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1 Introduction
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ESG2006, Grenoble, 30/08-01/09/2006
geology. These amplified ground motions were supposed to have contributed to the
triggering of some of the major landslides.
Armenia U A R M lo n g it u d in a l
0,6g
0 .4
(g)
0,23g
Acceleration
0 .2
A c c e l
- 0 .2
- 0 .4
1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5
T im e
Time (s)
3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5
Armenia
Santa Tecla H S R F lo n g it u d in a l
Santa Tecla
Berlin
0 .4 0,45g
(g)
0,23g
Acceleration
0 .2
A c c e l
0
Epicenter
- 0 .2
- 0 .4
1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5
Time
T i m e (s)
Figure 1: El Salvador map and seismic recordings in Armenia and Santa Tecla.
As underlined by this example, the topographic and possible associated geological site
effects give rise to many engineering problems dealing with structure design in seismic
mountainous regions, slope stability assessment and landslide triggering. Most of the
seismic design codes such as the French PS92 recommendations indeed consider
topographic site effects but only through an amplification coefficient to be used in the
design of structure, along and at the top of the slope. This coefficient is however based on
empirical approaches without any assurance about its value, and the corresponding
formulations give results which sometimes seem far from the post seismic observations. A
better scientific knowledge in the field of topographical site effects is then required to
provide authorities the necessary elements which can be used in renewed and improved
regulations. For this purpose, various numerical simulations using FLAC software were
performed on standard 2D infinite uniform slopes. By reference to these simulations,
parametric analyses were carried out varying the geometrical parameters (height and
slope angle), seismic parameters (amplitude and frequencies of incident SV waves). In
addition, the effects of subsurface geology corresponding to superficial loose materials
such as decompressed and fissured rocks, loose weathered rocks or screes often present
along natural slopes were also considered in the simulations. Modelled surface
amplifications were compared to the amplification factor used in the French seismic
design code.
The results presented hereafter are based on a parametric study of ground motion
amplifications with respect to varying geometrical, geological and seismic conditions. They
are part of the PhD thesis of C. Bourdeau performed at Ecole des Mines de Paris under
the supervision of JA Fleurisson. Numerical models were performed using the 2D finite
difference code FLAC developed by Itasca Group.
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h1
H H
1
h
h1
H H
The maximum amplification of the horizontal acceleration was calculated in different points
along the surface for homogeneous slope models with different heights or slope angles.
Figure 4 give the amplification at the crest of moderate to very steep, nearly vertical
homogeneous slopes. The slope height is 50 m and two types of material corresponding to
standard basalt (model 1) and pyroclastic (model 2) deposits in Salvador (Mavrommati,
2000 and Faccioli, 1986) are considered. The input signal frequency is equal to 1 Hz.
The calculation results show that the ground motion is amplified at the crest of the slope
and the amplification ratio increases with the slope angle up to 1.5 for the steepest slopes.
The amplifications take higher value in model 2 because of a slight phenomenon of
resonance at this frequency.
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Figure 5 gives the maximum amplification of the horizontal acceleration along the
surface of a 25 m high homogeneous slope for different slope angle respectively equal to
40, 50 and 60, and Figure 6 gives the maximum amplification of the horizontal
acceleration along the surface of a 50 steep homogeneous slope for different slope height
H respectively equal to 25, 50 and 75 m. In both cases the input signal is a Ricker signal of
central frequency equal to 1.2 Hz referred as low frequency (LF) or 7.3 Hz considered as
high frequency (HF).
All these results clearly show the influence of the frequency on the amplification
coefficient. For LF signal, the toe of the slope is generally subjected to de-amplifications
while amplifications occurred at the top of the slope. The maximum amplification
coefficient is around 1.2. Moreover the zone affected by high amplifications largely extends
behind the top of the slope. For HF signal, de-amplification is observed all along the slope
from the bottom to the top, and the amplification peak is located behind the crest.
Figure 5 underlines the role of the slope angle: for LF signal, the amplification coefficient
slightly increases with the slope angle while the extension of the amplification zone at the
top of the slope slightly decreases. For HF signal, the amplification peak coefficient and
extension of the amplification zone highly decreases when the slope angle becomes
higher
As illustrated by Figure 6, for a given slope angle, the amplification coefficient as well as
the amplification zone decreases when the slope height increases, and these results are
the same for LF and HF signal.
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Figure 7 gives the maximum amplification of the horizontal acceleration along the surface
of a 25 m high and 50 steep heterogeneous slope including a subsurface layer with low
seismic velocity, such as Tierra Blanca, lying on a substratum such as basaltic rocks. The
thickness of this layer varies from 10 to 30 m, and the slope is subjected to a Ricker input
signal with a central frequency varying from 1.2 to 7.3 Hz.
From a general point of view, the amplification coefficients are much higher than the
amplification coefficients calculated for homogeneous slope. They can reach the value of
2.7 to be compared to the value of 1.3 for homogeneous slopes. The values have the
same order of magnitude as the amplification coefficient of 2.6 calculated at the Armenia
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site, for which topographic and geological conditions are close to those of Figure 7a.
These figures also show that the amplification behind the slope crest decreases more
quickly when the slope is subjected to HF input signal.
This amplification coefficient is mainly controlled by the geological structure of the slope
and particularly the thickness of the subsurface layer, and the frequency of the input signal.
As a matter of fact, all these results clearly show that for a given thickness of the
subsurface layer, the highest value of the amplification coefficient is obtained when the
central frequency of the signal is close to the resonance frequency of the subsurface layer.
In the considered cases, the seismic velocity of the shear waves in the subsurface layer is
equal to 250 ms-1 corresponding to Tierra Blanca deposits. For a subsurface layer
thickness equal to 10, 20 and 30 m, the resonance frequency is respectively equal to 6.3,
3.1 and 2.1 Hz, and the maximum amplification coefficient is obtained when the central
frequency of the input signal is respectively equal to 6.1, 2.4 or 3.1 and 2.1 Hz.
Pending the implementation of the future Eurocode 8, the present French regulation is the
PS92 seismic design code which represents the topographic site effect through an
amplification coefficient defined as in the Figure 8. The seismic signal considered in the
design of a structure located on the slope will result from the multiplication of the signal of
reference, in the considered area, by this coefficient.
I
D
H 10 m and i :
B C 3
C D On branch BC, (max) is equal to
B i
H A 1 = 1 for I-i 0.4
IA
O = 1 + 0.8 * (I-i-0.4) for 0.4 I - i 0.9
1 = 1.4 for I - i 0.9
1 1 H + 10
b = min (20 I, ) ;
4
H H
AB = ; CD = ;I= tan (slope angle);
a c 3 4
i = tan (angle between BD and horizontal)
Figure 8: Distribution and calculation of the topographic coefficient along the slope
surface according to the French PS92 design code.
According to the equation of Figure 8, the highest amplification zone is located at the
top of the slope along the BC branch, and the maximum corresponding value is equal to
1.4 for slopes steeper than 40, and ranges from 1.0 to 1.4 for more gentle slopes.
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For the analysed configurations, this figure show that the maximum topographic
coefficient BC=1.4 recommended in the PS92 design code is much higher that the values
obtained from calculation. Moreover the amplification peak may even occur far from the
crest of the slope. On the other hand, the extent of the zone affected by amplification
behind the slope is more important in the simulations than in the PS92 recommendations.
For instance, for a 25 m high and 60 steep slope subjected to a LF input signal, the
maximum amplification coefficient is equal to 1.2, but amplifications value higher than 1
may occur over a distance of 125 m behind the crest of the slope. This result would
suggest longer security distances than those recommended in the PS92 for settlement of
building at the top of slopes.
The amplification value calculated along the surface under the slope crest are always
lower than the coefficient which can not be lower than 1 and can not therefore account
for de-amplifications obtained in the numerical simulations and recorded in the field.
But, it must be remembered that the amplification coefficient may reach very high value
when the slope includes a subsurface layer with low seismic velocity. For instance, as
illustrated in Figure 7a for a slope composed of a bedrock overlaid by a 10 m thick surface
layer, the amplification coefficient may vary between 1.6 and 2.6 depending on the
frequency of the input signal, and largely exceeds the maximum topographic coefficient of
1.4 recommended in the PS92.
4 Conclusion
It is known for a long time that elevated topographic structures may lead to high
amplifications of ground motions, especially at the top of slopes. These site effects give
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rise to many engineering problems especially dealing with structure design in mountainous
seismic regions, and they have been considered in most of the Seismic Design regulations
such as the French seismic design code PS92. The code particularly defines a seismic
amplification factor used in the design of surface structures along and at the top of
slopes. This coefficient is however described through empirical approaches without any
assurance about their value, and the corresponding formulations give results which
sometimes do not correspond to the post seismic observations. A better scientific
knowledge in the field of topographical site effects is then required to provide authorities
the necessary elements which can be used in renewed and improved regulations.
Because of the complexity of such physical phenomena which depend on topographic,
geological and also seismic parameters, numerical simulations could represent a powerful
tool to explore the answers to simple systems, made gradually more complex, for finally
approaching the natural configurations with highly complex geometries and geological
structures. Moreover, amplifications of topographic and lithological origin have been too
often separated, whereas geological, geomorphological and geophysical reality of natural
slope integrates these two aspects.
The results presented in this paper correspond to the first phase of this larger project
because they are based on numerical simulations of deliberately simplified slope
configurations. They however confirm that topography may induce ground motion
amplifications which remain relatively moderate and lower than 1.3. On the other hand,
they clearly underline the important role played by the subsurface geology which may lead
to much higher amplifications up to 2.5. Moreover these amplifications are greatly
controlled by the frequency of the seismic input signal. A low frequency signal generally
produces higher amplifications, but the intensity and distribution of the amplifications may
be greatly modified when the frequency of the seismic signal is close to the resonance
frequency of the subsurface layer.
The comparison between the numerical results and the amplification factor used in the
French seismic design code show that the calculated amplification factor is much lower
than the value of factor recommended in the regulation. But the part of the slope
subjected to high amplifications is generally larger than recommended in the regulations.
So, additional simulations are therefore necessary in order to investigate more complex
and mainly more realistic geomorphological configurations, but it is worth developing this
kind of approach combined of course with field measurements in order to better
characterize the seismic coefficients recommended in the future seismic design codes.
5 References
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