International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)

Volume 7, Issue 5, September-October 2016, pp. 232241, Article ID: IJCIET_07_05_025

Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=7&IType=5
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316
IAEME Publication

DAMAGE MECHANISM IN PROBLEMATIC SOILS

Dr. M.S.Dixit
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Marathwada Institute of Technology, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India.

ABSTRACT
Any structure constructed on the earth is supported by soil underlying it. Foundation is an
interfacing element between superstructure and the underlying soil that transmits the loads
supported by the foundation and its self-weight. Foundation design requires evaluation of safe
bearing capacity both immediate and long term settlement. The weak and compressible soils are
subjected to problems related to bearing capacity and settlement. Different degrees of precaution
are to be taken to implement a given design without causing any distress to adjoining structures. It
is equally important to determine problems anticipated during construction and work out proper
construction procedure and remedial measures in time. The construction problems may vary from
site to site and many problems are site specific. Expansive soils seriously affect various structures
that are founded on them due to their tendency to undergo shrinkage and swelling with seasonal
moisture fluctuations. Identification and understanding of these soils are required to safeguard the
existing and future constructions. Similarly differential movement of foundations of structures is a
common problem in problematic soil, due to changes in moisture content of soil below the
foundation.
In the present paper, an attempt is made to throw light on some general problems associated
with foundation constructions and improvement techniques for safe design of foundations in
problematic soils such as expansive soils and soft soils. The general characteristics of expansive
soils and basis for identification have been also discussed in detailed. Damage potential of
expansive soils with respect to different civil engineering constructions have been explained with
suitable illustrations and the causes for volume change phenomena of expansive soils have been
discussed. Various available techniques for minimizing the swelling of soils and various options for
foundation laying have also been presented. Thus it can be concluded that by using suitable
improvement techniques and proper design of different components it is possible to construct safe,
stable and economical structure.
Key words: Expansive Soil, Soft Soil, Foundations.
Cite this Article: Dr. M.S. Dixit, Damage Mechanism in Problematic Soils. International Journal
of Civil Engineering and Technology, 7(5), 2016, pp.232241.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=7&IType=5

1. INTRODUCTION
Soil is one of the mostly encountered materials in Civil Engineering and is used in many Engineering
Structures such as embankments, dams and pavements. All structures except those founded on solid rock,
regardless of material of which they are constructed, rest ultimately upon soil. Thus, the behavior of the
soil at the location of any project and the interactions of the earth materials during and after construction of

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 Dr. M.S. Dixit

the facility has a major influence on the success, economy, and safety of the work. Foundation is an
interfacing element between superstructure and the underlying soil that transmits to, and into the
underlying soil or rock the loads supported by the foundation and its self-weight. Safety and economy are
the most important aspects of foundation design. Foundation design requires evaluation of the safe bearing
capacity and settlement, both immediate and long term. These factors require knowledge of the subsoil
characteristics, which are determined from an appropriate site investigation. However, soil being deposited
at a site by natural geological processes over long periods of time, there are inherent variations which may
not be fully reflected by even an elaborate subsoil investigation. The damages from expansive soils are
minor maintenance and aesthetic concerns, but often they are much worse, causing major structural
distress. The wetting of collapsible soils generates unexpected settlements and as a result many buildings
and other improvements have been damaged. The weak and compressible soils are subjected to bearing
capacity and settlement problems. The problems multiply when excavation is to be made below ground
water table. The construction problems vary widely and are often site specific. Hence, simplifying
assumptions are made about boundary conditions and average soil properties are to be assigned to the
different strata for working out the detailed foundation design. Different degrees of precaution are to be
taken to implement a given design without causing any distress to adjoining structures. It is equally
important to determine if any problems are to be anticipated during construction and work out proper
construction procedure and remedial measures in time. In few cases, however, it is possible to improve
upon their quality by employing some measures, such as stabilization, preloading, precompaction, grouting
etc.Thus this paper details some general problems associated with foundation construction and
improvement techniques for safe design of foundations in problematic soils such as expansive soils and
soft (weak and compressible) soils.

2. EXPANSIVE SOILS
Expansive soils are a worldwide problem posing many challenges to Civil Engineers, Construction Firms
and owners. They are considered as a potential natural hazard that can cause extensive damage to
engineering structures. Expansive soils occur in many parts of the world but particularly in arid and semi-
arid regions. A soil is commonly considered to have expansive tendencies when its liquid limit is greater
than 53% and plasticity index is greater than 25%. Expansive soils, though primarily belong to the fine-
grained group of soils and are classified as "Clays" that have ability to change in volume when they come
in contact with water. Usually, the soil will shrink when moisture content is reduced and will swell when
the moisture content increases. Thus, an expansive soil exhibits high swelling, shrinkage and plasticity
characteristics. In general, the expansive soils refer to soils that contain active clay mineral especially
montmorillonite.
Thus, expansive soils are also known as "Swelling Soils", "Heaving Soils", and "Volume Changing
Soils". In India, these soils are known as "Regur Soils" (from the Telgu word Regadda), which are highly
argillaceous, somewhat calcareous & very fine-grained. A careful study of all aspects of this problem will
therefore, be of great importance.

2.1. Behavior of Expansive Soils

Expansive soils have gained significant importance due to their peculiar behavior of volume change when
they come in contact with water. Structures built on expansive soils have been subjected to extensive
damages due to the adverse and unpredictable characteristics of the soil. The peculiar properties of black
cotton soil can be attributed mainly due to the predominant clay mineral montmorillonite. These soils,
which become highly water logged during rainy seasons, (due to poor drainage characteristics) dry up
easily during hot weather thereby causing conspicuous shrinkage cracks. These cracks may sometimes
expend to depth of 0.5 m below surface and can be 5 to 20 mm wide. When winter rains fall on the dry,
cracked ground, the clays swell; the cracks close; and the ground can "Heave" up as much as several

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 Damage Mechanism in Problematic Soils

inches. Black cotton soil which covers nearly a one-fifth of the total area of our country, has been a
nightmare to the construction Engineers all along.

2.2. Identification and Classification of Expansive Soils

The identification and classification are two important problems for evaluating the expansive soils. As a
matter of fact, the degree of damage to structures is dependent on the behavior of the deformation of the
subsoil, which is a function of a lot of factors, such as expansive potential, local weather conditions,
landforms etc.
Therefore, a standard for identification and classification of expansive soil is of great significance. It is
considered that some indices, swell potential, free swell, shrinkage limit etc., for example, may be used for
identification, but not be used for classification because, in addition to the nature of soil, there are other
ambient factors to affect the soil swelling or soil shrinking in the site which is directly related to the degree
of damage.

2.3. Problems Associated with Expansive Soils

Expansive soil is expensive material. Expansive soils occurring above water table undergo volumetric
changes with changes in water content. Increase in moisture content causes the following effects:

2.3.1. Swell - Shrink Characteristics

Expansive clay soils are subject to seasonal shrink/swell cycles due to the changes in moisture content.
This causes significant volume changes and may induce stresses in the areas (Active Zone) of a foundation
or structure causing structural problems through differential movement of the structure resulting severe
damage to the foundations, buildings, roads retaining walls, canal linings etc.

2.3.2. Horizontal Thrust

A second effect of expansive soils is additional horizontal pressure applied to foundation walls found in
basements and crawl spaces. Increased water content in the soils adjacent to the foundation wall will cause
the soils to expand and increase the lateral pressure applied to the foundation wall. If the foundation wall
does not have sufficient strength, minor cracking, bowing or movement of the wall and serious structural
damage to or failure of the wall may occur.

2.3.3. Creep and Landslide

A third effect associated with clay stone (a type of expansive soils) is the movement of soils on unstable
slopes. Expansive clay stone soils found as a layer under a more rigid top layer of soils, become unstable
as the moisture content increases, allowing the clay stone and top layers of the soil to move. If the soil is
located on a slope, the top layer of soil can creep downhill or even cause a landslide. Consequently, a
house with an inadequate foundation built on unstable slopes can be subjected to creeping of the structure
down slope or to failure of the structures in a landslide.

2.3.4. Typical Structural Distress Patterns

It is difficult to describe a typical distress pattern in buildings on expansive soils because the exact pattern
of heaving depends on so many factors. However, in broad terms, buildings in arid areas tend to experience
an edge lift, and conversely, in humid climates, the expansive soils may shrink when it dries, causing the
edge to depress. The difference in water content between the interior and exterior of a building causes
uplift force on the interior footings and walls, shrinkage settlement of the exterior walls and lateral thrust
on the exterior walls.

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 Dr. M.S. Dixit

Figure 1 Typical Distress Symptoms of a Foundation Failure of a Building

Due to the cumulative action of these forces, number typical distress systems, which occur in a
building, are:
Moisture loss due to evaporation/transpiration
Loss of contact in the exterior face
Diagonal crack in the cross walls
Lateral thrust on exterior wall
Moisture increase by suction force
Uplift in the interior footing
Shrinkage settlement in the exterior walls
Crack in the roof slab due to cantilever action
Horizontal crack in the interior wall
Separation of the floor from exterior wall
Separation of the roof slab from the exterior wall
Moisture accumulation in the interior of the building due to thermo osmatic film flow.

2.3.5. Consequences of Swelling

Untreated expansive soils can lead to distressed foundations, cracked walls and sticking doors. Figure 2
illustrates the kind of typical damage that a structure resting on an expansive soil may suffer.

Figure 2 Effects of Swelling on a Structure

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 Damage Mechanism in Problematic Soils

The damage will be apparent, usually several years after the construction. The soil below will exert
swelling pressure both upwards and laterally. As a result, the floor slab is lifted up, typically in an irregular
dome shaped or corners-down pattern, leading to the cracking of the floor. The footing walls are pushed
outwards, leading to cracking of the end walls of the structure. Since there is restriction of movement at the
junctions between the walls and the floor as well as between the walls and the roof slab, structural distress
is apparent at these locations. Cracking is also normally evident at the corners of window and door
openings. These usually assume the form of diagonal cracks-a consequence of differential settlement in the
wall. Often, utilities buried in the soil such as the water pipes and sewage lines get damaged due to
displacement in the soil in which they are buried. The ensuing leakage of their contents would result in a
further wetting of the soil and enhances the swelling.

2.4. Basic Preventive Measures for Foundations on Black Cotton Soils

Any building site on an expansive soil should include at least the following features:

2.4.1. Basement Backfills

If the structure has a basement, the backfill should consist of non expansive soils. It should be well
compacted to avoid subsequent settlement that would adversely affect the surface drainage patterns. In
addition, a well-compacted backfill is less pervious, so water will be less likely to infiltrate the soil. Install
a drainpipe at the bottom of the backfill to capture any water that might enter and carry it outside or to a
sump pump.

2.4.2. Surface Drainage

Although good surface drainage is important at all building sites, it is especially critical where expansive
soils are present. The ground surface should slope away from the structure as shown in figure 3.

(a) Poor Drainage wet expanded clay (b) Good Drainage dry stable clay

Figure 3 Surface Drainage

2.4.3. Landscaping
Irrigation near the structure can introduce large quantities of water into the soil and is a common cause of
swelling. This can be an especially troublesome source of problems because irrigation systems are usually
installed by homeowners or others who are not sufficiently conscious of expansive soil concerns. Specific
preventive measures include:
Avoid placing plants and irrigation systems immediately adjacent to the structure.
Avoid placing irrigation pipes near the structure to prevent problems from leaks
Direct all spray heads away from the structure.

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 Dr. M.S. Dixit

2.4.4. Additional Preventive Measures

Beyond these basics, it is also possible to incorporate more extensive measures. O'Neill and Poormoayed
(1980) divided them into three basic categories:
Alter the expansive clay to reduce or eliminate its swelling potential
Bypass the expansive clay by isolating the foundation from its effect (Figure 4).
Mitigate the movements in the superstructure.

Figure 4 Bypassing Expansive Clay with a Raised Building and a Drilled Shaft Foundation

2.4.5. Underground Utilities

Utility lines often become distorted because of differential swelling of expansive soils. With water, sewer,
or storm drainpipes, these distortions can create leaks that in turn cause more expansion. This progression
is likely to occur where the pipes enter the building, and could cause large heaves and serious structural
distress.
The risk of this potential problem can be reduced by:
Using flexible pipe materials (PVC).
Installing, the pipe such that large shear or flexural stresses will not develop. In some cases, this may require
the use of flexible joints.

2.5. Possible Solutions

2.5.1. Pre-Construction Solutions
Prior to building the structure, a soil test of the site should be performed to ensure the soils are stable or to
determine the approximate effect the soils will have on the structure. This will assist in determining if the
soils are capable of property supporting the structure. In addition, information on the soils can ensure that
the foundation is designed to withstand the effects of the existing soil conditions, and assist in the
development of plans for long-term maintenance.

2.5.2. Special Foundations (Deep piers)

Deep piers and footings, and in more recent years use of rigid (waffle-type or post-tensioned) slabs, are the
principal preventive techniques for safe design of building foundations (Figure 5a).

2.5.3. Fill Blanket

Replacement of the influential upper few feet of expansive bedrock with a blanket of stable compacted fill
can control damage by eliminating the most unstable zone and stabilizing the water content of the deeper

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 Damage Mechanism in Problematic Soils

rock. Irregular watering may still cause differential movement though the effects may be delayed. Bedrock
stratigraphy, fill thickness, permeability, expensively, structural designs are all factors to be considered in
this Preventive design approach (Figure 5b).

Figure 5(A): Deep Piers as Preventive Measure Figure 5(B): Fill Blanket as Preventive Measure
Against Failures in Expansive Soils Against Failures in Expansive Soils

2.5.4. Post-Construction Solutions

For structures already in existence, several possible solutions to counter the effects of expansive soils are
available. Common preventative solutions include proper soil maintenance such as maintaining a uniform
and constant moisture level in the soil. This may involve introducing moisture into the soils excessive or
isolated saturation of the soil through proper drainage and grading techniques that prevent swelling. For
structures affected by expansive soils, further movement can be prevented by providing various methods of
underpinning (to prevent vertical movement and/or sliding) and/or reinforcing of the foundation walls (to
withstand lateral pressure).

2.5.5. Need for Stabilization of Expansive Soil

Right from the use of natural materials for infrastructure building of yester ages to the man made material
of today, thirst for better understanding of material behaviour and the pursuance for improved analytical
tools form the back-bone to the sustained research. The developments of these materials have posed
problems and challenges that have triggered off worldwide research programs leading to ultimate
economy. Soil engineers and engineering geologists test soils for swell potential when designing a
building's foundation. Two soil treatment methods can reduce the soil's swell potential-engineered fills and
chemical treatments.
Engineered fills include replacing existing soil with an impermeable soil or compacting the soil.
Contractors may replace the top 3 to 4 feet of soil with a non expansive, impermeable soil. Chemical soil
treatments are not common in residential construction. They are mostly used on commercial building sites
and roads. To stabilize the soil, contractors may apply lime, cement or salts. The lime is usually mixed into
the soil to depths of 12 to 18 inches. Other less common construction treatments include mixing cement
with the soil or adding salts like sodium chloride or calcium chloride. The goals for soil treatment are to
reduce the amount of water that enters the ground near the foundation and to reduce the swell potential of
the soil.

3. WEAK AND COMPRESSIBLE (SOFT) SOILS

Soft clay as a foundation soil is met all over the world, being deposited mainly as sedimentary soils under
alluvial, marine, lacustrine or similar environment. High compressibility and low shear strength

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 Dr. M.S. Dixit

characterize weak and compressible (soft) soils. They are fine-grained soils with moderate to high clay
fraction and are highly plastic in nature. They give rise to problems of stability and settlement even under
small-superimposed load. Consequently, buildings, bridges, and underground construction in soft clay give
rise to problems of design and construction. Some of the methods for soft soil are

3.1. Deep Foundations

When soft or weak and compressible soils are met with, deep foundations have been used more frequently
than justified apparently because of the widespread feeling that deep foundations present few construction
problems and yield very less foundation settlement. Deep foundations perform well-provided down drag
loads and the interface between the structure and the adjacent ground are taken into design consideration
by the foundation engineer. To counteract the down drag loads, the engineer has to implement the down
drag reduction techniques to avoid the significant impact of negative skin friction on deep foundations.
Deep foundations penetrate down to stronger soils or bedrock as shown in figure 6. Thus, the structural
loads bypass the troublesome soils.

3.2. Shallow Foundations

Lightly loaded foundations located in a fill probably will not have bearing capacity problems. However,
they may be subjected to large total and differential settlements. Therefore, the engineer must provide a
way to accommodate or to avoid these settlement problems. In case of shallow ground improvement the
partial or full replacement of weak soil stratum has also been in use. To avoid the problems with down
drag loads and ground separation for lightweight structures, shallow foundation systems have been
successfully used as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 6 Bypassing Weak and Compressible Soils Figure 7 Use of Spread Footings to Support
Using Deep Foundations; Formation of Down drag Structures on Fills Underlain by Weak Soils Fill
Loads Vertical Drains

3.3. Soil Improvement by Preloading

Preloading is an effective means of improving the carrying capacity of a soft ground to reduce or virtually
eliminate settlement of the ground up to the preload intensity. Preloading may be done by heaping of soil,
by water load, by vacuum method and with installation of band drains to accelerate the consolidation
process and improve the bearing strength of the soil (Figure 8).

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 Damage Mechanism in Problematic Soils

Figure 8 Soil Improvement by Preloading

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The abnormal properties of black cotton soils are due to its shrinkage characteristics which lead to failure
through heave, settlement cracking. To solve these problems, the ideal method is to curtail the moisture
movement into the soil mass within and outside the structure. This is feasible in small foundation works.
The soft marine clays, often deep seated, with high compressibility, nearly zero strength water tables
almost near the ground surface; challenge to the Geotechnical Engineers in proceeding the safe and
economical foundation. Whilst pile foundation is the common choice on these soils, more research is
warrant to find out economical foundations.
Thus, it has been observed that the problematic soils present major challenges to Geotechnical
Engineers in finding solutions to problems of Foundation construction. But modern techniques of
construction allow heavy structures to be built in problematic soils with appropriate ground improvement
measures, wherever necessary. Thus, the foundation engineer in consultation with Geotechnical Engineer
must determine the necessary performance requirements before designing a foundation in problematic
soils.

REFERENCE
[1] Chen, Fu Hue, (1988), "Foundations on Expansive Soil", Second Edition, Developments in Geotechnical
Engineering, 54, Elsevier Scientific Co., New York.

[2] Dastidar, A. G. (1985), Treatment of weak soils-An Indian Perspective, Current Practices in
Geotechnical Engineering -l, (G-9), pp. 179-232.

[3] Greenfield J.S. and Shen C.K. (1992), A Text Book on Foundation in Problem Soil, Prentice Hall,
Jew Jersey.

[4] Mohammed Y. Fattah, Mohammed A. Al-Neami and Ahmed S. H. Al-Suhaily , Reliability Based
Analysis of Bearing Capacity of Footings on Soft Soil Strengthened by Stone Columns. International
Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), 7(4), 2016, pp.6280.

[5] Houstan, William N. and Houston, Sandra L (1989), State-of-the-Practice Mitigation Measures for
Collapsible Soil Sites", Foundation Engineering Current Principles & Practices, Vol. 1, p. 161-175, F.
H. Kulhawy, Ed., ASCE.

[6] Dr. M. S. Dixit and Dr. K.A. Patil, Utilization of Stone Dust to Improve the Properties of Expansive
Soil. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), 7(4), 2016, pp.440447.

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 Dr. M.S. Dixit

[7] O'Neltl, Mktiael W. and Poormoayed, N. (1980). "Methodology for Foundations on Expansive Clays",
ASCE Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, vol. 106, No. GT12, pp 1345-1368.

[8] Shri Rama Rao A (1999), Foundations in Expansive soils, Lecture Notes, Foundation on Weak
Deposit, QIP/CEP short term course, IIT, Madras.

[9] Subba Rao K.S., Gangadhara S.(1998), Bandwidth of Movement of Expansive Soils, Proceeding
Indian Geotechnical Conference, New Delhi, pp. 71-74.

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