalesexplainbothorderandthe
absolatedistancebetweenanytwopointsonthescale.

Themeasurementscales,commonlyusedinmarketingresearch,canbedividedintotwo
groupscomparativeandnoncomparativescales.Comparativescalesinvolvethe
respondentinsignalingwherethereisadifferencebetweentwoormoreproducers,
services,brandsorotherstimuli.Examplesofsuchscalesincludepairedcomparison,
dollarmetric,unitysumgainandlinemarkingscales.Noncomparativescales,described
inthetextbook,arecontinuousratingscales,itemisedratingscales,semanticdifferential
scalesandLikertscales.

KeyTerms
Comparativescales
Intervalmeasures
Itemisedscales
Linescales
Monadicscales
Nominalmeasures
Ordinalmeasures
Pairedcomparison
Ratiomeasures
Semanticdifferential
Unitysumgain

ReviewQuestions
1.WithwhichtypeofscalewouldKendall'sConcordancebeused?

2.Whatisthemorecommonnamegiventoordinalscales?

3.Whywouldamarketingresearcheremployadollarmetricscale?

4.Aresearcherwantstomeasureconsumerpreferencebetween9brandsofvegetable
oilandhasdecidedtousethepairedcomparisonmethod.Howmanypairsofbrandswill
theresearcherpresenttotherespondents?

5.Explainwhatismeantbyasemanticdifferentialscale.

6.Twographicscalesaredescribedinthetextbook.Whattypesofscalearethese?

7.Lookbacktofigure3.5.Whatformoffishismostandleastpreferred?

8.Whatarethemajorstatisticallimitationstonominalscaleddata?

ChapterReferences
1.Coombs,C.H.(1953).."TheoryandMethodsofSocialMeasurement",inResearch
MethodsintheBehavioralSciences,eds.Feslinger,L.andRatz,D.,Holt,Rinehartand
Winston.

2.Thurstone,L.L.,(1927),"ALawofComparativeJudgment",PsychologicalReview34,
pp.27386.

3.Dillon,W.R.,Madden,T.SandFirtle,N.H.(1994),MarketingResearchinaMarketing
Environment,3rdedition,Irwin,p.298.

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