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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
Table 2. Tohoku tsunami heights exceeding 2 meters outside of Japan mouth of the Klamath River to
photograph the tsunami; all were
swept into the water, but two man-
aged to get back to land. The body
of the third was recovered three
weeks later near the mouth of the
Columbia River in Oregon, about
500 km to the north. Other people
were swept into the water in the
Port Orford and Gold Beach areas
of Oregon and at Ocean Beach in
southern California, but were
rescued.
The impacts on the West Coast of
the U.S. were reduced by the am-
bient tidal conditions. In California
and Oregon, the strongest tsunami
surges coincided with a low neap
tide and ambient water levels close
to zero. The highest absolute wat-
er levels in the Crescent City area
coincided with the highest tide,
nearly 24 hours after the onset of
Source: NGDC, 2011; data in bold from tide gauge recordings the tsunami when the tide was 2 m
and the tsunami still had amplitudes
four locations in Chile as well as in Maui and Oahu. At the Keehi Lagoon over 1 m. Had the largest surges
the Galapagos Islands and Maui, marina on Oahu, floating docks broke coincided with high tides, there
Hawaii (Table 2). loose and sank an estimated 25 would have been significant on-
The tsunami caused damage on boats and damaged 200 others. Eco- land flooding at a number of West
Midway Island and in California, Or- nomic losses in Hawaii were exac- Coast locations. The impacts were
egon, and Hawaii, portions of which erbated by the cancellations of large also reduced by the effectiveness
were declared federal disaster areas. numbers of Japanese tourists. of tsunami warning systems that
The California Geological Survey Brookings Harbor in southern Oregon allowed commercial fishermen in
activated a post-tsunami clearing- was badly damaged by the strong both Crescent City and Brookings
house after the event and organized currents caused by the tsunami. Docks to move most of the commercial
teams of scientists and engineers broke loose and several boats sank, fleet out of the harbors before the
that examined or received reports causing an estimated $6.7 million in tsunami arrived.
about every port and harbor facility damage. Damage to docks was also In South America the largest am-
in the state. Two harbors (Santa reported in Depoe Bay and Coos Bay. plitude tsunami waves coincided
Cruz and Crescent City) had major The only life lost outside of Japan with high tide. Damage was report-
damage (Figure 21), and less seri- was in northern California, where ed in Chile and the Galapagos Is-
ous impacts were observed at 22 three young men had gone to the lands. At Tongoy, in Chiles Co-
other locations in California. All the
damage was attributed to strong
currents, which were measured at
speeds of up to 10 knots (Wilson et
al., 2011). Losses in California were
estimated at over $50 million.
In Hawaii, the most serious damage
was at Kealakekua Bay and in Kai-
lua-Kona, where one house floated
to sea and 26 were damaged. A
number of hotels were damaged,
including the landmark Kona Village
Resort, which remains closed to Figure 21. Crescent City, California. Left: the inner boat basin during the
date. Damage was also reported on tsunami. Right: damaged docks and boats (photos: R. Hiser).
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
Table 3. Japan Meteorological Agency Tsunami Bulletins their plans when they saw the
surges heading into the commu-
nity. They changed plans twice
before finally running to the hills
(green circle). Professor Katada
at Gunma University had served
as an advisor to the Unosumai
school disaster planning effort
and had emphasized that chil-
dren should be taught to head to
high ground, to evaluate the situ-
ation with their own eyes, and to
assist others.
3) Changing official warning in-
formation. The Japanese Me-
teorological Agency (JMA) has
the responsibility for issuing tsu-
nami warnings in Japan. On
March 11, the JMA issued a
series of bulletins assessing the
likely tsunami hazard posed by
the earthquake (Table 3). The
initial bulletin issued three min-
utes after the earthquake esti-
mated a magnitude of 7.9 and
forecast 3-m surges along the
Iwate and Fukushima coasts,
and waves as high as 6 m in
Miyagi. This information was dis-
seminated to emergency officials
and to the public via television,
Source: http://www.jma.go.jp/en/tsunami/info_04_20110311145026.html (Ozaki, 2011). radio, and cell phones. Succeed-
ing bulletins expanded the warn-
2) Limitations of published haz- 485 deaths in Unosumai, 419 of ing areas and increased the ex-
ard maps. All coastal communi- which (86%) had residences within pected water height; however,
ties used the tsunami hazard the 2011 inundation area, but out- it took nearly four hours before
assessment to develop inunda- side of the mapped hazard area. the designated warning areas
tion and evacuation maps. Fig- In Unosumai, over 500 students stopped changing. JMA recently
ure 23 shows the evacuation from the junior high and elemen- changed its protocol for very
map for Unosumai Town located tary schools successfully made it large earthquakes because of
near Kamaishi City. The 1896 to high ground (Asahi Shimbun, the underestimation on March
and 1933 tsunamis flooded the 2011b). Both schools were located 11. For earthquakes of magni-
town to the red line. Seawalls just outside of the mapped hazard tude 8 or larger, anticipated
and large river dikes had been zone, and the students in the ele- water heights will no longer be
constructed since 1933 and mentary school had been taught to announced; instead, the warn-
were believed to be able to pre- go to the buildings third floor after ing will focus on the possibility
vent the level of flooding seen an earthquake. At the adjacent ju- of a huge tsunami (Cyranoski,
previously. The hazard map, in- nior high school, students and staff 2011). An important research
cluding the mitigating effect of had been taught to evacuate. When question is how officials and the
the seawall, is shown by the the elementary students saw the public responded to the chang-
orange line. The actual inunda- older students evacuating, they ing hazard assessment and
tion in 2011 (blue line) exceeded joined them, the older students what level of detail is sufficient to
both the historic inundation and assisting the younger ones. The motivate people to evacuate.
the mapped hazard areas. A group first headed to a location 4) Importance and effectiveness
study done by Mainichi Newspa- well outside of the mapped zone of visual inundation markers.
per (Sugimoto, 2011) reported (red circle Figure 23), but changed Many communities featured vis-
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
no high ground is nearby, re- Outside of Japan, risk perception Data Center for providing informa-
search should assess its effec- also posed a problem. While evac- tion on tsunami impacts outside
tiveness in areas where there uation efforts on the U.S. West Japan, and Brian Atwater of the
are other options. Coast were more successful than USGS for his insights and critical
6) Effectiveness of seawalls as a in the past (Dengler et al., 2011), review of the manuscript. We also
mitigation measure. It is not the a significant number of people thank all of the kind people in Japan
purpose of this report to assess headed to the coast to watch the who spoke with us and told us their
the engineering issues associat- event. There continue to be prob- stories, in spite of how painful and
ed with seawalls, but an impor- lems with warning message com- difficult it was to do so.
tant research issue is the rela- prehension, especially for non-
tive effectiveness of seawalls English speaking communities References
compared to other mitigation (Wilson et al., 2011). A high-priority
research effort would be to exam- Abe, H., Y. Sugeno and A. Chigama,
measures, such as land use 1990. Estimation of the height of
planning, and education. This ine the primary influences on in-
the Sanriku Jogan 11 earthquake-
discussion has already begun in dividual perception of risk, and
tsunami (A.D. 869) in the Sendai
the media (Yomiuri Shimbun, how those perceptions informed Plain, Zisin [Earthquakes], Vol. 43,
2011), and can be seen in great- evacuation behavior. pp. 513-525.
er detail in the companion LFE Asahi Shimbun, 2011a. POINT OF
report, The Japan Tohoku Tsu- Acknowledgments VIEW by Jin Sato: Government
nami of March 11, 2011: Effects The teams whose work is included in should provide lending to rebuild
on Structures, by the ASCE/ this report were supported by a num- homes in quake-hit town, March 24.
EERI team. ber of organizations, including EERI; http://ajw.asahi.com/article/
0311disaster/quake_tsunami/
7) Perception of risk. A recurring the U.S. Geological Survey; the Na-
AJ201103211750
chorus among the people inter- tional Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Pro-
gram; the California Geological Sur- Asahi Shimbun, 2011b. Tsunami drills
viewed during this and other
vey; Humboldt State University; the paid off for hundreds of children,
field reconnaissance trips is that March 23. http://ajw.asahi.com/
they did not perceive themselves Science and Technology Research
article/0311disaster/life_and_death/
to be at risk. An NHK survey of Partnership for Sustainable Develop- AJ201103233378
tsunami survivors found that over ment (SATREPS) of the Japan Sci-
ence and Technology Agency (JST); Chagu-Goff , Catherine, et al., 2011.
half did not think they were in an Preliminary Results of a Geological
inundation area (Sugimoto, the Japan International Cooperation
Field Survey in the Sendai Plain after
2011). For a significant number Agency (JICA); the Overseas Intern- the 11 March 2011 Tohoku Tsunami,
of people, the earthquake was a ship Program for Outstanding Young Proceedings, IUGG Melbourne 2011,
trigger not to head to higher Earth and Planetary Researchers, Paper # 6074.
ground, but rather to go into Department of Earth and Planetary Cyranoski, David, 2011. Japans
hazard zones where they lived, Science, University of Tokyo; the tsunami warning system retreats,
either to rescue a relative or to Indonesian Ministry of Research and NatureNews, August 11. http://www.
retrieve belongings. Although Technology (RISTEK); and the Indo- nature.com/news/2011/110811/full/
taught to evacuate on foot, most nesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI). news.2011.477.html?s=news_rss
people relied on cars; this made We thank Kenji Satake, Teruyuki Kato Dengler, Lori et al., 2011. The 2011
it difficult for them to assess the and Yoshinobu Tsuji of ERI at the Tohoku-oki tsunami on the Northern
situation around them and caused University of Tokyo for discussions California and Southern Oregon
massive traffic jams that hindered Coast, Proceedings, IUGG Mel-
and logistical assistance; Laura Kong
evacuation (Japan Times, 2011b). bourne 2011, Paper # 6078.
of the International Tsunami Informa-
A number of factors may have tion Center for coordinating ITST Fackler, Martin, 2011. Tsunami Warn-
contributed to the reduced sense efforts; Masahiro Yamamoto of IOC/ ings, Written in Stone, The New York
of risk: the perceived safety of Times, April 20. http://www.nytimes.
UNESCO for compiling the Tohoku
seawalls, previous events that com/2011/04/21/world/asia/21stones.
tsunami reports, Jose Borrero of ASR html?pagewanted=all
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sued for the 2010 Chilean quake ueller, 2011. The dynamics of a
of the University of Washington for
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EERI Special Earthquake Report November 2011
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