136 Commwnicatiue Langwage Teaching
Imagine that you are working with your students on the function of
requesting information. The aurthentic material you have selected is a
railroad timetable. Design a communicative game or problem-solving
task in which the timetable is used to give your stuents practice in
requesting information.
Plan a role play to work on the same function as in Exercise 2.
REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Breen, Michael and christopher candlin. 1980.'The essentials of a com-
municative curriculum in language teaching.' Applied Linguistics 112:
89*112.
Brumfit, christopher and Keith Johnson (eds.). 1.979. The communica-
tiue Approach to Language Teaching. ox{ord: oxford university
d;t'D.l l. r97.1.'comperence and performance in ringuistic,t .ory,i,,
R. Huxley and E. Ingram (eds.). Langwage Acquisitlon: Models and
Methods. London: Academic press.
Johnson, Keith and Keith Morrow (eds.). 1981. commwnication in the
Clas sroom. Essex: Longman.
Lee, James F. and Bill van Patten. 1995. Making communicatiue Lan-
gudge Teacbing Happen. New york: McGraw-Hill.
Littlewood, \Milliam. 1981. commwnicatiue Language Teaching. cam-
bridge: Cambridge University press.
savignon, sandra. 1997. commwnicatiue competence: Tbeory and
Classroom Practice. (2nd edn.) New york: McGraw-Hill.
widdowson, H. G. 1978. Teacbing Langudge ds communication.
Oxford: Oxford University press.
Widdowson, H. G. 1990. Aspects of Langwage Teaching. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
widdowson, H. G. 199B.',Context, communit and authentic language.,
TESO L Quarterly 321 4: 7 O S-1 5.
wilkins, David A. 1 97 6. N otio nal sy llabws e s. oxford: oxford university
Press.
Yalden, Janice. 1987. The communicatiue syllabu.s. Englewood
cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Content-based,
Kffi Tasl<-based, and
Partici patory Ap p roach es
INTRODUCTON
In the previous chapter we had the opportunity of observing'a lesson in
which the Communicative Approach was implemented. In this chapter
we will be investigating three more approaches that make communica-
tion central: content-based instruction, task-based instruction, and the
participatory approach. The difference between these approaches, and
the one illustrated in the previous chapter, is a matter of their focus.
Recall that the CLT lesson centered on giving students opportunities to
practice using the communicative function of making predictions. The
approaches we examine in this chapter do not begin with functions, or
indeed, any other language items. Instead, they give priority to process
over predetermined linguistic content. In these approaches rather than
'learning to use English,'students'use English to learn it' (Howatt 1984:
279).Whlle the three approaches may seem different at first glance, they
have in common teaching through communication rather than for it.
Since we will be dealing with three approaches in this chapter, in the inter-
est of space, the lessons we will observe and their analyses will be brief.
CONTENT-BASED I NSTRUCTION
Using content from other disciplines in language courses is not a new
idea. For years, specialized language courses have included content rele-
vant to a particular profession or academic discipline. So, for example,
the content of a language course for airline pilots is different from one for
computer scientists. The special contribution of content-based instruc-
tion is that it integrates the learning of language with the learning of some
other content, often academic subject matter. It has been observed that
academic subjects provide natural content for language instruction. Such
observations motivated the 'language across the curriculum' movement
for native English speakers in England, which was launched in the 1,970s
to integrate the teaching of reading and writing into all other subject
138 Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches
areas. Of course, when students study academic subjects in a non-na
language, they will need a great deal of assistance in understanding su
ject matter texts; therefore, there must be clear language objectives as
well as content learning objectives. Because the language objectives are
dictated by the texts, content-based instrucrion rightfully fits in with the
other methods in this chapter where the selection and sequence of lan-
guage items arise from communicative needs, not predetermined syllabi.
Experiencel
Let us step into the classroom, where a sixth grade class in an interna-
tional school in Taipei is studying both geography and English through
content-based instruction. Most of the students are Chinese speakers, but
there are several native speakers of Japanese and a few Korean. The
teacher asks the students in English what a globe is. A few call out
'world.' Others make a circle with their arms. Others are silent. The
teacher then reaches under her desk and takes out a globe. She puts the
globe on her desk and asks the students what they know about it.
They call out answers enthusiastically as she records their answers on
$W
1This lesson is based on Gloria Cristelli (1,994): An Integrated, Content-based Cuniculum
for
Beginning Leuel English as a Second Language Learners of Middle School Age: Fowr Pilot
Units, anlndependent Professional Proiect, School for International Trainirr4.
Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches 1,39
the blackboard. fhen they have trouble explaining a concept, the
reacher supplies the missing language. Next, she distributes a handout
that she has prepared based on a video, 'understanding Globes.'The top
section on the handout is entitled Some uocabulary to know. Listed are
some key geographical terms used in the video. The teacher asks the stu-
derts to iirien as she reads the ten words: degree, distance, equdtor, globe,
h emisp h ere, imaginary, latitude, longitwde, mo del, p arallel.
Below this list is a modified cloze passage. The teacher tells the students
ro read the passage. They should fillin the blanks in the passage with the
new vocabulary where they are able to do so. After they are finished, she
shows them the video. As they watch the video, they filI in the remaining
blanks with certain of the vocabulary words that the teacher has read aloud'
The passage begins:
A is a three-dimensional of the earth.
Points of interest are located on a globe by using a system of
lines. For instance, the equator is an imaginary line that
divides the earth in half. Lines that are parallel to the equator are called
lines of . Latitude is used to measure on
the earth north and south ofthe equator ...
After the video is over, the smdents pair up to check their answers.
Next, the teacher calls attention to a particular verb pattern in the cloze
passage: are located, are called, is used, etc. She tells students that these
ur. eru-pl.s of the present passive, which they will be studying in this
lesson un or"t to come this week. She explains that the passive is used to
defocus the agent or doer of an action. In fact, in descriptions of the sort
that they have just read, the agent of the action is not mentioned at all.
The teacher then explains how latitude and longitude can be used to
locate any place in the world. She gives them seyeral examples. Then the
students use latitude and longitude co-ordinates to locate cities in other
countries. By stating 'This city is located at latitude 60o north and longi-
tude 11' east,'the teacher integrates the present passive and the content
focus at the same time. Hands go up. She calls on one girl to come to the
front of the room to find the city. She correctly points to Oslo, Norway on
the globe. The teacher provides a number of other examples.
Lter, the students play aguessing game. In small groups, they think of
rhe names of five cities. They then locate the city on the globe and write
down the latitude and longitude co-ordinates. Later, they read the co-
ordinates out loud and see if the other students can guess the name of the
city. The first group says: 'This city is located at latitude 5o north and lon-
gitude 74o west.' After several misses by their classmates, group 4 gets the
1,40 Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches 141

correct answer: Bogot. Group 4 then give the others new co-ordinates$ Observations Principles
'This city is located at 34" south latitude and 151" east longitude., The
7 Theteacher provides a number rhen they work with authentic
answer: Sydney!
of examples using the present subject matter) students need
passive with latitude and
For homework, the students are given a map and a description of Aus- language support. For instance,
tralia. They have to read the description and label the major cities and iongitude co-ordinates. the teacher may provide a number
points of interest on the map. of examples, build in some
redundanc use comPrehension
Thinking about the experience checks, etc.
Let us follow our customary procedure by listing our observations and
the principles that underlie them. g The students are given the Learners work with meaningful,
latitude and longitude co- cognitively demanding language
Observations Principles ordinates, and they have to and content within the context of
come to the front of the authentic material and tasks'
1 The class is studying geography. The subject matter content is used classroom to find the city on the
for Ianguage teaching purposes. globe.

2 The teacher asks the students
what they know about a globe.
3 The students call out their
answers enthusiastically as the
teacher writes them on the
blackboard.
4 The teacher supplies the missing
language when the students
have trouble in explaining a
concept in the target language.
5 The teacher reads the new
vocabulary and then the
students watch a video entitled
'Understanding Globes.'
6 The students fill in the
vocabulary words in the blanks
in the modified cloze passage as
they watch the video.
Teaching should build on srudents'
previous experience.
'\X/hen
learners perceive the
relevance of their language use,
they are motivated to learn. They
know that it is a means to an end,
rather than an end in itself.
The teacher'scaffolds' the
linguistic content, i.e. helps
learners say what it is they want
to say by building together with
the students a complete
utterance.
Language is learned most
effectively when it is used as a
medium to conyey informational
content of interest to the students.
Vocabulary is easier to acquire
when there are contextllal clues to
help convey meaning.
9 For homework, the students are Communicative competence
given a map, which they are to involves more than using language
iabel based on a descriptive conversationally. It also includes
reading they have been given. the ability to read, discuss, and
write about content from other
fields.
The lesson we have just observed might be considered a form of language
immersion, where academic subjects are learned through the medium of a
foreign language. In canada, successful second language immersion pro-
g.r-i, in which Anglophone children learn their academic subjects in
rerr.h, have existedloi-n.ry years. Snow has referred to content-based
instruction as a method with many faces. Another content-based instruc-
tion'face,' where content and language instruction have been integrated,
is the adjunct model. In the adiunct model, students enroll in a regular
academic course. In addition, they take a language course that is linked to
the academic course. Then, during the language class, the language
teacher's focus is on helping students process the language in order to
unclerstand the academic content presented by the subject teacher. The
language teacher also helps students to complete academic tasks such as
writing term papers, improving their note-taking abilities, and reading
rcademic textbooks assigned by the content teacher.
In sheltered-language instruction in a second language environment, a
thircl model of content-based instruction has been used. Both native
I42 Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approacbes
speakers and non-native speakers of a particular language follow a reSu,
Iar academic curriculum. For classes with non-native speakers, howeve
'sheltered'instruction is geared to students' developing second la
proficiency. Sheltered-language instructors support their students through
the use of particular instructional techniques and materials. It offers tho
significant advantage that second language students do not have to post.
pone their academic study until their language conrrol reaches a high
level. It follows that students are often highly motivated because they are
learning content that is relevant to the academic requirements of the pro-
grams in which they are enrolled.
Finall it should be noted that the focus need not be academic for these
same motivational benefits to be derived. For example, competency-
based instruction, an effective form ofcontent-based instruction for adult
immigrants, offers students an opportunity to develop their second lan-
guage skills at the same time that they are learning vital 'life-coping' or
'survival' skills such as filling out job applications or using the telephone,
In sum, what all models of content-based instruction have in common
is learning both specific content and related language skills. 'In content-
based language teaching, the claim in a sense is that students get "two for
sns"-b6fr content knowledge and increased language proficiency'
('Tesche 1993).
Before moving on, it would be worthwhile to briefly touch upon one
more approach here since its philosophy has much in common with oth-
ers presented in this chapter. Although it originated in classes for children
who speak English as a native language, the 7hole Language Approach
has often been used with second language learners as well. The 7ho1e
Language Approach, as the name suggests, calls for language to be
regarded holisticall rather than as pieces, i.e. the vocabulary words,
grammar structures and pronunciation points. Vhole Language educa-
tors believe that students learn best not when they are learning language
piece by piece, but rather when they are working to understand the mean-
ing of whole texts. In other words, students work from the 'top-down,'
attempting first to understand the meaning of the overall text before they
work on the linguistic forms comprising it. This conrrasrs with the 'bot-
tom-up' approach we have seen in other methods in this text, where stu-
dents learn a language piece by piece and then work to put the pieces in
place, constructing whole meaningful texts out of the pieces.
It is thought that the learning process will work best when students are
engaged in purposeful use of language, i.e. not learning linguistic forms
for their own sake. 'Therefore 7hole Language educators provicle con-
tent-rich curriculum where language and thinking can bc a[<tt inferest-
Content-based, Task--based, and Participatory Approdches I 4']
irrg and significant conrenr' (Edelsk Altwerger, and Flores 1991.: ll).
"hole Language educators see errors as paft of learning and they encouf-
ge st.rdenis to experiment with reading and writing to promote both
teir enjoym.rt ut d ownership. Further, lhole Language educators
.,l-rbrr. t. ideas of Vygotsky ( 1978 ) about the social nature of learning.
As a social process, it is assumed that learning is best served by collal-rora-
tion between teacher and students and among students'
For instance, one example of a technique to teach reading that fits with
principles of \X/hole Language is the Language Experience Approach' The
g"rr.r1 idea is that the texts students learn to read from are based upon
th. ,tod..rtr' life experiences. The students take turns dictating a story
rbout their experi.r-r..t to the teacher who writes it down in the target
language. Each student then practices reading his or her story with the
teacher's assistance. The Language Experience Approach applies the
principles of 7hole Language: the text is about content that is significant
to the^students, it is collaboratively produced, it is whole, and since it is
the student's story, the link between text and meaning is facilitated-
Two writing rechniques that fit well with rhole Language philosophy
are process ,r.ltirrg and ournal keeping. Traditionall when teachers
teacL writing, theyssign topics for students to write on, perhaps they do
a bit of brainstorming about rhe topic during a pre-writing phase, and
tl-ren have students write about the topic without interruption. Subse-
quently, teachers collect and evaluate what students have written. such
instrrctio.r is very 'product-oriented'; there is no involvement of the
teacher in the act or lrocess' of writing. In process writing, on the other
hand, students may i.tltiully brainstorm ideas about a topic and begin
writing, but then they have repeated conferences with the teacher and the
other students, during which they receive feedback on their writing up to
that point, make revisions, based on the feedback they receive, and carry
on writing. In this wa students learn to view their writing as someone
.lre,s reuJing and to improve both the expression of meaning and the
form of their writing as they draft and redraft.
Another way ro Legin working on literacy skills is to have students
keep dialog journals, technique that is widely practiced in the flhole
Lurrgrage pp.oa.h. The particular way that journals are used varies,
b.rt ssJrrtialiy it involves students writing in class or for homework regu-
larly, perhaps nfter each class or once a week. There may be a particular
f,r.r for the writing, such as the students' expressing their feelings for
how and what they are learning, but the writing might also be on any-
tlring that the student wishes to communicate to the teacher. Usually it
is th"e teacher wlrr> 'dizrlogs' with the student, i.e. is the audience for thc
 l.l4 Otmtent-ltts*l,'lhsk-based, and participatory Approaches Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches 145

j,rrrrral. 'l'hc tcrcher reads the student's journal entry and writ
r('sponse to it, but does not correct its form.
TAS K. BASE D I NSTRUCTON
As with content-based instruction, a task-based approach aims to pr
vide learners with a natural context for languag. ,r.. A, learners work
complete a task, they have abundant opportunity to interact. such in
action is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have
work to understand each other and to express their own meaning. By
doing, they have to check to see if they have comprehended .orr..Ily
at times, they have to seek clarification. By interacting with others, t
get to listen to language which may be beyond their present abilit b
which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the iarget languale f
use at alater time. As candlin and Murphy (1987:1)note,'The centr
purpose we are concerned with is language learning, and tasks present
this.in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowlejge that
the learner holds and new knowledge.,
.ls that correct?' the teacher asks. 'Correct!' the students chorus back'
.\x/hat about Saturday? Do we have school on Saturday?'The students
.No ... holiday.' The teacher responds, 'Holiday. Yes. sat-
rcply in unison,
rurday's a holiday.'
Nxr the teacher divides the class into eight groups of five students.
liach student in a group receives a cardwith the schedule for one day of
tlre week. The students'task is to complete the week's schedule by sharing
tlre information on their cards with each other. There is much discussion
Irs each group works to draw up a full schedule. As she moves about the
room lis=tening to the groups, the teacher reminds the class to speak in
linglish. The first group that is finished comes to the blackboard and
writes the schedule on the board.

Experience
The following lesson is one that has been adapted and expanded from
Prabhu (1987).It takes place in southern India. The class consists of 40
ten-year-old children who are advanced beginners in English. As we enter
the classroom, the teacher is speaking:
'7e are going to do a lesson today on timetables. OK?,

The teacher draws the columns and rows of a class timetable on the
blackboard. At the head of the first column, she writes 9:30-10:15. The
students understand that the teacher has written the duration of the first
class period of the day.
'7hat should I write here?' asks the reacher, pointing to the head of the
second column. The students respond, 'Ten fifteen.' And then .Eleven
o'clockr' as the teacher moves her finger across the top row. The teacher
points in turn to the top of each column and the students chorus the time
that each class period begins and ends.
Then the teacher asks: '7ho will write rhe names for the days of the week
here?' several students raise their hands. The teacher calls on one. ,come,,
she says. The student she has called on comes to the front of the room, takes
the chalk, and writes the names of each weekday beside each row; Mon-
day to Frida correcl as rhe resr of the class helps with the spellng.
After the students have checked their work, the teacher collects each
group's timetable so she can read it and return it to them the next day. She
checks their timetables mainly to see that the content is correct.
Next, still working in their groups, the students are told that they are to
way to survey their classmates' preferences of their favorite school
fir-rd a
subjects. They must find out which are the three most popular subjects
,-rrg class members. Each group is to discuss ways they might find out
the information. They might design a questionnaire, for instance, or go
aror,rncl the room interviewing other students. After they have completed