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are hydrogenation, interesterification (chemical or enzy- processes to achieve the stated goals.
matic) and fractionation. The main purpose of these pro-
cesses is to change the physicochemical properties of Hydrogenation and interesterification (chemical and
the oil or fat, by reducing the degree of unsaturation of the enzymatic) are strictly based on an irreversible chemical
acyl groups (hydrogenation), by redistributing the fatty change in the composition of the fatty matter, whereas in
acids chains (interesterification) or by a physical separa- fractionation the composition is modified by a selective
tion of the triacylglycerols (TAG) through selective crys- physical separation of the different component groups.
tallization and filtration (fractionation) [1, 2]. Due to the contaminative effect of the catalysts used, as
well as to the side reactions which cannot be fully
At present, quite a number of questions arise with respect excluded, the chemical modification processes always
to the effect of the chemical modification processes on require a refining step in order to make the modified oil
edible again. Fractionation is a fully reversible modification
process; it is basically a thermo-mechanical separation
Correspondence: Vronique Gibon, De Smet Technologies and
process in which a multi-component mixture is physically
Services, Da Vincilaan, 2 Bus G1, 1935 Zaventem, Belgium.
Phone: 132 2 716 1111, Fax: 132 2 716 1109, e-mail: giv@des- separated into two or more fractions with distinct physical
metgroup.com and chemical properties. The separation can be based on
differences in solidification, solubility, or volatility of the normally produced by solvent or detergent fractionation
different compounds: fractional crystallization, fractional can now be obtained with a high degree of selectivity with
distillation, short-path distillation, supercritical extraction, dry fractionation (multistage).
liquid-liquid extraction, adsorption, complexation, mem-
brane separation, etc. are the main techniques practiced.
3 Detergent and solvent fractionation
Today, the oil processing industry more and more uses
fractionation to extend the application of a whole variety Detergent fractionation was developed to improve the
of fatty matters as well as to replace, fully or partially, the separation of the crystallized phase from the remaining
chemical modification processes. liquid by adding an aqueous detergent solution to the
crystallized oil. The wetting agent, usually sodium lauryl
sulfate, in combination with an electrolyte, usually mag-
nesium sulfate, allows the crystals to be easily suspended
2 Fractional crystallization
in the aqueous phase. Separation of the water phase from
Hippolyte Mge Mouris (18171880) is most probably the remaining liquid oil is performed by means of a cen-
the pioneer in fractionation with his famous patent con- trifuge. The water phase is subsequently heated and the
cerning margarine: Application for a patent of fifteen melted stearin is recovered in a second centrifugation
years for production of certain fats of animal origin, step. After separation, the olein and stearin fractions are
accepted on October 20th 1869 in Paris (patent number washed and dried in order to remove traces of detergent.
86480). On the other hand, Holde et al. reported in 1901 Today, the technique has lost its interest due to the high
that olive oil, when cooled in an ether solution to 40 7C, costs and contamination of the end-products with the
produced small quantities of solid TAG (principally oleo- detergent.
dipalmitin) [3]. This publication is the first report of the use
In solvent fractionation, crystallization is performed in
of low-temperature fractional crystallization for the
dilute solutions, thereby reducing viscosity. Mainly ace-
separation of TAG.
tone or hexane is used as a solvent. The process is char-
acterized by a short crystallization time and easy filter-
Fractional crystallization refers to a separation process in
ability. The main advantage of solvent fractionation is the
which the fatty material is crystallized, after which the
high separation efficiency and hence improved yield and
liquid phase is separated from the solid. It is based on
higher purity of the finished products. The major reason
differences in solubility of the solid TAG in the liquid
for this can be explained quite simply by the fact that with
phase, depending on their molecular weight and degree
any type of separation technique, it is not possible to
of unsaturation; this is a consequence of the ability of fats
remove all liquid from the solid portion. Part of the liquid
to produce crystals [4]. On an industrial scale, crystals
will always remain entrapped within the solid phase. The
can be obtained according to three main technologies:
amount of liquid is strongly dependent on the origin of the
detergent fractionation, solvent fractionation and dry
fatty matter as well as on the crystallization conditions
fractionation. In 1905, Lanza patented the addition of a
and the separation technique applied. In a dilute solution,
detergent to wet the crystals, which are consequently
as is the case in solvent fractionation, this liquid portion
transferred to the aqueous phase: the mixture is then
consists of a considerable quantity of solvent that hinders
easily separated by centrifugation. One form of this pro-
oil occlusion. After separation, the solvent is evaporated,
cess is known as Lipofrac concept. In solvent fractiona-
leaving behind a much lower quantity of liquid oil in the
tion, the fat is dissolved in acetone or hexane and the
solid phase.
diluted solution is cooled to initiate the crystallization of
the highest-melting TAG. Crystals are consequently Due to the high production costs and capital investments,
separated by filtration and the fractions are recovered by as well as the possible fire hazards, solvent fractionation
solvent evaporation. Dry fractionation is the simplest and is becoming less interesting. Today, most of the plants still
cheapest fractional crystallization process, qualified as in operation produce specialty fats as, for example,
natural or green technology (no effluent, no chemi- cocoa butter (CB) replacement fats.
cals, no losses). In contrast to detergent or solvent frac-
tionation, dry fractionation does not require any additional
substance. It simply consists in a controlled crystallization 4 Dry fractionation
of the melted oil, conducted according to a specific cool-
ing program followed by separation of the solid from the In dry fractionation, crystallization operates in the bulk
liquid fraction. Due to the continuous developments of the and for this reason viscosity problems limit the degree
dry fractionation process, a whole variety of fractions of crystallization of the fat. Multi-step operations
are therefore used, with the advantage of producing In order to achieve good separation, the crystals should
a wide range of fractions suitable for different ap- be firm and of uniform spherical size, which is a condition
plications. found when they are mainly in the b form.
The process consists in two steps: the crystallization The physical properties of the polymorphic forms are as
stage which produces solid crystals in a liquid matrix and follows, with b always in midrange: melting point, melting
the separation stage where the liquid phase (olein) is enthalpy, stability, selectivity, and activation energy are all
separated from the crystals (stearin). low for a and high for b; the nucleation rate, crystallization
rate, miscibility in solid state, and TAG compatibility are all
high for a and low for b.
4.1 Crystallization
4.1.2 Intersolubility
4.1.1 Polymorphism
Depending on the chemical composition and the crystal
In the solid state, TAG are packed together side by side in
structure (polymorph), TAG may form different kinds of
separate layers in a head-to-tail arrangement [5]. Different
solid solutions. In consequence, the efficiency of frac-
packing modes are possible, in pairs of two, three or more
tional crystallization is not only dependent on the effi-
fatty acid chain lengths. There are generally three crys-
ciency of separation but is limited by the phase behavior
talline states in which an oil or fat can solidify. According
of TAG in the solid state.
to the thermal conditions, TAG tend to pack together in a
hexagonal structure (a crystal form), an orthorhombic Because of closely linked structural properties, TAG can
(b form), or a triclinic form (b form). The stability increases produce co-crystals by intersolubility; they most frequently
from a to b to the b crystal form. Furthermore, the rate of show solid solutions, monotectic interactions, eutectic
crystallization of the a form is greater than that of the systems, molecular compounds, etc. Binary systems of
b form, which in turn is greater than that of the b poly- pure components have been extensively studied [611].
morph. Different thermal conditions are needed to induce The case of edible oils and fats is more complex: they are
crystallization of the different polymorphic forms. In high made of numerous TAG that have very similar chemical
supercooling conditions, a crystallization occurs, yielding structures but variable chain lengths, degrees of unsatura-
a dense mass of very small crystals. The b form, on the tion and positional isomers. Depending on their chemical
other hand, is more difficult to obtain and only appears in structure or polymorphic form, some TAG will be very sol-
some exceptional cases, as for example in CB. The uble when mixed and form solid solutions; others will crys-
b crystal texture does not always allow easy separation tallize separately, being immiscible in the solid state and
and should therefore be avoided in most cases. giving rise to eutectic or monotectic interactions (Fig. 1) [4].
In practice, the phase behavior of a fat blend in the solid Normally, prior to crystallization, the oil is fully melted in
state is considerably influenced by the crystallization order to destroy the crystals present in the oil phase (to
conditions. Crystallization does not start once the liqui- erase the thermal memory). Thereafter, the oil is cooled
dus temperature is reached as a consequence of the in a controlled manner according to a given cooling
existing activation free energy of crystallization. Crystal- profile that is a function of the feedstock and of the
lization normally takes place at a lower temperature, i.e. required fractions. Nucleation occurs when the temper-
the process needs a certain degree of supercooling to ature of the melt is much lower than the thermodynamic
start. This activation free energy of crystallization is the equilibrium temperature, i.e. when the melt becomes
highest for b, intermediate for b and the lowest for a. The supercooled.
crystallization behavior is a function of the intersolubility
of the different components in the solid state under the Three types of nucleation phenomena can occur. Homo-
given conditions of cooling. These conditions normally do geneous nucleation takes place in the bulk of the mother
not conform to the rule of true thermodynamic equilibrium phase. Heterogeneous nucleation refers to formation of
but are mainly kinetically dependent. nuclei on foreign substances. Secondary nucleation
appears when tiny crystallites are removed from the sur-
face of existing crystals, which in turn act as new nuclei.
4.1.3 Crystallization In many real systems, heterogeneous nucleation occurs
before homogeneous nucleation. It takes place at solid
Crystallization consists of successive stages: super- particles for which the new phase has some chemical or
cooling of the melt, nucleation, and crystal growth; crys- physical affinity, such as dust particles, walls of crystal-
tals normally do not remain single but tend to agglomer- lizers, or foreign material.
ate. The key point in fractionation consists in controlling
the selectivity of crystallization and separation. This Once the nuclei are formed, they grow further. The rate at
selectivity is limited by the degree of compatibility of the which they further develop depends not only on external
different TAG in the solid state, which in turn is a function factors (degree of supercooling, presence of inhibitors,
of the crystal form and of the composition. How far this etc.) but also on internal factors (polymorphic form, crys-
selectivity is affected by the cooling conditions depends tal morphology, crystal defects, etc.). The growth rate is
not only on the overall cooling rate but also on the prac- proportional to supercooling and inversely proportional to
tical limitations imposed by the unit process itself. The viscosity. The higher the viscosity, the more difficult is the
heat transfer characteristics of the crystallizer vessel as exchange of material between the bulk phase and the
well as the efficiency of the separation technique largely crystal surface and the slower will be the crystal growth.
determine the quality of the obtained fractions. Several Therefore, in order to allow a continuous and uniform
cooling modes are possible (Fig. 2) [12]. The oil cooling crystallization, the fatty matter needs to be kept homo-
curve can be based on a fixed water cooling profile; in this geneous. This requires an intense but non-destructive
case, the temperature of the oil will depend on the tem- agitation.
perature of the water. Another design is based on the DT
principle; here, the temperature of the water is regulated During cooling and subsequent crystallization, the vis-
by the temperature of the oil itself. The differences in the cosity increases (Fig. 4). Viscosity is not only a result of
cooling schemes result in technological variations essen- increasing amounts of solids present in the liquid, but is
tially expressed in the geometry of the cooling surfaces also influenced by the crystal size distribution as well as
and in the agitation design (Fig. 3) [4]. the interactions between the different crystals.
4.2 Separation
Nowadays, many users of fractionation plants favor the the higher percentage of liquid it yields, by applying a
automatic press filter, fitted with airtight membranes. Al- pressure to the cake during each filtration cycle. The
though it does not have the benefit of the continuous result is to expel more of the liquid physically trapped on
operation of vacuum filters, its advantage lies mainly in the crystals.
A membrane press filter consists of a series of filter fitted with a tightly fitting, co-rotating worm, has also been
chamber plates that are kept together by means of a investigated [14]. Recent development work in centrifuge
hydraulic cylinder. The available filter surface is much decantation [15] has shown that it is possible to easily
larger compared to a vacuum filter, allowing a much faster separate a stearin from an olein as the sedimentation rate
and more uniform filtration. The stearin crystals, after depends on the crystal size, the crystal shape, the density
being concentrated upon filling the filter chambers, are difference between olein and stearin and the viscosity of
additionally squeezed together by means of the inflatable the olein.
membrane, which results in better removal of the
entrained liquid phase and a higher yield of olein. Due to In Fig. 7, a typical diagram of a dry fractionation system
the higher differential pressures applied, separation is less including separation on a membrane press filter is pre-
sensitive to changes in crystal structure. Membrane press sented.
filtration is a semi-continuous process that can be divided
into two sequences: filtration and squeezing (Fig. 6). On
filling the filter, the slurry is pressed into the filter cham-
bers, which allows a large part of the free olein to be 5 Dry fractionation of palm oil
separated from the slurry. In the second step, the con-
Palm oil is by far the most important fractionated oil.
centrated crystals are mechanically squeezed between
There are industrial fractionation installations in operation
the filter cloths by inflating the membranes, in order to
that process up to 2000 tons of palm oil per day. Both
squeeze out part of the olein that is entrapped inside the
crude as well as refined palm oil are fractionated in multi-
solid mass. Thereafter, the filter is opened and the cakes
stage giving rise to several applications (Figs. 8, 9,
are discharged by gravitation.
Tab. 1). The early reasons of fractionating palm oil have
The use of centrifuges to separate the different fractions less to do with product quality than with a simple political
is based on the difference in density between the liquid choice of the Malaysian government aiming at rapidly
and the solid phases. The density of the solid fraction is developing its local industry [16]. Since the early 1970s,
dependent on both the crystal size as well as on the the export tax on palm oil being shipped from Malaysia
crystal habit and increases from a to b and further to the has been decreased, provided the oil had undergone fur-
b form, as a result of the closer packing mode of the ther processing. This policy naturally triggered a boom in
molecules in the crystal lattices. The density difference the production of processed palm oil. For a long time,
between stearin and olein fractions (about 100 kg/m3) is Malaysia has fractionated palm oil, mainly taking advan-
furthermore determined by the amount of liquid entrained tage of such duty structure. The result has been the
inside the crystal mass. A new type of separator (nozzle creation of new commodities: palm olein and palm
centrifuge) has been developed and launched for the stearin, both having broad specifications (olein not liquid
separation of fat crystals in a centrifugal field by density enough to resist low temperatures and stearin not suffi-
difference between olein and stearin without additives ciently tailored for direct use). Both had, however, the big
[13]. Another type of centrifuge, a conical sieve centrifuge advantage of being cheap.
Fig. 6. Filtration sequences in a membrane press filter: (a) filling, (b) squeezing, and (c) discharge.
Elsewhere, for example in Colombia, the reasons for Tab. 2. Percentages of palm liquid fraction allowed to be
fractionating have been very different. Unlike Malaysia, blended with soybean oil keeping cold test at 0 7C lower
Colombia is an importer of liquid oils (soybean and sun- than 5.5 h.
flower). Its palm production has increased continuously,
Iodine Mettler cloud Palm liquid
but most of the palm oil is being used locally. In order to
value point [7C] fraction [%]
bottle liquid oil for the Bogota market without running the
risk of having sediment formation, the Colombian refiner Olein 57 7.2
has to blend its palm olein with imported and taxed soy- Super olein 63 2.5 10
bean oil. The higher the quality of the olein (or superolein), Super olein 65 1.3 30
the more will be allowed in blends and the higher is the Top olein 71 24.5 100 (24 h min.
at 0 7C)
profit margin. According to olein (or superolein) quality,
this percentage can vary from 30 to 10% only (Tab. 2).
Oils and fats are complex mixtures of acylglycerols that Tab. 3. Correlation between chemical composition (in
are composed of a whole variety of different fatty acids: terms of TAG), physical state of the product and final
palmitic acid (P, C16:0), stearic acid (St, C18:0), oleic acid application (S: saturated fatty acid; U: unsaturated fatty
(O, C18:1), linoleic acid (L, C18:2), and linolenic acid (Ln, acid).
C18:3) are usually predominant. These fatty acids can be
Triacylglycerols Physical state of the Final application
broadly divided into saturated and unsaturated ones; in product
consequence, TAG are generally divided into four classes:
the trisaturated (SSS), the disaturated (SSU-SUS), the SSS Solid Fatty acid production
diunsaturated (SUU-USU), and the fully unsaturated Hard coatings
(UUU) ones. These TAG exhibit different physical and SSU-SUS Solid ? semi-solid Confectionery
chemical properties and specific potential for end-use SUU-USU Semi-solid ? liquid Margarines
UUU Liquid Salad (dressing) oils
applications (Tab. 3) [12]. Palm oil is principally made up
Liquid frying oils
of 610% SSS (mainly PPP, tripalmitoylglycerol), 4450%
SSU-SUS (mainly POP, dipalmitoyl-oleylglycerol, and
PLP, dipalmitoyl-linoleylglycerol), 3842% SUU-USU
(mainly POO, dioleyl-palmitoylglycerol, and PLO, palmi- cally, the goal of dry fractionation is to separate the
toyl-linoleyl-oleylglycerol) and 58% UUU (mainly OOO, trisaturated fraction first and then the disaturated and the
trioleylglycerol, and OOL, dioleyl-linoleylglycerol). Basi- diunsaturated ones. Due to intersolubility (closely linked
to polymorphism), it is clear that the trisaturated fraction the PMF: the olein route (more commonly followed in
will inevitably contain also some SSU-SUS, SUU-USU Asia) and the stearin route, which is preferably used in
and UUU components. The first fractionation step of palm South America, because of the need of high-IV olein in the
oil will reduce the SSS content in the olein as much as first fractionation stage. Best CBE are obtained through
possible. When the crystallization is operated properly, the olein route where SSU-SUS concentrates more
this content falls to zero in favor of higher levels of SUU- selectively in the soft PMF at the second fractionation
USU and UUU, while SSU-SUS remains unchanged step; refractionation of this soft PMF produces an excel-
(Tab. 4). When SSS is totally removed in the first step, lent hard PMF particularly enriched in SSU-SUS with a
SSU-SUS begins to decrease selectively in the second steep SFC profile. Practically, in the dry fractionated soft
step, leading to higher iodine value (IV) and lower cloud PMF, SSU-SUS counts for more than 73%, the SSU-SUS/
point (CP) super oleins. Further enrichments in POO and SUU-USU ratio is 34 and the SSS content is low.
PLO are responsible for the high drop in CP observed for Refractionation of this soft PMF produces an excellent
the top oleins (Fig. 10) [17]. hard PMF made of 8590% SSU-SUS, with an SSU-SUS/
SUU-USU ratio of 912 and less than a few percent of
On the other hand, palm oil is a valuable source of SUS; at SSS; the DAG content can be maintained sufficiently low
high levels of POP, it becomes after fractionation suitable to avoid any adverse effect on the crystallization proper-
for CB replacement fats [principally the hard palm mid ties of the fraction [4].
fraction (PMF)] (Tabs 5, 6). The physicochemical char-
acteristics of CB equivalents (CBE) are relatively close to Another main characteristic of palm oil is its red color due
the ones of CB with regard to crystallization, texture and to its particularly high content in b-carotene. Chemical
melting properties; this is due to similar TAG composition neutralization followed by deodorizing in mild conditions
(SSU-SUS components POP, POSt and StOSt), which is able to produce a refined palm red oil rich in carotenes,
makes CBE fully compatible with CB and in consequence tocopherols and tocotrienols. Fractionation is classically
usable in all types of applications to replace CB, partially operated on the fully refined oil, but the high vitamin con-
or totally. Production of high-quality CBE specialty fats is tent of crude palm oil makes the dry fractionation process
delicate and can be faced by several problems that cause an attractive route for the specially refined oil; as a matter
failures in many confectionery products: (1) inadequate of fact, carotenes, tocopherols and tocotrienols con-
removal of SSS with the effect of undesirable waxiness centrate markedly in the liquid fractions.
between 35 and 40 7C, (2) high retention of SUU-USU and
UUU components with deterioration influence on the solid Such specially refined oil can be fractionated giving solid
fat content (SFC) profile, and (3) bad removal of diac- and liquid red fractions [19]. The pigment concentration in
ylglycerols (DAG) with detrimental effect on the crystal- the liquid fractions is particularly important: b-carotene in
lization performance of the specialty fat [18]. Optimiza- top olein issued from the triple fractionation is nearly twice
tions of the multistage dry fractionation route of palm oil, the content in the neutralized oil, giving to this fraction
together with the new developments in viscosity-resistant very high oxidative and cold stabilities and permitting
crystallizers and in high-pressure membrane filter positive claims on the nutritional label. The red stearins as
presses, have led to a technology capable of producing well as red PMF find applications in the production of
PMF as good as those obtained by solvent fractionation. margarines, shortenings and CBE rich in vitamins for die-
Classically, two routes (Fig. 8) are proposed for producing tetic use (Tab. 7).
Tab. 4. TAG composition (%) of palm oil, palm stearin, palm olein and palm super olein (M: myristic;
P: palmitic; St: stearic; O: oleic; L: linoleic; S: saturated fatty acid; U: unsaturated fatty acid; IV: iodine
value; nd: not detected).
Palm oil Palm stearin Palm olein Palm olein Palm super olein
IV 52.3 IV 34.3 IV 56.7 IV 58.9 IV 65.8
Tab. 5. Cocoa butter replacement fats (CBS: cocoa butter substitute; CBE: cocoa butter equivalent; CBR: cocoa butter
replacer) (La: lauric; M: myristic; P: palmitic; O: oleic; St: stearic; E: elaidic; S: saturated fatty acid; U: unsaturated fatty acid;
CB: cocoa butter).
Minor components like DAG, which cannot be studied [22]. It was shown that super olein obtained
removed during the refining process of palm oil, have from RBD olein with low DAG content (less than 1%)
several disadvantages during fractionation; TAG and prevented a higher amount of SUU-USU in correlation
DAG show eutectic interactions making separation dif- with better IV and CP, compared with non-treated
ficult and fractionation incomplete [20]. High-melting superolein (5% DAG).
DAG (mainly 1,3-dipalmitoyl glycerol) develop cloudi-
ness upon storage of olein fractions at room tempera- By removing minor components like free fatty acids and
ture [21]. As mentioned before, they have a detrimental monoacylglycerols during refining, modifications of the
effect on the crystallization performances of the speci- physical properties of palm oil and fractions are observed.
alty fats [18]. The effects of the DAG content of RBD Increased values of SFC, especially at lower tempera-
olein on the IV and CP characteristics of super oleins tures, are reported for refined palm oil compared to crude
obtained after dry fractionation have been recently oil [23]. Additionally, CP of refined palm oleins are usually
Tab. 6. Different CBE qualities from palm oil mid fractions Tab. 8. Characteristics of palm fractions issued from
(HPMF: hard palm mid fraction). vacuum filtration, nozzle centrifuge separation and mem-
brane press filtration (IV: iodine value; SFC: solid fat con-
Iodine POP SFC [% max.] tent by pulsed NMR).
value content [%] at 35 7C
Vacuum Nozzle Membrane press
HPMF 1 2830 .80 6 filtration centrifuge filtration
HPMF 2 3235 .70 36 (rotary separation (squeezing
HPMF 3 3537 .60 25 drum) pressure: 16 bar)
HPMF 4 3740 .50 14
IV palm oil 52 52 52
By pulsed NMR using tempering method. IV palm olein 5657 5657 5657
IV palm stearin 4042 3638 3032
SFC of crystallized oil [%] 11 11 11
SFC of stearin cake [%] 43 65
Tab. 7. b-Carotene content of chemically refined red Olein yield [%] 72 76 82
palm oil and fractions [19].
b-Carotene [ppm]
Palm oil 382 by a lower IV (i.e. more saturated), a higher melting point
Palm olein 409 as well as a steeper SFC profile. The liquid phase, on the
Palm super olein 670 other hand, is of at least the same and in most cases of a
Palm top olein 854 better quality than that achieved in a vacuum filter. In case
Palm hard stearin 280 of palm fractionation (first stage), the yield of centrifugal
Palm soft PMF 235 separation is reported to be in between the yields
Palm hard PMF 80 obtained by a membrane press filter and a vacuum filter
(Tab. 8).
Tab. 9. Effect of squeezing pressure on separation effi- measure of the resistance of the liquid fraction against
ciency and quality of palm oil fractions (SFC: solid fat crystal formation at a certain temperature for a certain
content by pulsed NMR; IV: iodine value). period. When properly calibrated, the CP can be used to
predict the cold stability.
Squeezing SFC of Yield [%] IV
pressure stearin cake
The stearin fraction is more commonly characterized by
[%]
its melting behavior (e.g. slip melting point, clear melting
Stearin Olein Stearin Olein point, dropping point). These parameters, however, only
50 mm give an indication of the end of melting. They are not
6 bar 55 23.6 76.4 39.7 57.1 representative of the overall melting behavior. The deter-
15 bar 61 20.0 80.0 36.6 57.1 mination of the solid fat index (SFI) by dilatometry and the
30 bar 65 18.3 81.7 34.7 57.1 SFC by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) allows a more
25 mm quantitative definition of the solid-phase behavior of the
6 bar 60 20.6 79.4 36.8 57.2 different oil fractions. Today, the SFC method is more
15 bar 66 18.8 81.2 34.9 57.2 favored than the SFI method, due to its higher accuracy
30 bar 70 16.7 83.3 32.1 57.2
and its ease of application. NMR can also be applied to