Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MATHEMATICS
Raising to a power: To raise a number to a whole (second, third, fourth, fifth etc.) power
means to repeat it as a factor two, three, four, five and so on. The number, repeated as a
factor, is called a base of a power; the quantity of factors is called an index or an exponent of
a power; the result is called a value of a power. Raising to a power is written as:
25 = 2x2x2x2x2 = 32. Here 2 a base of the power, 5 an exponent (an index) of the power,
32 a value of the power. The second power is called a square, the third one a cube. The
first power of any number is the number itself.
Extraction of a root: An operation of finding a base of a power by the power and exponent.
243 = 3
5
Here 243 a radicand, 5 an index (degree) of the root, 3 a value of the root. The second
root is called a square root, the third root a cube root. The second degree of square
root isnt written:
81 = 9
Order of Operations
PEMDAS: Given two or more operations in a single expression, the order of the letters in
PEMDAS tells you what to calculate first, second, third and so on, until the calculation is
complete.
P Parentheses first
We start with the operations inside the Parentheses and solve the operations inside,
multiplying and dividing first before adding and subtraction:
=100 (4 + 6)2 - (3 3)5 + 23 x 4
=100 (10)2 - (0)5 + 23 x 4
We then solve for the Powers and change them to their values
=100100 - 0 + 8 x 4
We then multiply and divide (left to right)
=1 0 + 32
And lastly, add and subtract
=
For small numbers this operation is easy. For large numbers it is possible to use the following
way. Consider the number 1463. Look over prime numbers and stop, if the number is a
factor of 1463. According to the divisibility criteria, we see that numbers 2, 3 and 5 arent
factors of 1463. But this number is divisible by 7, really, 1463: 7 = 209. By the same
way we test the number 209 and find its factor: 209: 11 = 19. The last number is a
prime one, so the found prime factors of 1463 are: 7, 11 and 19, i.e. 1463 = 7 11 19.
Example. Find the GCF of the following numbers: 168, 180 and 3024.
Solution. 168 = 2 2 2 3 7 = 23 31 71
180 = 2 2 3 3 5 = 22 32 51
3024 = 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 7 = 24 33 71
Write out the least powers of the common factors 2 and 3 and multiply them:
GCF = 22 31 = 12
The Common multiple of some numbers is the smallest number, which is divisible by each
of them. For example, numbers 9, 18 and 45 have as a common multiple 180. But 90
and 360 are also theirs common multiples. Among all common multiples there is always
the least one, in our case this is 90. This number is called a least common multiple (LCM).
3) to write out all prime factors, presented at least in one of these numbers;
4) to take the greatest power of each of them, meeting in the factorizations;
5) to multiply these power
Example. Find the LCM of the numbers: 168, 180 and 3024.
Solution. 168 = 2 2 2 3 7 = 23 31 71 ,
180 = 2 2 3 3 5 = 22 32 51
3024 = 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 7 = 24 33 71 .
Write out the greatest powers of all prime factors: 24, 33, 51, 71 and multiply them:
LCM = 24 33 5 7 = 15120
Fractions
A part of a unit or some equal parts of a unit is called a simple fraction. A number of equal parts into
which a unit has been divided, is called a denominator; a number of these taken parts, is called a
numerator.
Equivalence of fractions. Some fractions are said to be equal if they have the same lowest term. In
order to get the lowest term of a fraction, we divide the numerator and denominator of the fraction by its
Greatest Common Factor (GCF).
Solution. We reduce the numerator and denominator to its prime factors to get its GCF.
14 27
= therefore the GCF is 2x7 or 14
42 273
Comparing Fractions. In 2 fractions that have the same numerator, the fraction with the smaller
denominator will be bigger. Example:
3 3 2 2
> ; <
5 7 9 3
In two fractions with the same denominator, the fraction with a bigger numerator will be bigger.
3 2 5 7
> ; <
5 5 9 9
To compare two fractions which have different numerators and denominators, it is necessary to reduce
them both to the same denominator and then compare their numerators.
2 5
Example. Compare and
5 13
Solution. Multiply the numerator and denominator of the first fraction by the denominator of the
second fraction and the numerator and denominator by the second fraction by the denominator of the
first fraction.
2 2 26 5 5 25
= = and = =
5 5 65 13 13 65
Addition and subtraction of fractions. If denominators of fractions are the same, then in order to add
the fractions it is necessary to add their numerators; in order to subtract the fractions it is necessary to
subtract their numerators (in the same order). The received sum or difference will be a numerator of the
result; a denominator is saved the same. If denominators of fractions are different, before these
operations it is necessary to reduce fractions to a common denominator. At addition of mixed numbers a
sum of integer parts and a sum of fractional parts are found separately. At subtracting mixed numbers
we recommend at first to reduce the mixed numbers to improper fractions, then to subtract these
fractions and after this to convert the result into a mixed number again (in case of need).
Division of fractions. To divide some number by a fraction it is necessary to multiply this number by
a reciprocal fraction. This rule follows from the definition of division (see the section Arithmetical
operations).
Decimals
A Repeating decimal is a decimal in which a digit or a group of digits repeats endlessly in a pattern.
This group of repeating digits is called a period of decimal and is written in brackets. For instance, if we
divide 3 by 9, we get 0.333333333. 0.(33) is a Repeating Decimal.
Addition and subtraction of decimals. These operations are executed as well as an addition and a
subtraction of whole numbers. It is only necessary to write the corresponding decimal places one under
another.
Example: 3.070
+ 11.354
14.424
Multiplication of decimals. At first stage lets multiply the fractions as integers, not taking a decimal
point into consideration. After this we use the following rule: a number of decimal places in a product is
equal to a sum of numbers of decimal places in all factors.
Division of decimals. If a dividend is less than a divisor, write zero in an integer part of a quotient and
put after it a decimal point. Then, not taking the decimal point of dividend into consideration, join to its
integer part the next digit of fractional part and compare again the received integer part of a dividend
with a divisor. If a new number is again less than a divisor, put one more zero after a decimal point in a
quotient and join to an integer part of a dividend the next digit of its fractional part. Thus, repeat this
process till the received dividend would be not more than a divisor. After this one can fulfill the division as
for integers. If a dividend is more than a divisor or equal to it, divide at first its integer part, write a result
of the division in the quotient and put a decimal point. After this one can continue the division as for
integers.
Percent is a hundredth part of unit. A 1% means 0.01 in decimal. There are three main problems by
percents:
Problem 1. Find an indicated percent of a given number. The given number is multiplied by the
indicated number of percents; then a product is divided by 100.
Example. A deposit in a bank has an annual increase 6%. A sum of money in the beginning was
equal to $10000. How many dollars will the sum be increased by in the end of the year?
6
Solution. $10000 6% = $10000 = $600.
100
Problem 2. Find a number by another given number and its percent value of the unknown number.The
given number is divided by its percent value; the result is multiplied by 100.
Example. A salary on the month of January was equal to $15000, is equivalent to the 7.5% of an
annual salary. What is the annual salary?
$15000
Solution. x 100 = $200000
7.5
Problem 3. Find the percent expression of one number by another.
The first number is divided by the second, and a result is multiplied by 100.
Example. On 2001 a plant have produced 40000 cars; and on 2002 - only 36000 cars. What percent
does it constitute relatively to the output of 2001?
36000
Solution. 100 = 90%. (meaning the output of 2002 is only 90% of the output of 2001)
40000
12 : 20 = 3 : 5; a:b=c:d.
Border terms of the proportion: 12 and 5 in the first proportion; a and d in the second proportion.
Middle terms of the proportion: 20 and 3 in the first proportion; b and c in the second proportion.
The main property of a proportion: A product of border terms of a proportion is equal to a product
of its middle terms.
Two mutually dependent values are called proportional ones, if a ratio of their values is saved as
invariable.
Example. A mass of any substance is proportional to its volume. For instance, 2 liters of mercury
weigh27.2 kg, 5 liters weigh 68 kg, 7 liters weigh 95.2 kg. A ratio of mercury mass to its volume (factor of
a proportionality) will be equal to:
27.2 68 95.2
= = = 13.6 =
2 5 7
Thus, a factor of a proportionality in this example is density.
Monomial is a product of two or some factors, each of them is either a number, or a letter, or a power of
a letter. For example,
2 4 3
3a b , bd , 17 a b c
are monomials. A single number or a single letter may be also considered as a monomial. Any factor of a
monomial may be called a coefficient. Often only a numerical factor is called a coefficient. Monomials are
called similar or like ones, if they are identical or differed only by coefficients. Therefore, if two or some
monomials have identical letters or their powers, they are also similar (like) ones. Degree of monomial is
a sum of exponents of the powers of all its letters.
Addition of monomials. If among a sum of monomials there are similar ones, he sum can be reduced
to the more simple form:
ax3y2 5b3x3y2+c5x3y2=(a5b3+c5)x3y2.
This operation is called reducing of like terms. Operation, done here, is called also taking out of brackets.
Multiplication of monomials. A product of some monomials can be simplified, only if it has powers of
the same letters or numerical coefficients. In this case exponents of the powers are added and numerical
coefficients are multiplied.
Example.
5 a x 3 z 8 ( 7 a 3 x 3 y 2 ) = 35 a 4 x 6 y 2 z 8 .
Division of monomials. A quotient of two monomials can be simplified, if a dividend and a divisor have
some powers of the same letters or numerical coefficients. In this case an exponent of the power in a
divisor is subtracted from an exponent of the power in a dividend; a numerical coefficient of a dividend is
divided by a numerical coefficient of a divisor.
Example.
35 a 4 x 3 z 9 7 a x 2 z 6 = 5 a 3 x z 3
Multiplication of sums and polynomials: a product of the sum of two or some expressions by any
expression is equal to the sum of the products of each of the addends by this expression:
Example.
( x+ y+ z )( a+ b )= x( a+ b )+ y( a+ b ) + z( a+ b ) =
= xa + xb + ya + yb + za + zb .
A product of sums is equal to the sum of all possible products of each addend of one sum to each
addend of the other sum.
'
Algebraic fraction is an expression of a shape A / B, where A and B can be a number, a monomial, a
polynomial. As in arithmetic, A is called a numerator, B a denominator. Arithmetical fraction is a
particular case of an algebraic one.
Cancelling fractions
32 5+2 2 ()()
Example. = =
32 +2 2 ()(+) +
To add or to subtract two or some fractions it is necessary to make the same operations as in
arithmetic.
Example.
+
+ =
2 2 22
Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions doesnt differ from the same operations in arithmetic.
Canceling a fraction can be done both before and after multiplication of numerators and
denominators.
Example.
2 2 42 2 2 3 3 3
= x42 =
2 3 3 2 2
2. At dividing of powers with the same base their exponents are subtracted:
=
3. A power of product of two or some factors is equal to a product of powers of these factors:
( ) =
Widening of the power notion. Till now we considered only natural exponents of powers; but
operations with powers and roots can result also to negative, zero and fractional exponents. All
these exponents of powers require to be defined.
Negative exponent of a power. A power of some number with a negative (integer) exponent is
defined as unit divided by the power of the same number with the exponent equal to an absolute
value of the negative exponent:
1
=
Now the formula = may be used not only if m is more than n , but also for a
case if m is less than n .
Example. 4 7 = 47 = 3
Zero exponent of a power. A power of any non-zero number with zero exponent is equal to 1.
Example. 2 0 = 1, ( 5 ) 0 = 1, ( 3 / 5 ) 0 = 1.
From the rules of multiplication of sums and polynomials the following seven formulas of abridged
multiplication can be easily received. It is necessary to know them by heart, as they are used in
most of problems in mathematics.
[1] ( a + b ) = a + 2ab + b
[2] ( a b ) = a 2ab + b
[3] ( a + b ) ( a b ) = a b
[4] ( a + b ) = a + 3a b + 3ab + b
[5] ( a b ) = a 3a b + 3ab b
[6] ( a + b )( a ab + b ) = a + b
[7] ( a b )( a + ab + b ) = a b
Factoring Polynomials
In general case factoring of a polynomial is not always possible. But there are some cases, when it
can be executed.
1. If all terms of a polynomial contain as a factor the same expression, it is possible to take it
out of brackets.
2. Sometimes grouping terms of a polynomial into brackets, one can find a common expression
inside the brackets, the expression may be taken out of the brackets as a common factor,
and after this the same expression will be inside all brackets then this expression must also
be taken out of the brackets and the polynomial will be factored.
Example. ax + bx + ay+ by = ( ax+ bx ) + ( ay + by ) =
=x(a+b)+ y(a+ b)=(x+y)(a+ b).
Example. y2 b2 = y 2 + yb yb b 2 = ( y 2 + yb ) ( yb + b 2 )
=y(y+b)b(y+b)=(y+b)(yb).
Each quadratic trinomial ax2 + bx+ c can be resolved to factors of the first degree by the next
way. Solve the quadratic equation ax2 + bx+ c
If x1 and x 2 are the roots of this equation, then
This affirmation can be proved using either formula for roots of a non-reduced quadratic equation.
1. Some kinds of the higher degrees equations may be solved using a quadratic equation.
Sometimes one can resolve the left-hand side of equation to factors, each of them is a polynomial
of the degree not higher than second. Then, equaling each of them to zero and solving all these
quadratic and / or linear equations, well receive all roots of the original equation.
x1 = 2 , x2 = 2 , x3 = 3 ; x4 =3
Any equation of the shape: ax4 + bx2 + c = 0 is called a biquadratic equation. It is reduced
to quadratic equations by using the exchange: x2 = z and then we simply use the quadratic
formula to solve for its roots.
3. A cubic equation is the third degree equation; its general shape is:
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
a. At first we find one root of the equation by selecting, because these equations have always
at least one real root, which is one of factors of a free term d ; besides, coefficients of these
equations have been selected usually so that the root, which must be found, is among not
great integers, such as: 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 . Therefore, well find the root among these
numbers and check it by substituting into the equation. A probability of successful result is
very high. Assume this root is x1 .
b. The second stage of solution is dividing of the third degree polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
by the binomial ( x x1 ) . According to Bezouts theorem this division is possible without
a remainder, and well receive as a result the second degree polynomial, which would be
annihilated, will give us a quadratic equation, solving which well find (or not !) the rest of
the two roots.
+1
Example. Solve the equation =
2 +2
Solution. We multiply the equations crosswise and get the expression:
x2 + 2x = x2 2x + x 2
Transfer all terms to the right-hand side of the equation.
2
After reducing all similar terms well receive: 3x + 2 = 0, hence x =
3
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (1)
where a, b, c are the given numerical or literal coefficients and x is the unknown.
If a = 0, then this equation becomes a linear one. Therefore, well consider here only a 0. So,
it is possible to divide all terms of the equation by a and then we receive:
x2 + px + q = 0 , (2)
where p=b/a, q=c/a. This quadratic equation is called a reduced one. The equation (1) is called a
non-reduced quadratic equation. If b or c (or both) is equal to zero, then this equation is called a
pure one. The examples of pure quadratic equations are following:
4x 2 12 = 0, x 2 + 5x = 0, x 2 = 36 .
Quadratic Formula
From the equation ax2 + bx+ c, its roots can be solved using the following formula:
It is important to look for the key words that translate into equals. Some of these words are:
is, are was, make, and equals. These will make our job of creating equations easier. As the unknowns
in the problem are correctly represented, then the meaning of the story can easily be obtained by
expressing these into an equation.
After setting up all the equations, the last thing we would do is to use the methods in solving
equations and then check our answer if it satisfies the problem.
I. Number Problems:
The number problems are the easiest to translate into equations since the relationships
among the numbers are directly stated in the problems.
EXAMPLE: One number is two more than thrice another. Their sum is 30. Find the numbers.
Solution:
READ: Reading the problem thoroughly, we know two things about the numbers:
a) Their sizes: one of them is two more than thrice the other; and
b) Their sum: the sum is 30.
REPRESENT: If we represent the numbers using the first sentence, we have:
Let x = the first number
then: 3x + 2 = the other number
RELATE: The relationship between the numbers x and 3x + 2 and the other number, 30, gives us
an equation. EQUATE: x + 3x + 2 = 30 (Their sum is 30)
SOLVE: In solving the equation, we have
x + 3x + 2 = 30
4x + 2 = 30
4x = 28 x=7
Therefore, the first number is 7 and the other number is 3x + 2 = 3(7) + 2 = 23
Answers: 7 and 23
if we want to write the number with the digits reversed, then the new number formed
would have y as the tens digit and x the ones digit. Hence, the number can be represented by
10y + x
EXAMPLE 1: The units digit in a two digit number is one more than twice the tens digit. Find the
number if the sum of the digit is 7.
SOLUTION:
Let x = the tens digit
then 2x +1 = the units digit
and 10x + 2x + 1 = the number
EXAMPLE 2: The tens digit of a three-digit number is 0. The sum if the other two digits is 6.
Interchanging the units and hundreds digits decreases the number by 396. Find the original
number.
SOLUTION:
Let x = the units digit
then 6 x = the hundreds digit and
100(6 x) + 10(0) + x = the original
number
100 x + 10(0) + 6 x = the reversed number
Interchanging the units and the hundreds digits decreases the number by
EXAMPLE 1: Alvin is now 20 years older than his son. In 10 years, he will be twice as old as his
sons age. What are the present ages?
READ : Reading the problem thoroughly, we find a relationship between the present ages of Alvin
and his son and the relationship of their ages 10 years from now.
REPRESENT: Using the relationship between the present ages, we
have Let x = the sons present age
RELATE: Then x + 20 = Alvins present age
After 10 years, each age is increased by 10: x + 10 and x + 30 as given in the table below.
Now Future ( 10 years from
Son x now)
x + 10
Alvin x + 20 x + 30
EQUATE: Using the second relationship: In 10 years, Alvins age is twice his sons, we have
x + 30 = 2 (x+10)
SOLVE: Manipulating the equation, we have
x + 30 = 2 (x + 10)
x + 30 = 2x + 20
x = 10
EXAMPLE 2: The sum of Richards age and Ruels age is 60. Nine years ago, Richard has twice as
old as Ruel then. How old is Ruel?
READ: We find that we have a relationship between the present ages and their ages 9 years
ago. REPRESENT: Let x = Ruels present age
RELATE: Then 60 x = Richards present age
We subtract 9 years from each as shown in the table below.
Now Past ( 9 years ago)
Ruel x x9
Richard 60 - x 51 - x
EQUATE: The second relationship gives our equation: Nine yars ago, Richard was twice as old as
Ruel then.
51 x = 2 (x 9)
51 x = 2x 18
3x = 69
x = 23
Lastly, it is also important to know that the sum of the parts of a job done by
different people or forces adds up to the whole job.
EXAMPLE 1: Richard can build a doghouse by himself in 3 days. Alvin can build the
same doghouse in 6 days. How long would it take them if they worked together?
SOLUTION: We are looking for the number of days it would take Richard and Alvin if
they worked together. We can represent the time for each by the same letter since
they begin and end work at the same time.
Rate x Time Work
Richard 1 x
3 3
Alvin 1 x
6 3
6
6 6
The work Richard and Alvin did together equals 1 job.
+ =1
3 6
EXAMPLE 2: The San Beda High School, swimming pool has two inlet pipes. One
pipe can fill the pool in 6 hours, the other can fill it in 3 hours. The pool has one
outlet pipe that can empty the pool in 4 hours. One day, when filling the pool after
it was cleaned, the outlet pipe was left open by mistake. How long did it take to fill
the pool?
SOLUTION: We now have three rates. Two are added (the inlet pipes) while the
other pipe (the outlet pipe) is subtracted. We can represent the time for each by
the same letter since they begin and work at the same time.
4
2+43 3
Solution: +3 4=1 => = 1 => =1 => x = 4
6 12 12
hours
VI. Distance Problems
When an object moves without changing its speed or rate, that object is said to
be in uniform motion.
The following examples below illustrate the types of problem involving uniform motion.
SOLUTION: In this problem they both travel with the same length of
time Let t = the number of hours before the men meet
Rate x Time Distance
Mr. 45 t 45t
Honda
Mr. 35 t 35t
Toyota
The distances they travel must add up to the 120 kilometers between the
towns, that is
Mr. Hondas distance + Mr. Toyotas distance = Total Distance
Answer: They meet after hours of driving
There are two trains. The Rabbit heads north on the expressway at 45 kph.
Exactly 12 minutes after, the Panther follows at a steady speed of 54 kph. How
long does it take the Panther to overtake the Rabbit?
1
SOLUTION: the Panther travels for 12 minutes less than (12 min = hr) because it
5
travels 12 minutes later. It
will be easier to represent the shorter time by a single literal number.
1
Let x = the Panthers time then x + = the Rabbits time
5
5
Rate x Time Distance
Rabbit 45 x+
1
45(x + )
1
5 5
Panther 54 x 54x
When the Panther overtakes the Rabbit, the distances will be equal.
1
45(x + ) = 54x
5
EXAMPLE 1: A chemist has 400g of salt solution that is 10% salt. How many grams of
20% salt solution must be added to obtain a 12% solution of salt?
SOLUTION: The problem asks for the number of grams of 20% salt
solution to be added.
Example 2: A chemist mixes a 200 L of a solution that is 60% acid with a 300 L of a
solution that is 20% acid. What is the acid percentage of the mixture?
SOLUTION:
The problem asks the acid percentage of the mixture. Let x = the acid
200 L of the+mixture.
percentage 300 L = 500
L
60% 20% x%
Note that the problem tells us that we have a 500 L mixture.
60(200) + 20(300) = x(500)
12,000 + 6000 = 500x
18,000 = 500x
x = 36%
EXAMPLE 1:
The Faculty Trust Fund is P200,000. Some of the money is invested at an annual
rate of 4 percent and the rest is invested at an annual rate of 6 percent. If the
income from both investments is both P9,600 a year, how much is invested at each
rate?
Solution:
Let x = the amount
invested at 4% then 200,000 - x
= the amount invested at 6%
b r p
Some of the money x =
.04 .04x
The rest of the money 200,000 - x .06 .06(200,000) -
x
EXAMPLE 2:
Anthony invested a certain amount of money at 5 percent per year, and an amount
twice as large at 6 percent p e r year. The total annual income from the two
investments was P4,250. Find the amount invested at each rate.
SOLUTION:
Let x = the amount invested at 5% then
2x = the amount invested at 6%
b r p
Some of the money x =
.05 .05x
The rest of the money 2x .06 .06(2x)