Advanced Testing and Characterization of Bituminous Materials

Loizos, Partl, Scarpas & Al-Qadi (eds)

2009 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-55854-9

Chemical characterization of laboratory and field bitumen

aging in Porous Asphalt Concrete

E.T. Hagos, A.A.A. Molenaar & M.F.C. van de Ven

Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences,
Road and Railway Engineering, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT: This paper deals with the chemical characterization of bitumen which was
part of the rheological and chemical investigations into the effect of aging on the binder
properties of Porous Asphalt Concrete (PAC). Analytical methods such as Infrared spectros-
copy (FTIR) and Gel-permeation chromatography (GPC) are effective tools to assess the
chemical changes in bitumen. These methods were adopted to investigate the effect of bitu-
men aging on the molecular structure (Molecular Weight distribution, MWD) and the func-
tional groups responsible for oxidation/aging of laboratory aged and field binders. The test
results show that aging increases the large molecular seize portion in the binder molecular
distribution due to the formation of oxidation productsKetones (C=) and sulphoxides
(S=). Laboratory aging of bitumen using a standard aging method and PAC mixture aging
under a proposed new aging protocol that combines temperature, UV light, and humidity
were employed to simulate the field aging of PAC. Prediction based on the kinetic approach
with the use of the characteristic peak areas of oxidation products in the IR spectrum shows
that the field aging of PA is much more severe than the lab bitumen aging. The standard long
term lab bitumen aging was found to be not satisfactory in predicting field aging of PAC.
Although only 2.1 years of field aging could be predicted, the proposed lab mixture aging
protocol showed similar aging behaviour as the field aging. An improved mixture aging pro-
tocol is suggested in order to better simulate the binder aging in reality.
Keywords: Aging, Porous Asphalt (PA), IR spectrum, GPC, Kinetic approach

1 INTRODUCTION

Porous Asphalt Concrete (PAC) surfacing layer is a cheaper solution to reduce traffic induced
noise compared to other noise reducing measures such as noise barriers. PAC is being used
in combination with noise barriers to protect inhabitants living close to the motorway from
noise pollution. Currently, about 70% of the major roads in the Netherlands are surfaced
with Single Layer Porous Asphalt SLPA. Two Layer Porous Asphalt (TLPA) is also being
researched to further minimize noise. In comparison to the reference Dutch Dense Asphalt
Concrete (DAC) surface layer, a noise reduction of 4 dB (A) with the SLPA and 6 dB (A)
with the TLPA can be attained (IPG 2002, Hofman et al. 2005).
However, ravelling or loss of aggregates from the pavement surface is not only a major
durability problem of PAC resulting in relatively low service life compared to DAC, but also
reduces noise absorption. The causes of raveling in PAC can be cohesive or adhesive failure,
or a combination of the two. Aging strongly influences the cohesive characteristics of the
bituminous mortar. Because of high voids content of PAC, the binder is exposed to environ-
mental influences which accelerate aging. Interaction with the environment causes oxidation
to take place that results in a change in the bitumen properties with time. This paper focuses
on the effect of weathering actions on the chemical characteristics of the binder.
Laboratory aging methods to simulate binder aging during the construction phase (short
term aging) and service period of the pavement (long term aging) are available. However, the

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standard/conventional test methods of binder aging focus primarily on oxidation and results
are mostly calibrated for dense mixes. As a result, the oxidation technique does not seem to
simulate accurately the complex nature of field aging of PAC due to the influence of envi-
ronmental factors involving the combined effects of temperature, UV light, and moisture.
The change in the rheological and chemical properties of the binding material is usually used
as indicators to investigate the effects of aging. The change in the viscoelastic behaviour,
cohesive strength, adhesion and other characteristics of the bitumen are dependant on the
chemical changes occurring in the material (Ishai 1996, Peterson 2000). This implies that
realistic simulation of weathering actions is essential to characterize the performance of the
binder similar to field conditions. For this reason, an aging method that combines the effects
of temperature, UV light and moisture is considered important.

2 THE RESEARCH PLAN

In Figure 1, the research plan that has been adopted to compare field aging of PAC with
laboratory aging is shown. Accordingly, PAC specimens from new construction and road
sections after service periods of 1, 3, 7, and 12 years were sampled from the field. The binder
from these samples was recovered for chemical analysis. Similarly, the recovery of binder
from laboratory prepared PAC mixtures was conducted after aging in a weatherometer. Fur-
thermore, the aging of virgin 70/100 penetration grade bitumen was conducted using the
standard aging methods in the laboratory. The laboratory aging protocols for the mixture
and bitumen are presented in section 3.2.
The field specimens were cored from the emergency lane (EL) and the slow lane (SL) in
order to take the influence of heavy traffic into consideration. In addition, the condition of
the road was taken into account for 7 and 12 years field specimens because of a large vari-
ability in their pavement condition.
The top and bottom parts of all asphalt mixture specimens were recovered separately to
carry out independent investigations. Even though the aging of PAC occurs over the entire
thickness, differences in aging between the top and bottom part is expected due to the non-
uniform influence of environmental factors (temperature, UV light, and moisture/humidity)
along the pavement thickness. Moreover, possible differences in the binder content or binder
film thickness in the upper and bottom parts of the layer as a result of binder/mortar drain-
age during the paving operations are expected to have an impact on the aging behaviour of
the binder in the two zones.
Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB) is intended for use in two layer PAC (TLPAC) in the
Netherlands. For this purpose research is being carried out on test sections. It is believed that
the proposed mixture testing protocol for single layer PAC is also applicable for the TLPAC
since the surfacing layer will be subjected to the same weather conditions. In terms of long
term aging behaviour of the unmodified and modified binders, the two binders will experi-
ence differences in chemical and rheological properties (Oliver and Tredrea 1997).

Aging
Field Laboratory

Coring asphalt samples

from the field Bitumen aging Asphalt mix aging
(0, 1, 3, 7, 12 years)

Top part Bottom part Top part Bottom part

Figure 1. Schematic outline of the research plan.

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3 MATERIALS AND TESTING PROGRAM

The materials used for conducting chemical investigations were taken from laboratory aging
protocols and field aged specimens.
Laboratory aging protocols
Conventional aging method:
Short term (RTFOT/RCAT) and long term (RCAT) aging.
Porous asphalt mixture (PAC) aging:
Weatherometer aging of PAC Marshall tablets and PAC beams under the combined
influence of temperature, UV light, and humidity.
Field materialsCore specimens taken from the road with service periods of 0, 1, 3, 7, and
12 years.

3.1 Porous asphalt concrete

The Dutch PAC design was used to produce the laboratory mixtures following the standard
procedure RAW 2005. The specification for the mixture design with maximum 0/16 aggre-
gate size is given in Table 1.
PAC mixtures produced for aging in the laboratory include:
1. Marshall tablets (dia. 100 mm), and
2. Beams sawn from porous asphalt slab produced in the lab.
The Marshall tablets were produced using the Marshall Compaction method with 50 blows
on both sides of the specimen. The Marshal tablets have a diameter of 100 mm and a variable
thickness (4043 mm). Also produced in the lab was a slab with a size of 700 700 80 mm.
Beam sizes of 300 100 mm were sawn from the slab for aging in a weatherometer. The mean
voids content of the PAC specimens were 17.5% for the Marshall tablets, 23.1% for the beams
sawn from the slab, and 22.9% for the field specimens.
The materials used in the aging program of bitumen and asphalt mixtures are presented
below.
Aggregate: quarry material, sand stone (size: 2 mm16 mm).
average density 2770 kg/m3.
Sand: crushed sand (size: 0.063 mm2 mm)
Filler: Wigro 60 K limestone filler with 25% hydrated lime.
(size: <0.125 mm (90% <0.063 mm), Bitumen Number BN53/62, Voids 46%)
Bitumen: 70/100 pen, 4.5% by wt. of 100% aggregate. (Pen = 90.7 dmm,
TR&B = 45.4C)

Table 1. Single layer 0/16 PAC mixture design according to the Dutch standard RAW 2005.

Dutch Standard PAC

Sieve size (Aggregate size: 0/16)

C 16 0.07.0 Requirements:
C 11.2 15.030.0 Bitumen: 70/100 pen 4.5% by wt. of 100% aggregates
C8 50.065.0 (8% by vol.)
C 5.6 70.085.0 Aggregates: 95.7% by wt. of total mix
2 mm 85.0 (68% by vol.)
63 mm 95.5 Aggregate: 2 mm sieve 85.0% by wt.
Bitumen 4.5% by weight Sand: <2 mm and 0.063 mm 10.5% by wt.
Fibre Filler: <0.063 mm 4.5% by wt.
Layer thickness 50 mm **middle sort filler with 25% hydrated lime
(KA25, bitumen number BN54/60)
Voids: 20%

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3.2 Aging procedures
Laboratory aging of bitumen samples was performed on bulk bitumen and lab produced
asphalt mixtures. The specimen categories and the corresponding aging procedures adopted
are presented in Table 2 and Table 3.
3.2.1 Aging of bitumen
Short Term Aging (STA): the Rotating Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT, EN 12607-1) was
adopted to simulate the loss of volatiles and oxidation reaction that takes place during the pro-
duction (mixing and transportation), laying and compaction stage of the asphalt mixture.
Long Term Aging (LTA): the Rotating Cylinder Aging Test (RCAT) was used in accordance
with the recommended European procedure NEN-EN 15323. The long-term aging simulates
the aging of dense asphalt mixtures for a period of at least 10 years. The RCAT aging is a
dynamic aging test and it can be used to combine the short term and long term aging. RCAT140
and RCAT185 represent the number of aging hours in RCAT, i.e. 140 and 185 hrs respectively.
3.2.2 Aging of Porous Asphalt concrete samples
Three aging protocols were used for laboratory aging of asphalt mixtures (Hagos 2008):
Protocol 1: aging under the influence of temperature,
Protocol 2: aging under the combined effects of temperature and UV light, and
Protocol 3: aging under the combined effects of temperature, UV light, and humidity.

Table 2. Aging tests for bitumen and asphalt mix specimens.

Aging and testing methods for bitumen and asphalt mixture specimens

Specimens Aging Chemical test

Bitumen STA: RTFOT IR*, GPC**

LTA: (RTFOT) + RCAT Vanadium content
Lab PAC mixture Aging protocol 1 (weatherometer) IR, GPC
Aging protocol 2 (weatherometer)
Aging protocol 3 (weatherometer)
Field cores Field aging IR, GPC
Age: 0, 1, 3, 7, 12 yrs Vanadium content
*IR = Infra red,
**GPC = Gel Permeation Chromatography also known as
Seize Exclusion Chromatography or SEC.

Figure 2. Weatherometer (SUNTEST XXL+) used for aging of asphalt mixtures.

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Table 3. Aging procedures for laboratory produced porous asphalt mixtures.
Laboratory aging protocols for lab PAC (mixture)
Marshall tablets Reference Temperature aging Temperature + UV
( = 100 mm) samples (Aging protocol 1) (Aging protocol 2)

No. of core samples 8 8 8

Avg. Voids Content [%] 18.2 16.2 17.8
Aging Temperature Unaged 60C 60C
Time of aging 1000 Hrs 1000 Hrs
UV exposure (300400 nm) 60 W/m2
Beams from PAC slab Temperature + UV light + humidity
(Aging protocol 3, AP3)*
Size: 300 100 mm No. of beams 5
Avg. Voids Content (%) 23.1
Aging Temperature 60C
Time of aging 1000 Hrs
UV exposure (300400 nm) 60 W/m2
Humidity (RH) 70%

*NB: Aging protocol AP3 was developed based on the analysis of weather conditions data in the
Netherlands between 19812001. In addition, experiences in aging methods of other materials in the
weatherometer were considered in designing the protocol (ATLAS 2001, CIE 1989, Hagos 2008).

In Table 3, the test conditions for the three aging protocols are shown. Chemical tests were
performed on the recovered bitumen to characterize the chemical properties of the binders
after aging in the weatherometer.
The weatherometer used for aging porous asphalt mixture beams is shown in Figure 2.

3.3 Binder recovery

Recovery of the binder from the field cores and lab produced PAC mixtures was performed
according to the European standard EN 12697-3 and NEN3971, which entails:
1. Extraction of the binder from the mixture: separation of the aggregates, sand, and filler
from the binder using Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride, CH2Cl2) solvent.
a. Binder extraction by dissolving the asphalt mix in cold solvent (Dichloromethane,
CH2Cl2).
b. Separation of mineral matter from the binder solution (centrifuge extraction
method).
2. Recovery of the binder from the solution (EN 12697-3): recovery of the bitumen from
the solvent using the rotary evaporation method.
As explained before, the recovery of binder for the top 25 mm of the PAC cores (Upper
Zone, UZ) and the bottom 25 mm (Lower Zone, LZ) was performed separately. The focus
was on the binder characteristics of the top part since the ravelling of porous asphalt occurs
at the surface.
The reader is referred to Hagos (2008) for more details on the adopted research methodol-
ogy and the rheological and chemical test results.

4 TEST RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Three tests were conducted to investigate the chemical characteristics of binders from the
field and lab aging. These are:
1. Vanadium content determinationto verify whether the field and lab binders are from
the same source/origin.
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 Emergency Lane (Shoulder) Slow Lane (Trafficked)
180 180

Vanadium content (ppm) 160 Upper Zone 160 Upper Zone

Vanadium content (ppm)

140 Lower Zone Lower Zone
140
120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60

40 40
20 20

0 0
Virgin RCAT 0 1 3 7 12 Virgin RCAT 0 1 3 7 12
Upper Zone 118 121 158 116 110 108 82 Upper Zone 118 121 158 117 118 109 112
Lower Zone 167 116 132 110 82 Lower Zone 167 119 113 120 119

Pavement life (yr) Pavement life (yr)

Figure 3. Vanadium content of laboratory and field binders.

2. Attenuated total refraction Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR/FTIR)to

investigate the development of the functional groups responsible for aging.
3. Gel-permeation chromatography (GPC)to determine the Molecular Weight Distribution
(MWD).

4.1 Vanadium content

The determination of vanadium content of the binders was conducted using the x-ray spec-
trometry method following the standard procedure DIN 51790-7. The results are shown in
Figure 3.
The determination of vanadium content was carried out in order to verify whether the
field binders and the binder used for lab aging belong to the same source/origin. This was
important because no information was available about the field binders. Since binders from
different sources have different proportions of the so called hetro-atoms, this will have
an influence on the aging characteristics of the binders. The aging of the binder during the
service period of the pavement is believed to have no influence on the vanadium content of
the bitumen.
Based on the results shown in Figure 3, the vanadium content, in general, ranges
between 100120 ppm. Exceptions that fall out of this range are the 12 year old field
specimen with 82 ppm (lowest) and the bitumen recovered from section G (after construc-
tion) with 167 ppm (highest). Nevertheless, it seems that the difference in the vanadium
content is small considering the expected difference among different sources as reported
in the Shell Bitumen Handbook (Reed and Whiteoak 2003). The slight differences in the
vanadium content of the samples recovered from the top and bottom part of the pave-
ment layer is regarded negligible.

4.2 Infra-red spectroscopy

The apparatus used to conduct the IR test was a Galaxy Series FTIR 3000. The scanning was
performed in the Middle Infrared Region (MIR, 4004000 cm1). A computer software pro-
gram WinFirst was used to process the Attenuated Total Refraction (ATR) interferogram
into an absorption diagram (spectrum) through Fourier Transformation function, thus the
name ATR/FTIR.
Figure 4 shows the IR spectrum of lab aged bitumens (RCAT185), 12 year old field speci-
men (UZ), and binders recovered from weatherometer aging (AP3). As it can be observed
in Figure 4, the materials from the 12 yr old pavement and the 1000 hr weatherometer aging
have comparable peaks at the S= bond and seem to have relatively higher peaks at the C=
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bond. The LTA binder (conventional long term aging using RCAT) does not seem to have
significant effect on the C= bond at 1700 cm1 and has the lowest peak in the S= band at
1030 cm1 next to the virgin bitumen. The recovered bitumen from the lab mixture aging test
(AP2: temp. + UV aging) has the highest peak at the sulfoxide band (S=) while showing a
small increment at the ketones band (C=). This indicates that the effect of temperature and
UV light on the aging process seem to be reflected in the development of the sulfoxide peak.
The combined effect of the UV light and temperature has a greater effect on binder aging
than the protocol with only temperature. The effect of the UV light on the aging process can
also be seen at the CC bond (1600 cm1). The combination of the three aging effects, i.e.
temperature, UV light, and humidity (RH), is resulting in the development of the two major
oxidation products (C= and S=), which is consistent with the characteristic of the field
aged binders. In summary, the combined effect of temperature, UV exposure and humidity/
moisture seems to result in the formation of both the ketones and sulfoxides similar to the
field aging whereas the conventional aging results in S= formation with minimum effect on
C= development. This supports the assertion that the conventional binder aging method
does not simulate field aging.
The kinetic approach was used to fit the development of the oxidation products (C= and
S=) of the EL (emergency lane) and SL (slow lane) field binders. This approach was used by
Verhasselt (1997) to predict the aging rate of field and lab binders based on the development
of the asphaltene content with aging time. The approach is briefly described below.
The kinetic approach is a method used to predict the rate of change of binder prop-
erties due to accelerated aging in the laboratory or the aging of the binder in asphalt
pavements. With this approach, developments in binder characteristics such as penetra-
tion, ring and ball temperature (TRB), viscosity, and asphaltenes content can be described
effectively.
A one-dimensional diffusion model resulted in best fits for reaction indicators such as
asphaltene content (AS), and softening point (TRB) for tests performed below 100C. Equa-
tion 1 is the corresponding equation (Verhasselt & Choquet 1997, Verhasselt 2002):

Figure 4. IR spectra of lab aged and field aged bitumens recovered from the upper part (UZ) of the cores.

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 n n
S S0 dSt
= t
n
= = kt (1)
S f S0 dS

where:
= the extent of reaction.
S0 = values of the signal or indicator S at times t = 0,
St = values of the signal or indicator S at times t = t,
Sf = values of the signal or indicator S at the end of the reaction,
k = the reaction constant,
n = aging coefficient, n = 2 for tests performed below 100C and n 3/2 for tests performed
above 100C.
Equation 1 can be reduced to a more practical equation (equation 2):

St = S0 + ( K r t r ) (2)

where:
K = overall reaction constant,
r = 1/n.
when K results from an aging test performed at a given temperature T, it may be recom-
mended to specify it with an index, KT. When overall reaction constants, KT, are known for
different test temperatures, the activation energy (E) can be calculated from these values by
applying the Arrhenius equation (equation 3):

KT = A e E / RT (3)

where:
KT = overall reaction constant of aging at temperature T,
A = a constant (frequency factor),
E = activation energy. E ranges between 68,500 and 86,400 KJ.oK/mole,

1
Combined area C=O & S=O (A1 + A3)

Emergency Lane Model: St = S0 + (kt)r

0.9 Slow Lane
LTA: RCAT140
0.8
LTA: AP3(1000 hrs)

0.7

0.6
Kinetic parameters
EL SL
0.5 K 0.01205 0.01996
Outlier
So 0.4036 0.4046
0.4 n 2 2
r 0.5 0.5
0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Service period (year)

Figure 5. Development of oxidation products of field materials retrieved from the upper part.

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R = perfect gas constant (8.314 JK1mol1),
T = absolute temperature (oK).
Because of the activation energy, equal time of aging at various temperatures will contrib-
ute in different ways to the aging of the binder. As a result of temperature variations in the
field, the total in-service aging will be the sum of a series of partial aging processes in which
the contribution of a particular temperature will depend on the time of exposure. The sum
of the partial aging is equivalent to an identical aging obtained at a certain constant tem-
perature, Tk, called annual kinetic mean temperature (Verhasselt 2002). Note that higher
temperatures contribute most to binder aging, which implies that most of the aging can be
assumed to happen during summer periods.

Figure 6. Molecular weight distribution of lab aged binders (top) and field binders from EL, UZ
(bottom).

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 In Figure 5, the aging curve was determined based on the sum of the characteristic
peak areas for oxidation at C= and S=. Accordingly, the most aged binders in the
lab using the standard and weatherometer aging have less area than the 1 year old
pavement binders. The LTA bitumen using RCAT predicted 0.43 year and the binder
aged for 1000 hrs in the weatherometer predicted 2.1 years of field aging using the EL
model. Hence, it was practically not possible to correlate the lab and field aging of
binders.
The aging rate of the trafficked lane (SL) binder is higher than the lane with no traffic
(EL). One logical explanation for this could be as follows: The damaging effect of traffic
loading especially at lower temperatures results in micro-cracks. Micro-cracks create new
surfaces to be exposed to the influence of the environmental factors promoting aging to
take place.
The two outliers that are indicated in the figure might be related to the fact that the vana-
dium content of the bitumen recovered from these sections was outside the 100120 range
that was observed for the bitumen recovered from the other sections and the bitumen used
in the laboratory.
It can be concluded that the aging protocols and procedures used in the laboratory are not
able to simulate the aging that is observed in the field.

4.3 Gel-permeation chromatography

Gel-Permeation Chromatography (GPC), also known as Size Exclusion Chromatog-
raphy (SEC), is a chromatographic method in which particles are separated based on
their molecular size, or in more technical terms, their hydrodynamic volume. GPC or
SEC is a technique used to analyze the Molecular Weight Distribution (MWD) of
materials soluble in organic solvent. The method is a powerful tool to study the effects
of bitumen modification and age hardening in bitumen related researches (Molenaar
et al. 2004).
In Figure 6, results of a GPC test for lab aged binders and field binders are shown.
The corresponding parameters that describe the MWD curves of the binders are shown
in Table 4.

Table 4. MWD distribution parameters for lab and field aged binders.

Bitumen type Sample code Mn Mw Mp Mz Mz +1 PDI

Lab Virgin 05023.IPG001 741 1765 881 4601 8960 2.382562

LTA bitumen 05023.IPG003 792 2199 894 6175 11077 2.777947
AP3 (Unaged) 05023.IPG008 780 2028 908 5620 10542 2.599246
AP1 (UZ) 05023.IPG009 781 2037 909 5645 10623 2.607673
AP2 (UZ) 05023.IPG011 792 2082 913 5737 10680 2.627882
AP3 (UZ) 06062.IPG005 797 2297 887 6660 12023 2.881359
Field Sect.G (new) 06020.IPG001 807 2238 894 6455 11685 2.773153
Sect.A (1 yr) 06020.IPG011 778 2186 877 6321 11457 2.809592
Sect.B (3 yr) 06020.IPG007 815 2272 937 6493 11894 2.786442
Sect.C (7 yr) 06020.IPG015 792 2293 901 6639 11890 2.894708
Sect.E (12 yr) 06020.IPG003 758 2356 866 7241 12837 3.110002

Mn = number-average molecular weight [g/mol, daltons],

Mw = weight-average molecular weight [g/mol],
Mp = peak molecular weight [g/mol],
Mz = z-average molecular weight [g/mol],
Mz+1 = (z + 1)average molecular weight [g/mol],
PDI = Mw/Mn = Polydispersity Indexrelative spread in molecular weights [].

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Based on Table 4, the following evaluations are made:

Comparison based on the Mz and Mz+1 parameter shows that aging increases the large
molecular size. These parameters are related to the asphaltenes content in the binder.
Aging simulation using AP1 and AP2 protocols did not result in equivalent aging as long
term field aging. Similar degree of aging was achieved using the AP3 and LTA aging pro-
tocols, but comparison with long term field aging appears not straight forward.
Parameter Mp shows a decrease with aging which signifies that medium molecular sizes
(MMS) are transformed to large molecular sizes (LMS) as a result of oxidation. The aging
process is resulting in a spread of the MWD curve as indicated by an increase in the poly-
dispersity index (PDI).
According to the PDI results, the LTA bitumen compares well with the 3 year field binder
and the AP3 is simulating the 7 year field binder. It is noted that the PDI of the 1 year old
field binder behaves exceptionally.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results obtained in this research, the following conclusions are drawn.
a. Aging is a very complex process that is influenced by many factors.
b. Because of the large number of factors involved, it seems difficult to simulate precisely in
the laboratory the aging that will occur in the field.
c. The existing laboratory aging protocols might be good enough to simulate the aging of
dense asphalt mixtures in the field but they are certainly insufficient to simulate long term
field aging of PAC. It is suggested that a lower humidity level during AP3 weatherometer
aging combined with a gradual increase in aging temperature as the aging progresses will
result in a better simulation of field aging.
d. Comparison of the results of the different aging tests as performed in the laboratory
with the amount of aging that is determined from field samples, shows that subjecting
lab specimens to a combined effect of moisture, temperature and UV radiation is neces-
sary to obtain changes in chemical composition that are comparable to what happens in
practice.
e. The RTFOT + RCAT aging of laboratory samples results in a different chemical com-
position than aging by means of a weatherometer using temperature, oxygen and UV
radiation.
f. From the results obtained from the field samples it is concluded that not only environ-
mental influences are causing aging. Also traffic has an indirect influence that cannot be
neglected.

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