Faculty of Chemical Engineering and

Natural Resources
DKK2333 THERMODYNAMICS

Semester 1 Session 2015/2016

MOHD FAIZAL BIN ALI
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
FKKSA
Office: B1-18
mohdfaizalali@ump.edu.my
09-5493097
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 Chapter
Chapter 1- Introduction: Thermodynamics units, properties, terms and systems
Chapter 2- Properties of Pure Substance: Phase changes, Properties table and Gas Law
Chapter 3- Heat and Energy: Types of Energy, Mass and Energy conservation for closed
systems
Chapter 4- First Law of Thermodynamics: Mass and Energy analysis for open system
Chapter 5- Second Law of Thermodynamics: Principles of 2nd Law of thermodynamics
Chapter 6- Entropy: Entropy properties

Assessment:

Distribution (%)
Test 1 20 %
Test 2 20 %
Quizzes 10 %
Assignment 10 %
Final Examination 40 %
Total 100 %

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 Learning references

Cengel, Y. A and Boles, M. A. (2015). Thermodynamics: An

Engineering Approach (8th Edition). McGraw Hill, New York.

Cengel, Y. A. (2007). Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat

Transfer (2nd Edition). McGraw Hill, New York.

Sonntag, R. E., Borgnakke, C. and Van Wylen, G. J. (1998).

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics. John Wiley and Sons, New
York.

Smith, Van Ness and Abbott (2001). Introduction of Chemical

Engineering Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, USA.

Elliot and Lira (1999). Introductory Chemical Engineering

Thermodynamics, Prentice Hall.

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4
INTRODUCTION TO
THERMODYNAMICS

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 CONTENT
Unit
Types of thermodynamics system
Properties of thermodynamics system
Reversible and irreversible processes
Thermodynamics equilibrium
Thermodynamics system of state and energy

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 INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics: Science of energy
Greek words: therme (heat) and dynamics
(power)
Energy can change from one form to another

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed

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 What is Thermodynamics?

Thermo = Heat
Movement of energy
(Energy)
Dynamics = Movement

Science of Energy = the study of energy,

energy transformations and its relation to
matter.

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 The name Thermodynamics
stems from the Greek works
therme (heat) and dynamis
(power), which is most descriptive
of the early efforts to convert heat
into power

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 Thermodynamics: The science of energy
Energy: the ability to cause change
The analysis of thermal systems is achieved through the
application of the governing conservation equations,
namely Conservation of Mass, Conservation of Energy (1st
law of thermodynamics), the 2nd law of thermodynamics
and the property relations.
Conservation of Mass: any system closed to all transfers
of matter and energy (both of which have mass), the
mass of the system must remain constant over time, as
system mass cannot change quantity if it is not added or
removed Mass cannot be created or destroyed.
Conservation of energy: During an interaction, energy
can change from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant
The first law of thermodynamics: An expression of the
conservation of the energy principle
The first law asserts that energy is a thermodynamic
property.
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 The second law of thermodynamics:
it asserts that energy has quality as well
as quantity and actual processes occur in
the direction of decreasing quality of
energy.
Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a Conservation energy of human
body
knowledge of the behaviour of individual
particles (kinetic + potential).
Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach based on the
average behaviour o large groups of
individual particles (sensible + latent +
chemical + nuclear)
Heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature

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Application areas of thermodynamics

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IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical system
based on a decimal relationship between the
various units.
English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.
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 Secondary/Derived dimensions
While others such as velocity V, energy E and volume are
expressed in terms of the primary dimensions or derived
dimensions.
Obtained by appropriate algebraic combination of the
primary dimensions.

Physical Quantity Defining Relationship Derived SI Derived

Unit English Unit
Area lxl m2 ft2
Volume lxlxl m3 ft3
Velocity Distance per second ms-1 fts-1
Density Mass per volume kgm-3 lbmft-3
Concentration Amount per volume mol m-3 mol ft-3

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Some SI and English Units

Work = Force Distance

1 J = 1 Nm The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 cal = 4.1868 J branches of engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

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W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

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 Unit Conversion

Example
1 lbm = 0.4539kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m

Some named derived units

Force = Mass x
Acceleration Physical Quantity SI Unit SI Symbol Base Unit Expression

F = ma Frequency hertz Hz s-1

1 N = 1 kg. ms-2 Force Newton N m kg s-2
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm. fts-2 Pressure Pascal Pa N m-2 = kg m-1 s-2
Energy, heat, work Joule J N m = kg m2 s-2
Work = Force x Electric charge Coulomb C As
Distance Electric Potential Volt V JC-1 = kg m2 s-1 A-1
1 J = 1 N.m
Electric resistance Ohm VA-1 = m2 kg-1 s3 A2
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

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Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and

are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses)
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
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Temperature unit conversion

Comparison of
magnitudes of various
temperature units.

T (K) = T (oC) + 273.15

T (R) = T (F) + 459.67
T (R) = 1.8 T(K)
T (oF) = 1.8 T(oC) + 32

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During a cooling process, the temperature of an object
drops by 20oC. What is number that equivalent to a
temperature drop in

a) Kelvin
b) Fahrenheit
c) Rankine

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 Conversion
T (oF) = (1.8) T(oC) + 32

T (R) = T (oF) + 459.67

T (K) = T(oC) + 273.15

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 Pressure

Pressure: A normal force

exerted by a fluid per unit area
(P = F/A)

1 atm = 1.013 bars = 14.7 psi

Pressure for solids: Normal stress,
Force acting perpendicular to the
surface per unit area
The normal stress (or pressure2)
on the feet of a chubby person is
much greater that on the feet of a
slim person.
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 Type of pressure
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to a absolute vacuum (i.e. absolute zero
pressure).
Gauge pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure
and the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring
devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere and so
they indicate gauge pressure
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure

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 Variation of Pressure with
Depth
The pressure difference between 2 points in
a constant density fluid is proportional to the
vertical distance z between the points and
the of the fluid

The pressure of a fluid at

rest increases with depth
(as a result of added
weight). Free-body diagram of a rectangular
fluid element in equilibrium.

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 Pressure in a liquid at rest increases
linearly with distance from the free
surface.

The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the
same fluid. 25
- Example

P on the top of divers

head?

Pdiver = Patm + gh = 101300 Pa + (1000kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 x

10m)
= 199499 N/m2 (Pa) = 199.4 kPa

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Types of Thermodynamics System

Closed system
Open system
Isolated system

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 Closed and Open System
Closed
Mass Flow System
Open
System dm 0
dt
Mass Flow

System and Surroundings

System quantity of
matter or region in space
chosen for study
Surroundings mass or
region outside the system
Boundary surface
separate system from
surrounding
(imaginary @ real)

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Thermodynamics System

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 Close system
Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no
mass can cross its boundary. Also known as non-flow system
Only heat and work are transferred to the system.
So it means that the volume doesnt remain fixed.
For example, a piston system.

Two types boundary for close system

Adiabatic boundary not allowing any
heat exchange: A thermally isolated
system
Rigid boundary not allowing
exchange of work: A mechanically
isolated system

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 Example of close system
Piston system

When heat supplied into the piston system, the inner surface that act as
the boundary will move up due to increasing of the pressure.
As work is done on a real gas, the temperature and pressure increase and
some heat will be transferred out of the system.
As a real gas expands, it does work on the surroundings and the
temperature and pressure decrease. Heat is transferred to the system.

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 Closed System
Surroundings

Closed System
m = constant

System Boundary

Closed system does not have mass flow across the

boundary.
Only energy

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 Example of close system

Bomb Calorimeter

A type of constant-volume calorimeter

used in measuring the heat of
combustion of a particular reaction.

Electrical energy travels across the

boundary to produce a spark between
the electrodes and initiates combustion.

Heat transfer occurs across the

boundary after combustion but no mass
transfer takes place either way.

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 Open system (control volume)
Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space. Also known as
steady flow system.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine,
nozzle, air conditioners, heat exchangers and etc.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

A control volume can

involve fixed, moving,
real, and imaginary
boundaries.

An open system (a control

volume) with one inlet and
one exit. 34
 Open System
Surroundings Control Surface

Open System
Mass flow
( Fixed space or volume)

Open systems have mass & energy flow

across their boundaries.

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 Example of Open System & Closed
System
Closed system (Piston and Cylinder)

m
Piston Open system (Gas Turbine Engine)

Fuel Flow In

Combustor
Air Flow In Shaft Work Output

Gas at pressure, p
Compressor Work Out
Exhaust Gases Out

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 Isolated system

Isolated system: No heat, mass and energy are allowed to cross the
boundary of the system
Example: Water flask

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 Interactions Between System &
Surroundings...
Surroundings Closed system (control
Heat mass) no mass can enter or
leave a system
System

Work
Surroundings
Mass Flow
Open system (control Heat

volume) usually encloses

a device that involves System

mass flow such as Mass

Power
compressor, turbine or Flow
nozzle.
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 Isolated system

Isolated system: No heat, mass and energy are allowed to cross the
boundary of the system
Example: Water flask

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Properties of Thermodynamics
System
Any characteristic of a system is called a
property
E.g: P, T, V, m, viscosity, thermal conductivity,
thermal expansion coefficient, velocity etc.
Properties are consider to be either
intensive or extensive

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 Intensive properties those that are
independent of the size of the system:
temperature, pressure and density

Extensive properties those whose values depend

on the size or extent of the system: mass, volume
and total energy

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Criteria to Differentiate Intensive &
Extensive Properties

m m m Extensive
V properties
V V
T T T
P P P Intensive
properties

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Reversible & Irreversible Process

Reversible process- a process that can be reversed

without leaving any trace on the surroundings.
Irreversible process- a process that are not
reversible

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Reversible Processes
Definition:
processes which can be reversed without
affecting the environment.
The neat heat and net work exchange between
the system and surroundings is zero for the
combined process.
(Hypothetical process where system and
surroundings can be restored to the initial
state.)
Examples
Frictionless pendulum
Quasi-static boundary work

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 Irreversible Processes
Irreversible: Process that are not reversible. The surroundings do
some work on the system & does not return to the original state
all real processes are irreversible
Irreversibilities: factor that cause a process to be irreversible
irreversibilities occur due to
a) friction:
* friction causes heat transfer to the surroundings
* cannot use this lost energy to reverse the process
b) heat transfer (finite DT)
* cannot reverse the process without a heat pump
electricity required for heat pump would affect
the environment

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46
Internally/Externally Reversible Processes
Definitions:
- Internally reversible processes:
No irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of the
system during the process!
- Externally reversible processes:
No irreversibilities occur outside the boundaries of
the system during the process!
- Totally reversible processes:
Internally and externally reversible!

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 Examples
internally rev.
totally
& externally
gas @ 20oC reversible
gas @ 20oC irrev.
system
liquid @ 20oC boundary
liquid @ 20oC
@ 20oC

Q reservoir @ 20oC Q reservoir @ 30oC

internally irrev. & internally &

externally rev. externally
gas @ 20oC gas @ 20oC irrev.

system system
liquid @20oC liquid @ 20oC boundary
boundary
@ 30oC @ 25oC
Q reservoir @ 30oC Q reservoir @ 30oC
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Thermodynamics System of State
State: Condition of the system
characterised by the values of its properties
State of system: a set of properties that
completely describes the system condition

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Thermodynamics System of State
If the value of even one properties
changes, the state will change to a different
one

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 The state postulate

The number of properties required to

fix the state of a system given by a state
postulate

State postulate:
The state of a simple compressible
system is completely specified by
two independent, intensive
properties
Two properties are independent if The state of nitrogen is fixed
one property can be varied while by two independent intensive
the other one is held constant. properties
e.g.
Simple compressible system: T and v
If a system involves no electrical, T and P only independent in
magnetic, gravitational, motion, and single phase but not
surface tension effects multiphase
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 Thermodynamics Equilibrium

Equilibrium: no changes
A system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium
unless the conditions of all the relevant types
of equilibrium are satisfied

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 Thermal Equilibrium
Temperature is the same throughout the
entire system

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 Mechanical Equilibrium

(Related to pressure): a system is in mechanical

equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at
any point of the system with time.

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 Phase Equilibrium

Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two

phases, it is in phase equilibrium when the
mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium
level and stays there.

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 Chemical Equilibrium

Chemical composition does not change with

time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.

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 Processes and cycles

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final
states, as well as the path it follows and the interactions with the surroundings
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times

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 Process diagram

Process diagrams plotted by

employing thermodynamic
properties as coordinates
are very useful in visualizing
the processes.
Some common properties
that are used as coordinates
are temperature T, pressure
P, and volume V (or specific
volume v).

The P-V diagram of a

compression process

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 Constant properties type

The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a

particular property remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T
remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P remains
constant
Isochoric (or isometric): A process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are
identical. System returns to initial state at the end of process.

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 Steady-flow process

The term steady implies no

change with time. The opposite
of steady is unsteady or
transient. During a steady-flow
Steady-flow process: A process, fluid
properties within the
process during which a fluid control volume
flows through a control volume may change with
position but not with
steadily. time.
Engineering devices operate for
long periods of time under the
same condition = steady-flow
devices.
Under steady-flow
Turbines, pumps, boilers, conditions, the mass
condensers and heat exchangers and energy contents
of a control volume
or power plants or refrigeration remain constant.
systems = devices that are
intended for continuous
operation = steady-flow devices
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Exercise

An apple weighs 80 g and has a volume of 100 cm3 in a

refrigerator at 8oC. What is the apple density? List three
intensive and two extensive properties of the apple.

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Soln. 1

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 Exercise
1) The temperature of a system rises by 70oC during a heating process. Express this
rise in temperature in Kelvins.

2) What is the temperature of the heated air at 150oC in oF and R?

3) The pressure of a gas in a well-sealed vertical frictionless piston-cylinder device is to

be increased by adding a mass of 25 kg on the piston. If the diameter of the cylinder
is 14 cm, the increase in the pressure of the gas is. (Ans: 15.9 kPa)

4) A gas contained in a vertical, frictionless piston-cylinder device. The piston has a

mass of 3.2 kg and a cross sectional area of 35 cm2. A compressed spring above the
piston exerts a force of 150 N on the piston. Of the Atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
determine the pressure inside the cylinder. (Ans: 147 kPa)

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5) A pressure cooker cooks a lot faster than an ordinary pan by maintaining a higher
pressure and temperature inside. The lid of a pressure cooker is well sealed and
steam can escape only through an opening in the middle of the lid. A separate metal
piece, the petcock, sits on top of this opening and prevents steam from escaping until
the pressure force overcomes the weight of the petcock. The periodic escape of the
steam in this manner prevents any potentially dangerous pressure buildup and keeps
the pressure inside at a constant value. Determine the mass of the petcock of a
pressure cooker whose operation pressure is 100 kPa gauge and has an opening
cross sectional area of 4 mm2. Assume an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa and draw
the free body diagram of the petcock. (Ans: 40.8 g)

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 Lets Summarize
Thermodynamic system ~ system,
surrounding, boundary.
Types of thermodynamics system: open and
closed system.
Intensive and extensive properties
Thermodynamics equilibrium
Process and cycle
Steady-flow process
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The end.

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