Water Analysis Lab Report

Name: Ashlee Miller

I.D #: 814000501
Course Code: CVNG 3007
Course Title: Environmental Engineering
Date Performed: 05/10/2016
Date submitted: 19/10/2016
Group Members Name: Michael Cunningham
Andrew Redon

Cover Page 2
Table of Contents 0
Abstract 2
Objectives 2
Introduction 3
Theory 3
Experimental Procedure/ Methodology 3
Observations and Results 10
Discussion 10
Conclusion 3
Appendix 0
Questions 10
References 2
Total Marks 50

Signature: __________________
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Theory ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Total and Fecal Coliform (MF Technique) ................................................................................. 6
Jar Test ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Coagulation and Flocculation ................................................................................................. 6
Source Determination ................................................................................................................. 7
pH............................................................................................................................................ 7
Chlorine Residual (Total and Free)......................................................................................... 7
Chloride................................................................................................................................... 7
Hardness .................................................................................................................................. 7
Alkalinity ................................................................................................................................ 8
Experimental Methodology ............................................................................................................ 9
Methodical Changes.................................................................................................................... 9
Observations and Results ................................................................................................................ 9
Total and Fecal Coliform Test .................................................................................................... 9
Jar Test ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Source Determination ............................................................................................................... 11
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 15
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Sample Calculations.................................................................................................................. 16
Questions....................................................................................................................................... 18
References ..................................................................................................................................... 20

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Abstract
The Water Analysis Lab was a lengthy but beneficial lab, where the quality of water from
different water sources was analysed and tested. To accurately conduct these analysis, three
different tests were conducted. The Total and Fecal Coliform Test was used to analyse the amount
of pathogens that may be present within the water source. The more coliform colonies present, the
least safe the water would be. The second test conducted was the Jar Test which was carried out
to find the optimal dosage of alum solution required to obtain proper coagulation and flocculation
within the solution. The higher the coagulation, the lower the turbidity. The aim is to achieve a
low amount of turbidity, while using as little alum solution as possible, due to the fact that the
process would be costly if the solution is over used. The final experiment was the Source
Determination Test which sook to find unknown water sources of X, Y and Z due to the properties
obtained.

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Objectives

The main objectives of the Water Analysis Lab are to evaluate the different processes that can
be used to determine the properties of water being distributed from water sources. Each method of
testing will be understood by the end of the experiment and the uses of these tests. Analysis carried
out seeks to determine the amount of contaminants present and whether the quality of the water
being distributed from that particular water source is up to the required standards. In the event that
the water is not up to standard, the experiment also seeks to show ways in which treatment can be
carried out. Another objective is to determine the unknown sources for samples X, Y and Z due to
the water properties observed.

Introduction

According to two knowledgeable authors, in the book Introduction to Environmental

Engineering (Mines and Lackey 2009) under the topic of Importance of Water, it states that the
quality and quantity of water have long been a major concern of every civilization. Water is an
essential component of life. Humans did not always recognize the connection between disease and
impure water. It is assumed that if water tasted good, it was safe to drink. Early treatment systems
focused on removing taste and odor contaminants, thereby making the water safe. As technology
developed, people were able to see the microorganisms in water, measure their contamination, and
link them to diseases.

The two authors were accurate in stating that technology has indeed developed and in todays
world, we are well able to conduct tests where the microorganisms in water can be seen to
determine the possibly water causing diseases that may be present with the source. Within the
Water Analysis Lab, we will be conducting three (3) major tests, where there would be an analysis
of different water qualities at distinct water sources. The tests which are used to determine the
properties of the water are the Total and Fecal Coliform Method, the Jar Test and the Source
Determination which is subdivided into separate five sections. The subdivisions for the Source
Determination are the determination of the pH at each water source, the analysis of the total and

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fecal coliform residual, the effectiveness of the presence of the chloride, determination of the water
hardness and finally the alkalinity present within the supply.

It is most important to investigate the presence of large amounts of coliform bacteria within a water
supply to be able to prevent diseases. When great quantities of coliforms are identified, this
indicates that there may be other pathogenic bacteria such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium within
the water source (B. Oram). To carry out these investigations, test #1 (Total and Fecal Coliform
Method) is required.

In the event that large amounts of coliform are present within the source, there would be a need
for treatment. However, water treatment can be very costly, especially when there is over dosage
of treatment solution in the coagulation process. In order to reduce cost and sustain good water
quality, the Jar Test (test #2) can be used. This is a very beneficial test and for that reason, it must
be conducted.

The source determination test (test #3) as the name suggests is conducted in order to determine
where the water was obtained due to the different qualities attained from the tests which will be
carried out. The samples are identified as X, Y and Z, and it is known that either of them could
have been sourced from groundwater, surface water or sea water. The location of each sample
will be identified in the observations and results section.

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Theory
Total and Fecal Coliform (MF Technique)
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines total coliform as a group of related
bacteria that are not harmful to humans. They go on to say that the total coliforms are useful
indicators of other pathogens in drinking water and they are used to determine the adequacy of
water treatment and the integrity of the distribution system.

Majority of fecal coliform bacteria likewise total coliform bacteria is not harmful to humans,
however, some of the bacteria are pathogenic which causes diseases such as gastroenteritis, ear
infections, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A, and cholera (L. Jolley and W. English). Therefore, the
test is used to evaluate the quantity of fecal coliform present in the water source to evaluate the
amount of treatment required.

Jar Test
In 1993, National Environmental Service Centers engineer wrote that by performing jar tests,
you can try alternative treatment doses and strategies without altering the performance of the full-
scale treatment plant (Z. Satterfield). The analysis of these dosages and strategies would be used
to determine the amount of alum solution required to for samples to be able to obtain a proper
coagulation and flocculation standard to ensure good treatment.

Coagulation and Flocculation

Particles within an untreated water sample would tend to be very fine, making the process of
filtration unnecessary due to the fact that the particles would pass quite easily through the filter.
Additionally, due to the small density of these particles, their settling time would be very long,
which results in a very time consuming sedimentation process. For this reason, the process of
coagulation is carried out. Coagulation is used to destabilized the negatively charged particles to
allow for the combination or clumping of the particles as the alum solution is applied. Flocculation
step in when the alum solution is mixed evenly throughout the sample. As the time of stirring
increases, the sizes of the clumped particles also increases, making it easy to see with the naked
eye. The processes of removal of the initially small particles now become much easier.

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Source Determination
There are five sub-stages in the source determination process. These are:

pH
The determination of the pH value of a sample allows us to note how acidic or alkaline that specific
sample may be. The values range from 0-14. Zero (0) being the most acidic, seven (7) being neutral
and fourteen (14) being the most alkaline

Chlorine Residual (Total and Free)

The residual chlorine is defined the amount of chlorine which remains in the water after a certain
period or contact time. The total and free residual chlorine are tested in the lab and the combine
chlorine can be calculated in the sample calculations. This test is for treated water which is to be
distributed to the community because too must chlorine is not allowed to be distributed, the
distribution of too must chlorine within the water system can cause health hazards.

Chloride
The presence of chloride in water systems generally occurs when there is salt water intrusion, road
salt runoff and sewage runoffs. This type of water is not potable and would cause damage to
appliances. Additionally, it also causes toxic metal to be present within the water. Therefore, the
higher the chloride in the water, the worse it would be for potable purposes.

Hardness
The hardness of water is developed by metals such as calcium, magnesium and many others. The
general guideline for the classification of the hardness of water are:

Conc. of calcium Classification

carbonate (mg/L)
0 - 60 Soft
61 120 Moderately Hard
121 - 180 Hard
< 180 Very Hard

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Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water may be defined as the capacity to neutralize acid. It occurs when one or
more ions are present such as hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates etc. A great amount of ions
(ranging from 0 to 50) are found in natural supplies. The amount of alkalinity in water supplies
should not be in large contents. Water sources containing large percentages of alkalinity would not
be advised for drinking purposes. The presence of alkaline in water is used to reduce corrosion due
to the effect of acid on the pipe lines.

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Experimental Methodology
Methodical Changes
Jar Test

1L of the sample river water was placed in six (6) 1L beaker.

Afterwards, the volumes of 1000mg/L alum solution were approximated using the equation
Calum Valum = Cjar Vjar. These values were then used to give specific concentrations of solution
in each jar.

Observations and Results

Total and Fecal Coliform Test
Sample Water Source Volume of Total Fecal Total Coliform Fecal Coliform
Colonies for Colonies for
Sample /ml Coliform Coliform (100mL) (100mL)
A Treated Lab Tap 100 0 0 0 0
Water

B Treated River Water 50 0 0 0 0

25 0 0 0 0

C Untreated Bottle 1a 0.1 TNCT TNCT TNCT TNCT

River Bottle 1b 0.01 TNCT 66 TNCT 6.6 x 105
Water Bottle 2a 0.001 34 2 3.4 x 106 2.0 x 105
Bottle 2b 0.0001 7 1 7.0 x 106 1.0 x 106
Bottle 3 0.0001 0 1 0 1.0 x 106
Table 1: Showing the laboratory results for the Total and Fecal Coliform Test

Bottle 1a
Bottle 1a
Bottle 1b
Bottle 1b
Bottle 2a
Bottle 2a
Bottle 2b
Bottle 2b
Bottle 3
Bottle 3

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Jar Test
Alum Dosage Volume of Alum Floc Observation Turbidity pH
mg/L Added, ml NTU
0 0 Low flocculation, high turbidity 281 7.39
10 1 Low flocculation, high turbidity 270 7.01
30 3 Low flocculation, high turbidity 284 6.55
40 4 Low flocculation, high turbidity 294 6.55
50 5 Low flocculation, high turbidity 255 6.33
60 6 Med. flocculation, mod. turbidity 250 6.28
70 7 Med. flocculation, mod. turbidity 178 6.07
80 8 Med. flocculation, mod. turbidity 120 6.01
90 9 High flocculation, low turbidity 83 5.83
100 10 High flocculation, low turbidity 69 5.75
110 11 High flocculation, low turbidity 28 5.51
120 12 High flocculation, low turbidity 27 5.53
Table 2: Showing results obtained for the Jar Test

Graph 1: Showing Alum Dosage vs. Final Turbidity

350
300
Final Turbidity, NTU

250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Alum Dosage mg/L

Graph 2: Showing Alum Dosage vs. pH

8

7.5

7
pH

6.5

5.5

5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Alum Dosage, mg/L

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Source Determination
Sample Hardness Alkalinity Chloride Total Free Combine pH
(mg/ L) (mg/ L) (mg/ L) Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
Titre Hardness Titre Alkalinity Titre Chloride
Value Value Value Value Value Value
X 2.20 88 3.80 38 1.35 27 0.43 0.27 0.16 6.79

Y 6.20 248 15.10 151 4.30 86 1.61 1.52 0.09 6.93

Z 0.10 4 1.50 15 2.10 25 0.36 0.23 0.13 7.02

Table 3: Showing the results obtained in the laboratory from the subtopics of the Source Determination
Test

Graph 3: Showing Analysis of All Properties for Water Sources

X, Y and Z
250

200

150

100

50

0
X Y Z

Hardness Alkalinity Chloride Total Res. Chlorine Ph

*NB: All sample calculations are clearly shown in the appendix.

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Discussion
The Water Analysis Lab consists of a number of laboratory experiments, used to evaluate specific
properties of water, from different water sources. The laboratory experiments carried out are: The
Total and Fecal Coliform (MF) Method, The Jar Test and finally a Source Determination Test,
where the properties of water are analysed and the unknown sources of the water samples are
identified. From each experiment carried out, an analysis is done.

In the analysis of the results obtained from the Total and Fecal Coliform Test using the Membrane-
filtration MF Technique, we are able to note alot of details about samples A, B and C. Sample
A was a treated sample, obtained from tap water. Therefore, before test was carried out, it was
assumed that this sample would contain no signs of pathogens. In table 1, we see that the theoretical
assumption and the experimental results go hand-in-hand. The treated sample was pathogen free.
Additionally, sample B was a treated sample, sourced from the river and the same assumption
was made as with sample A. Likewise sample A, results in table one (1) showed that sample
B contained no signs of coliform colonies, therefore this was also noted to be a pathogen free
sample.

However, sample C stood alone as an untreated sample. With that being said, sample C is
expected to be filled with coliform colonies and categorised as unsafe. This section of the test for
total and fecal coliform was done using the serial dilution technique, where 1ml of the sample was
placed in 100ml of dilution and placed in bottle 1, then an additional 1ml was placed in bottle 2
and diluted and the process continued as shown in table 1. From these results, we observe that the
sample in bottle 1 is the most filled with total and fecal coliform colonies, as expected. This is due
to the fact that bottle 1 would have the highest concentration of the untreated river water sample,
therefore containing the highest amount of pathogens.

We would also recognize that bottle 1b also contains a large amount of pathogens. Even though
the water has been diluted, a large amount of the untreated river water concentration still remains,
therefore allowing a high majority of pathogens to remain. For the total coliform colonies in bottle
3, there are no signs of pathogen. This is the expected result, however, in the fecal coliform
colonies, the results did not decrease as expected. This may be due to the presence of errors as the
samples were incubated. The oven was unintentionally left open overnight, resulting in a decrease
in required incubation temperature, which would cause errors in the formation of colonies.

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Samples A and B would be considered bacteriologically safe according to EPA standards.
However, sample C would not be considered as bacteriologically safe due to the fact that so many
pathogens are present within the water. It would only be considered as bacteriologically safe after
it has a concentration of 0.0001mg/l of the untreated sample and the total coliform colonies appear
to be zero (0). However, due to the fact that the experiment shows that there are still fecal coliform
colonies that may be present, it is not advised for potable use. Therefore, we will only consider
samples A and B to be bacteriologically safe.

The Jar Test was the second experiment conducted. This test is used to determine the amount of
coagulant or alum dosage required to remove turbidity from the laboratory sample, so as to related
that amount back to the quantity of water in the plant and calculate the correct amount of coagulant
required for removal of turbidity in the treatment plant. The alum dosage in the samples ranged
from 0-120mg/L as seen in table 2. It is observed that the initial sample had a very high turbidity
level, with little/ no signs of flocculation. As the alum dosages in the samples increased, the
coagulation increased and with time, the flocculation also increased, along with a decrease in
turbidity decreased as expected.

As explained in the theory, the coagulation would increase as the alum dosage increased due to
the fact that the alum dosage is destabilizing the negatively charged particles, and as more dosage
is applied, more particles are destabilized and with time, more the particle sizes increases. The
larger sized particles would result in clearer water (lower turbidity) and a faster sedimentation
process. One unexpected value occurred as an alum dosage of 40mg/l was applied to the sample
(shown in graph 1: this was the optimal dosage acquired), where an increasing turbidity of 294NTU
was obtained instead of a value below 28NTU. This may have occurred due to faulty mixing of
the sample. Additionally, in the analysis of the pH values for the Jar Test, it tells us that the
solution was originally a neutral solution, and as the alum concentration increases, it goes toward
a more acidic solution.

In the Source Determination Test, the properties are recorded in table 3, and the unknown water
sources for X, Y and Z are to be determined. From Graph 3, a combined analysis of all the
properties of the water sources X, Y and Z can be done. It is observed that sample Y, has the
highest; hardness value, alkalinity value, chloride value and total chloride residual value. Sample
Y is followed by sample X and then sample Z. From these records, samples X, Y and Z can be

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identified to be ground water, sea water and surface water respectively. This is due to the fact that
sample Y contains the highest amount of chloride, meaning that it contains the greatest amount of
salt amongst the two other samples. Surface water would contain more salt than ground water,
making sample Z surface water and X ground water. Additionally, sample Y was highest in the
amount of alkalinity present in the water, showing that large amounts of carbonates and
bicarbonates are present within the source, and we know that this would be most dominant in sea
water, followed by surface water, then ground water.

The processes required to treat samples X, Y and Z (ground, surface and seawater) for potable use,
different process must be used due to the different qualities of the water. The treatment of
groundwater for potable use would require the least treatment out of the three water source. This
is due to the fact that groundwater is less prone to contaminant and pollutants, unlike seawater and
surface water, which are affected heavily by their environment. However, they are still affected
by some contaminants such as iron, manganese and arsenic which is found in rocks. Also, due to
gasoline contaminating the water system, oil, chemical compounds and soil salts.

The groundwater treatment process would involve the removal of the contaminants through a
microfiltration membrane system because the existing particle sizes would be very small. The first
stage would remove the iron and manganese where a process of oxidation would be used to allow
the dissolved metals to form into particulate which would then be able to go through he filtration
process. The second stage would be to remove the arsenic, which can be removed using
coagulation and membrane filtration. Just like stage one, and oxidation process can be used to
change arsenite to arsenate for the process of coagulation and filtration to be carried out.

Surface water (sample Z) is generally treated through the process of coagulation and flocculation,
then it goes through the sedimentation process, the through filtration and it is finally disinfected.
In the treatment of seawater (sample Y) has to go through a desalination process. This process is
for obvious reasons. There are also impurities that are present within seawater such as algae,
organics and fine particles. The desalination process usually occurs in the form of microfiltration
which is then followed by reverse osmosis. These process would result in potable water.

During the lab, the assumption was made that the mixing of the samples was constant while doing
the Jar Test. Turbidity errors may have occurred due to the presence of finger prints on the jar
when placed in the machine. This could have caused the discrepancies in graph 1 when the 40mg/l

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dosage of alum was applied and the turbidity level of increased instead of decrease. Additionally,
the observation of the flocculation may have been not have been accurate, because it was recorded
due to the opinion of the observer.

Conclusion
In conclusion, we have recognized that the Water Analysis Lab is one of one of the most
important lab that can be done. In conducting the Total and Fecal Coliform Test, we have seen
that samples A and B are pure samples which can be used as potable water, whereas, sample C
cannot due to the presence of fecal and total coliform within the water source. In the jar test, we
have observed the optimal dosage to be 40mg/l. When the alum solution was applied to the samples
with an increasing value from 0- 120mg/l, the turbidity obtained a decreasing range from 281-
27NTU. For the Source Determination Test, X, Y and Z were evaluated to be groundwater,
seawater and surface water respectfully.

We were able to analyse the processes used to treat ground water, seawater and surface water. It
was stated that groundwater is treated through oxidation, then filtration to allow removal of the
iron and manganese present within the water source, which is then followed by coagulation and
membrane filtration. In the treatment of seawater, it goes through a desalination process and
surface water treatment takes the form of a normal water treatment process, where it is takes
through coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection.

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Appendix
Sample Calculations

For Total and Fecal Coliforms

#
Coliform colonies for 100ml of sample = * 100

66
Fecal coliform colonies for 100ml of Sample C = * 100 = 660,000ml
0.01
= 6.6 x 105 ml

34
Total coliform colonies for 100ml of Sample C = * 100 = 3400,000ml
0.001
= 3.4 x 106 ml

For Jar Test

Volume of Alum Required per Jar
C alum x V alum = C jar x V jar Where: C- Concentration
10, 000 x V alum = 40 x 1000 V- Volume
V alum = 4mL

For Source Determination

Titre value 1000 2.20 1000
= Vol of sample tested = 25
= 88 mg/L of CaCO3

Titre value 0.0250000 3.80 0.0250000

= = =38mg/L of CaCO3
Vol of sample tested 100

Titre value 500 1.35 500

= Vol of sample tested = = 27 mg/L of Cl-
25

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 CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY RISK ASSESSMENT

Students Name: Laboratory:

Date: Experiment:

Emergency of Phone Location: Name of First Aider:

Number to call for help: Is the First Aider present?
Location of fire alarm: Escape route:
Location & type of fire extinguisher: Assembly:

HAZARD SEVERITY RISK RISK LEVEL PREVENTION EMERGENCY RESPONSE

List anything that might cause How severe How likely is it Multiply the How can things be
people harm (a) in the lab, and (b) would the to happen? (1 Severity score changed so that this
for this experiment; also describe injury be (1 = = unlikely, 5 = by the Risk hazard is less severe,
who will be harmed slight, 5 = very likely) score or less likely to
fatal) happen?

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Questions

1) The rationale for testing all water supplies for coliforms as stated in the theory and
discussion, is to be able to check the integrity of the water which is to be distributed into
the community, or even check water which is already accessible by the community to see
how safe it is for potable use. Water is susceptible to contamination in a great number of
ways and for this reason, these checks must be done. The presence of coliforms within the
water source, would stand as an indicator to tell the experimenter that pathogens are present
within the system. Pathogen are not harmful to humans, however the bacteria which may
be present can be life threatening. These bacteria may cause diseases such as
gastroenteritis, ear infections, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A, and cholera. In conducting
the Total and Fecal Coliform Test for samples A, B and C as shown in table 1, a 0.001ml
value of dilution is obtained by placing 1ml of sample C into bottle 1 which contains 100ml
of dilution, then place the 1ml of diluted solution from bottle 1 into bottle 2 and then
another 1ml of dilution from bottle 2 into bottle 3.

2) The Water Quality Index (WQI) is a graph

used to determine the quality of water when
tests are carried out. The range goes from
0-100 and the higher the value acquired
within the range, the better the water
quality is shown to be. From the results
obtained for the fecal coliforms present
within Sample C, the Q-value obtain using
the WQI is shown to be 2.0. This is due to
the fact that the fecal coliform colonies
range from 200,000 and continues to
increase. The WQI states that when the
FC> 100,100, the Q-value is equal to 2.0.
This can be seen on the graph below. The
Q-values for samples A and B would be 96 due to the fact that they have 0 fecal coliforms.
 Graph 4: Showing the Water Quality Index
3) It is important to prevent high turbidity levels in water courses for surface water due to the
fact that although the presence of high turbidity levels does not necessarily mean that the
water is contaminated or unsafe for use, it is still not accepted by users. The removal of
high turbidity levels within the water source is mainly to satisfy the person using it and
also to remove the fine particles to make it more acceptable for potable use. In the minds
on persons who are unaware of the processes of water treatment, they believe that the
clearer the water, the safer is may be, and are thus satisfied which cleaner looking, clearer
water. As it relates to the high turbidity levels of ground water, turbidity can be present due
to the fine clay particles entering the water stream. Because clay particles are so fine, the
processes required for turbidity removal would be microfiltration and coagulation.

4) The optimal alum dosage for Water A and B are shown to be 10mg/l for both samples. The
optimal dosages obtained in the Jar Test as shown in graph 1, was 40mg/l. The residual
turbidity level obtained was 294 NTU, whereas, the turbidity in Water A and B as shown
in graphs 5 and 6, was between 20- 25NTU. These two plots simple show that the sample
used contained fewer finely grained particles that than the sample used in the laboratory.

Graph 5: Showing Coagulant Dosage vs. Residual Graph 6: Showing Coagulant Dosage vs. Residual
Turbidity for Water Sample A Turbidity for Water Sample B

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References
o Mr. Brian Oram. Drinking Water and Other Waters Bacterial Testing. Total and Fecal
Coliform Testing.
http://www.water-research.net/index.php/water-testing/bacteria-testing/fecal-coliform-
bacteria
o Zane Satterfield. Jar Testing.
http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/pdf/dw/publications/ontap/2009_tb/jar_testing_DWFSOM73.p
df
o Drinking Water Treatment. Coagulation.
http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module03/WastewaterRegulations.htm
o US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Drinking Water Requirements for States and
Public Water Systems. Revised Total Coliform Rule and Total Coliform Rule.
https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/revised-total-coliform-rule-and-total-coliform-rule#rule-
summary
o Louwanda Jolley and William English, Clemson University. Extension Forestry and
Natural Resources. What is Fecal Coliform? Why is it Important?
http://www.clemson.edu/extension/natural_resources/water/publications/fecal_coliform.h
tml
o Residual Chlorine. URL: https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/978/residual-
chlorine
o Sodium Chloride in Water. URL: https://www.freshwatersystems.com/s-277-sodium-
chloride-in-water.aspx
o APEC Water. Alkalinity of Drinking Water.
URL: https://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education2/74-alkalinity-water.htm
o Richard Mines and Laura Lackey. Introduction to Environmental Engineering
o US Environmental Protection Agency. Table of Regulated Drinking Water Contaminant
https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/table-regulated-drinking-water-
contaminants
o Pall Corporation. Groundwater Treatment.
http://www.pall.com/main/water-treatment/groundwater-treatment-40773.page
o Pall Corporation. Desalination.
http://www.pall.com/main/water-treatment/desalination-40778.page?

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