CHAPTER 5

FREQUENCY MODULATION CIRCUITS

FREQUENCY MODULATORS
- The basic concept of fm is to vary the carrier
frequency in accordance with the modulating
signal.
VARACTOR / VOLTAGE-VARIABLE
CAPACITOR (VVC)
- The most frequently used in the application in - FM signal is applied to a zero-crossing detector
fm and pm. or a clipper-limiter that generates a binary
- Also known as variable capacitance diode or voltage-level change each time the FM signal
varicap varies from minus to plus or from plus to
- A semiconductor junction diode that is minus
operated in reverse-bias mode - FM square wave is then applied to a one-shot
(monostable) multivibrator that generates a fi
DEPLETION REGION
xed-amplitude
- A thin region where there are no free carriers,
- The one-shot output pulses are then fed to a
holes, or electrons is formed.
simple RC low-pass fi lter that averages the dc
- Acts as a thin insulator
pulses to recover the original modulating
signal.
QUADRATURE FM DETECTOR

(Frequency modulation with an IC VCO)

Schmitt trigger controls the current source by switching the - Uses a phase-shift circuit to produce a phase
current sources between charging and discharging shift of 90 at the unmodulated carrier
frequency.
PHASE MODULATORS - The frequency-modulated signal is applied
- Most modern FM transmitters use some form through a very small capacitor (C1) to the
of phase modulation to produce indirect FM. parallel-tuned circuit
The reason for using PM instead of direct FM - At resonance, the tuned circuit appears as a
is that the carrier oscillator can be optimized high value of pure resistance.
for frequency accuracy and stability.
FREQUENCY DEMODULATORS
- Circuits used to recover the original
modulating signal from an FM transmission PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL)
- Also called detectors or discriminators
FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR AND
RATIO DETECTOR
- Most widely used frequency demodulators
- Sensitive to input amplitude variations, and
therefore, must be preceded by a limiter
PULSE-AVERAGING DISCRIMINATOR
- Converts FM signal into square wave signal

- When no input signal is applied, the phase

detector and low-pass filter outputs are zero.
 The VCO then operates at what is called the
free-running frequency
- When an input signal close to the frequency of
the VCO is applied, the phase detector
compares the VCO free-running frequency to
the input frequency and produces an output
voltage proportional to the frequency
difference.
The CW transmitter can be greatly improved by simply adding
a power amplifier to it
Lock range - the range of frequencies over which a PLL can
track an input signal and remain locked
Capture range - the range of frequencies over which a PLL will
capture an input signal, much narrower than the lock range
CHAPTER 6
RADIO TRANSMITTERS
TRANSMITTER
- Electronic unit that accepts the information
signal to be trans mitted and converts it to an
RF signal capable of being transmitted over
long distance
RADIO TRANSMITTER
- Generates the carrier signal, provides power
amplification, and applies modulation.
OSCILLATOR
- Generates a carrier signal of the desired
frequency
CONTINUOUS-WAVE TRANSMISSION (CW)
- The oscillator generates the carrier and can be
switched off and on by a telegraph key to
produce the dots and dashes of the
International Morse code. Information
transmitted in this way is referred to as
continuous-wave (CW) transmission.
- Crystal oscillator, generates the final carrier
frequency. Use to generate an accurate and
stable carrier frequency.
- Buffer amplifier whose primary purpose is to
isolate the oscillator from the remaining power
amplifier stages. The buffer amplifier usually
operates at the class A level and provides a
modest increase in power output. The main
purpose of the buffer amplifier is simply to
prevent load changes in the power amplifier
stages or in the antenna from causing
frequency variations in the oscillator
- Class C driver amplifier designed to provide an
intermediate level of power amplification
- Final power amplifier, normally just referred to
as the final, also operates at the class C level at
very high power
- Low-level class A audio amplifier, which
boosts the small signal from the microphone to
a higher voltage level
- Speech-processing use for filtering and
amplitude control
- Driver amplifier is used to increase the power
level of the signal so that it is capable of driving
the high-power modulation amplifier
- High-power modulation amplifier usually
operates with a class AB or class B push-pull
configuration to achieve these power levels.
 - Balanced modulator
- Sideband filter that selects either the upper or lower
sideband
- Mixer circuit, which is used to convert the signal to
its final operating frequency
- Local oscillator set at a frequency that, when mixed
with the SSB signal, produces the desired operating
frequency
- The mixer can be set up so that the tuned circuit at
its output selects either the sum or the difference
frequency
- Frequency synthesizer is used to set the fi nal output
frequency.
- Crystal oscillator, generates the final carrier
- Final power amplifier, normally just referred to as
frequency. Use to generate an accurate and stable
the final, also operates at the class C level at very
carrier frequency.
high power
- Buffer amplifier whose primary purpose is to isolate
- Audio amplifier, which boosts the small signal from
the oscillator from the remaining power amplifier
the microphone to a higher voltage level
stages. The buffer amplifier usually operates at the
- Speech-processing use for filtering and amplitude
class A level and provides a modest increase in
control
power output. The main purpose of the buffer
amplifier is simply to prevent load changes in the LINEAR AMPLIFIER
power amplifier stages or in the antenna from - Provide an output signal that is an
causing frequency variations in the oscillator identical, enlarged replica of the input
- Phase modulator, the voice input is amplified and CLASS A AMPLIFIER
processed to limit the frequency range and prevent - Are biased so that they conduct
over deviation. The output of the modulator is the continuously. Usually we say that the class
desired FM signal A amplifier conducts for 360 of an input
- Frequency multipliers also provide a modest amount sine wave.
of power amplification CLASS B AMPLIFIER
- Driver amplifier is used to increase the power level - Are biased at cutoff so that no collector
of the signal so that it is capable of driving the high- current flows with zero input. The
power modulation amplifier transistor conducts on only one-half, or
- Final power amplifier, normally just referred to as 180, of the sine wave input.
the final, also operates at the class C level at very CLASS AB AMPLIFIER
high power - Are biased near cutoff with some
- Audio amplifier, which boosts the small signal from continuous collector current flow. They
the microphone to a higher voltage level conduct for more than 180 but less than
- Speech-processing use for filtering and amplitude 360 of the input. They too are used
control primarily in push-pull amplifiers and
provide better linearity than class B
amplifiers, but with less efficiency.
CLASS C AMPLIFIER
- Conduct for even less than one-half of the
sine wave input cycle, making them very
efficient
PARASITIC OSCILLATION
- When circuits oscillates at a higher
frequency unrelated to the tuned
frequency
NEUTRALIZATION
- To feed back another signal equal in
amplitude to the signal fed back and 180
degrees out of phase with it. Resulting for
- Crystal oscillator, generates the final carrier
that the two signals will cancel one
frequency. Use to generate an accurate and stable
another.
carrier frequency.
SIGNAL BIAS
- Buffer amplifier whose primary purpose is to isolate
- The applied voltage causes the transistor
the oscillator from the remaining power amplifier
to conduct, but only on the peaks. The
stages.
 higher the average dc bias voltage, the
narrower the conduction angle and the
shorter the duration of the collector
current pulses.
EXTERNAL BIAS
- The incoming signal is then coupled to
the base, causing the transistor to conduct
on only the peaks of the positive input
alternations.
SELF-BIAS METHOD
- When current flows in the transistor, a
voltage is developed across R1. Capacitor
C1 is charged and holds the voltage
constant. This makes the emitter more
positive than the base, which has the same
effect as a negative voltage on the base. A
strong input signal is required for proper
operation.
FLY-WHEEL EFFECT
- Exchange of energy between the inductor
and the capacitor, produces a damped
sine wave at the resonant frequency.
SIDE-BAND CLIPPING
- frequency distortion
- If the Q of the tuned circuit is too high,
then the bandwidth will be very narrow
and some of the higher-frequency
sidebands will be eliminated.
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS
- Constructed to increase the input
frequency by any integer factor up to
approximately 10.
IMPEDANCE-MATCHING NETWORK
- To provide for an optimum transfer of
power through impedance-matching
techniques.
- Matching networks also provide filtering
and selectivity
L NETWORKS
- consist of an inductor and a capacitor
connected in various L-shaped
configurations
- designed so that the load impedance is
matched to the source impedance
AND T NETWORKS
- The and T networks can be designed to
either step up or step down the
impedance as required by the circuit. The
capacitors are usually made variable so
that the circuit can be tuned to resonance
and adjusted for maximum power output.
TOROID
- Circular, doughnut-shaped core usually
made of a special type of powered iron.
Copper wire is wound on the toroid to
create the primary and secondary
windings.
-
AUTOTRANSFORMERS
- Single-winding tapped coils, used for
impedance matching between RF stages.
BALUN TRANSFORMERS
- The name Balun is derived from the first
letters of the balanced and unbalanced
since such transformers are normally used
to connect a balanced source to an
unbalanced load or vice versa.
SPEECH PROCESSING
- Refers to the ways that the voice signal
used in communications is dealt with
prior to being applied to the modulator.
- Primary purpose is to ensure that
overmodulation does not occur and to
restrict the bandwidth of the signal.
VOICE CLIPPER
- Uses diode to limit the amplitude of the
audio modulating signal.
SPLATTER
- Form of interference
- Harmonics
- Created from overmodulation
DYNAMIC COMPRESSION
- Provide an increased amplification of
low-level audio content while at the same
time limiting the peaks.
VOICE COMPRESSORS
- Use automatic gain control (AGC)
circuits to limit the audio amplitude.
CHAPTER 7
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER
TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (TRF Receiver)
- A sensitive and selective receiver can be
made using only amplifiers, selective
filters, and a demodulator
SELECTIVITY
- Refers to the ability of a receiver to select
a signal of a desired frequency while
rejecting those on closely adjacent
frequencies.
SHAPE FACTOR
- Lower shape factor, better selectivity
SENSITIVITY
- Ability to pick up weak signals, is mainly
a function of overall gain, the factor by
which an input signal is multiplied to
produce the output signal.
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
- Convert all incoming signals to a lower
frequency, known as the intermediate
frequency (IF), at which a single set of
 amplifiers and filters is used to provide a
fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity.
- Antenna picks up the weak radio signal
- RF amplifier also called a low-noise amplifier
(LNA), provide some initial gain and selectivity, they
are sometimes referred to as preselectors
- Mixer, select sum or difference of the two inputs
- Local oscillator, made tunable so that its frequency
can be adjusted over a relatively wide range. As the
local-oscillator frequency is changed, the mixer
translates a wide range of input frequencies to the fixed
IF.
- IF amplifiers, use for signal amplification and
provides fixed selectivity
- Demodulator, recovers the original modulating
information.
- Automatic Gain Control (AGC), the recovered
signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and filtered into
a dc voltage
- Audio amplifier, boosts the signal to a higher voltage
level
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY
- Main objective is to obtain good
selectivity
- Narrowband frequencies is obtained in
low frequencies
IMAGE
- Is an RF signal that is spaced from the
desired incoming signal by a frequency
that is 2 times the IF above or below the
incoming frequency
DUAL-CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE
- First mixer converts the incoming signal to a relatively high
intermediate frequency for the purpose of eliminating the
images
- The second mixer converts that IF down to a much lower
frequency, where good selectivity is easier to obtain.
- The first local oscillator is variable and provides the tuning
for the receiver.
- The second local oscillator is fixed in frequency. Since it need
convert only one fixed IF to a lower IF, this local oscillator
does not have to be tunable.
NOISE
- Is an electronic signal that is a mixture of
many random frequencies at many
amplitudes that gets added to a radio or
information signal as it is transmitted
from one place to another or as it is
processed. Noise is not the same as
interference from other information
signals.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
- Indicates the relative strengths of the
signal and the noise in a communication
system.
EXTERNAL NOISE
- Comes from sources over which we have
little or no control industrial,
atmospheric, or space.
INDUSTRIAL NOISE
- produced by manufactured equipment,
such as automotive ignition systems,
electric motors, and generators
ATMOSPHERIC NOISE
- The electrical disturbances that occur
naturally in the earths atmosphere are
another source of noise. Atmospheric
noise is often referred to as static. Static
usually comes from lightning, the electric
discharges that occur between clouds or
between the earth and clouds.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE
- Solar and cosmic, comes from sources in
space. One of the primary sources of
extraterrestrial noise is the sun, which
radiates a wide range of signals in a broad
noise spectrum.
INTERNAL NOISE
- Electronic components in a receiver such
as resistors, diodes, and transistors are
major sources of internal noise. Internal
noise, although it is low level, is often
great enough to interfere with weak
signals. The main sources of internal
noise in a receiver are thermal noise,
semiconductor noise, and
intermodulation distortion.
THERMAL NOISE
- Most internal noise is caused by a
phenomenon known as thermal agitation,
the random motion of free electrons in a
conductor caused by heat. Increasing the
temperature causes this atomic motion to
increase.
SEMICONDUCTOR NOISE
- The most common type of
semiconductor noise is shot noise.
Current flow in any device is not direct
and linear. The current carriers, electrons
or holes, sometimes take random paths
from source to destination, whether the
destination is an output element, tube
plate, or collector or drain in a transistor.
It is this random movement that produces
the shot effect.
- Transit-time noise, another kind of noise
that occurs in transistors. Refers to how
long it takes for a current carrier such as a
hole or electron to move from the input
to the output
- Flicker noise, also occurs in resistors and
conductors. This disturbance is the result
of minute random variations of resistance
in the semiconductor material.
INTERMODULATION DISTORTION
- Results from the generation of new
signals and harmonics caused by circuit
nonlinearities.
- Nonlinearities produce modulation or
heterodyne effects. Any frequencies in the
circuit mix together, forming sum and
difference frequencies
NOISE FACTOR
- Is the ratio of the S/N power at the input
to the S/N power at the output.
RF INPUT AMPLIFIERS
- Also called a low-noise amplifier (LNA),
processes the very weak input signals,
increasing their amplitude prior to mixing.
IF AMPLIFIERS
- Are tuned class A amplifiers capable of
providing a gain in the 10- to 30-dB range.
LIMITER
- Remove any amplitude variations on the
FM signal before the signal is applied to
the demodulator.
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL CIRCUITS
- AGC can be implemented by controlling
the collector current of the transistors.
The gain of a bipolar transistor amplifier
is proportional to the amount of collector
current flowing. Increasing the collector
current from some very low level causes
the gain to increase proportionately. At
some point, the gain flattens over a
narrow collector current range and then
begins to decrease as the current increases
further.
SQUELCH CIRCUITS
- Also called a muting circuit.
- The squelch is used to keep the receiver
audio turned off until an RF signal
appears at the receiver input.
NOISE-DERIVE SQUELCH
- Typically used in FM receivers, amplify
the high-frequency background noise
when no signal is present and use it to
keep the audio turned off. When a signal
is received, the noise circuit is overridden
and the audio amplifier is turned on.
CONTINUOUS TONE CONTROL SQUELCH
- This system is activated by a low-
frequency tone transmitted along with the
audio.
- The purpose of CTCSS is to provide
some communication privacy on a
particular channel.
Insert Picture
 SSB AND CONTINUOUS-WAVE RECEPTION FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER FOR A CB
- Communication receivers designed for TRANSCEIVER
receiving SSB or continuous-wave signals
have a built-in oscillator that permits
recovery of the transmitted information.
This circuit, called the beat frequency
oscillator (BFO), is usually designed to
operate near the IF and is applied to the
demodulator along with the IF signal
containing the modulation
SSB TRANCEIVERS

Using two crystal oscillators for reference and a single loop

PLL, it synthesizes the transmitter frequency and the two local
oscillator frequencies for a dual-conversion receiver for all 40
CB channels.
The phase detector drive the low-pass filter and a VCO that
generates a signal in the 16.27-16.71 MHz range.
The programmable frequency divider is set to the correct ratio
to produce 5-kHz output when the VCO is 16.27

- Local oscillator 1 is the BFO for the receiver product detector

and the carrier for the balanced modulator for producing DSB.
- Crystal local oscillator 2 drives the second mixer in the
receiver and the first transmitter mixer used for up conversion.
- Local oscillator 3 supplies the receiver first mixer and the
second transmitter mixer.
- Crystal filter, in transmission mode, provides sideband
selection after the balanced modulator.
- Filter, in the receive mode, provides selectivity for the IF
section of the receiver.
- Tuned circuit can be the tuned input for the receiver or the
tuned output for the transmitter.