Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College

Ludhiana

MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT AND METROLOGY

Submitted To
Er. Rupinder Singh
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering
Submitted By
D3 ME B2
Ragesh Ranjan(1507858)
Raj Kumar Gupta(1507860)
Sonu Kumar(1508201)

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 MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT AND METROLOGY
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
(1)Absolute Instruments:
Example:Tangent galvanometer, Rayleighs current, absolute electrometer
Tangent galvanometer
Tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for small electric currents. It consists of a coil of
insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. Its working is based on the principle of the
tangent law of magnetism. When a current is passed through the circular coil, a magnetic field (B) is
produced at the center of the coil in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The TG is arranged
in such a way that the horizontal component of earths magnetic field (Bh) is in the direction of the plane
of the coil. The magnetic needle is then under the action of two mutually perpendicular fields. If is the
deflection of the needle, then according to tangent law,

Let I is the current passing through the coil of radius a with n turns, then the field generated by the
current carrying circular coil is,

Equating (1) and (2), we get,

The left hand side of equation (4) is a constant and is called the reduction factor (K) of the given tangent
galvanometer.

Now from equation (3) & (5), the horizontal intensity of earths magnetic field Bh is,

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Procedure for performing simulator
1. The Initial set up button helps to adjust the apparatus to be in the magnetic meridian. The apparatus
to do the experiment will be fully active only after doing the preliminary adjustment.

2. A zoomed view of the compass box will be displayed then. Then the slider Rotate compass box will be
active. Using this slider, make the 90-90 of the compass box parallel to the plane of the coil.
3. If this adjustment is correct, the Rotate apparatus slider will become active. Then adjust the slider to
make the aluminium pointer reads 0-0.

4. Now the preliminary adjustments are over. Then go to the whole apparatus set up using the Show
normal button provided in the simulator.

5. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram provided in the simulator. The connection wires
will appear when a hand symbol appears at the terminals of each component.

6. When the connections are over, the Insert key button will be active, which enables the user to close
the circuit.

7. Using the combo box Number of turns of the coil, one can select the desired T.G with different
number of turns.

8. The slider Radius of the coil enables one to change the radius of the coil. Then, the current in the coil
is adjusted using the slider Adjust rheostat. The corresponding current will be displayed in the ammeter.

9. For a particular value of current, note the readings on the compass box. The button Zoom Compass
Box in the simulator enables the user to view the zoomed view of the compass box. Then reverse the
direction of the current through the circuit using the Reverse Current button. Note down the readings.

10. Repeat the same for different values of current. Then calculate the reduction factor of the tangent
galvanometer using the equations provided in the procedure.

11. To check the obtained result, a Show Result option is provided. On clicking this button, the result will
be displayed.

12. Reset button enables the user to reset the whole experimental set up.

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Absolute electrometer
An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric charge or electrical potential difference.
There are many different types, ranging from historical handmade mechanical instruments to high-
precision electronic devices.

One of which are coulombs electrometer

Fig. Absolute electrometer

Working principle and procedure

This design uses torsion to give a measurement more sensitive than repulsion of gold leaves or cork-balls.
It consists of a glass cylinder with a glass tube on top. In the axes of the tube is a glass thread, the lower
end of this holds a bar of gum lac, with a gilt pith ball at each extremity. Through another aperture on the
cylinder, another gum lac rod with gilt balls may be introduced. This is called the carrier rod.

If the lower ball of the carrier rod is charged when it is entered into the aperture, this will repel one of the
movable balls inside. An index and scale (not pictured) is attached to the top of the twistable glass rod.
The number of degrees twisted to bring the balls back together is in exact proportion of the amount of
charge of the ball of the carrier rod.

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(2)Secondary instruments
Examples: Glass thermometer and pressure gauge
Working and principle of glass thermometer
A liquid-in-glass thermometer is the simplest and most commonly employed type of temperature
measurement device. It is one of the oldest thermometers available in the industry. It gives fairly accurate
results within the temperature range of -2 to 0C. No special means are needed to measure temperature
via these thermometers. One can read temperature readings easily with human eyes. They find their use
in variety of applications such as medicine, metrology and industry. The foremost liquid-in-glass
thermometer was introduced in the year 1650 in which the liquid filled in was spirit from wine. Later on,
more linear thermometers were developed with the use of mercury as a liquid inside the thermometer.

Fig. Glass thermometer

Working and principle of pressure gauge

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are the most frequently used mechanical pressure measuring instruments.
Their pressure element is often referred to as a Bourdon tube: The French engineer Eugene Bourdon made
use of this functional principle in the middle of the 19th century. It is based on an elastic spring, a c-
shaped, bent tube with an oval cross-section. When the internal space of the Bourdon tube is pressurized
the cross-section is thus altered towards a circular shape. The hoop stresses that are created in this
process increase the radius of the c-shaped tube. As a result, the end of the tube moves by around two or
three millimeter. This deflection is a measure of the pressure. It is transferred to a movement, which turns
the linear deflection into a rotary movement and, via a pointer, makes this visible on a scale.

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(3) Analog Instruments
Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter
Principle and working of ammeter:
As we know a word "meter" associated with the measurement. Meter is an instrument which can measure
a particular quantity. we know, the unit of current is Ampere. Ammeter means Ampere-meter which
measures ampere value. Ampere is the unit of current so an ammeter is a meter or an instrument which
measures current.

Working Principle of Ammeter

The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low resistance and also inductive reactance.
Now, why do we need this? Can't we connect an ammeter in parallel? The answer to this question is it has
very low impedance because it must have very low amount of voltage drop across it and must be
connected in series connection because current is same in the series circuit. Also due to very low
impedence the power loss will be low and if it is connected in parallel it becomes almost a short circuited
path and all the current will flow through ammeter as a result of high current the instrument may burn. So
due to this reason it must be connected in series. For an ideal ammeter, it must have zero impedance so
that it has zero voltage drop across it so the power loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not
achievable practically.

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Procedure of ammeter and voltmeter
a. Set up the circuit shown. Turn the power supply up until the potential difference across the lamp is
12 V (the normal operating voltage).

b. Take readings of the potential difference and current.

c. Calculate the resistance of the lamp at its running temperature.

d. Now, for several different values of potential difference measure the current through the lamp. Plot
a graph of your results; this graph is known as the voltage-current characteristic of the lamp.

e. Replace the lamp in the circuit with the resistor. Repeat the experiment and calculate its resistance.
Take sufficient readings to allow you to plot the voltage current characteristic.

(4)Digital Instrument
Example: odometer of an automobile, timer on a scoreboard
Principle and working of odometer
Odometer works with their worm gears .The input shaft is connected to the worm and it rotates the gear
and similarly gear reduction happens in all there worm gears.

The output of the worm gear rotates the odometer's ten's place. This in turn the previous place values
every ten rotation completion. The digital odometers are more accurate and cost less.

Principle and working of timer on a scoreboard

A scoreboard is a large board for publicly displaying the score in a game. Most levels of sport from high
school and above use at least one scoreboard for keeping score, measuring time, and displaying
statistics. Scoreboards in the past used a mechanical clock and numeral cards to display the score. When
a point was made, a person would put the appropriate digits on a hook. Most modern scoreboards use
electromechanical or electronic means of displaying the score. In these, digits are often composed of
large dot-matrix or seven-segment displays made of incandescent bulbs, light-emitting diodes, or
electromechanical flip segments. An official or neutral person will operate the scoreboard, using a control
panel.

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(5)MECHANICAL INSTRUMENT
Example: Vernier calliper, Micrometer
Vernier calliper:
The Vernier scale works on the principle of using alignment of line segments displaced by a small
amount to make fine measurements. Human eye can easily detect this alignment of lines which is the
main fact that drives a Vernier. A vernier scale has a main scale and a scale. ... Now say you need to
measure 5 mm.

Procedure:
1. We'll first determine the constant (VC), which is the least count (L.C) of the calliper and record it
stepwise as in the equation, L.C = 1 MSD - 1 VSD.
2. Now, bring the movable jaw in close contact with the fixed jaw and find the zero error. Do this three
times and record the values. If there is no zero error, then record 'zero error nil'.
3. Open the jaws of the Vernier Calliper and place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws and
adjust the movable jaw, such that it gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. That done
tightens the screw attached to the scale.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main scale
reading just before the zero mark of the scale. This reading (N) is called main scale reading (MSR).
5. Note the number (n) of the Vernier scale division which coincides with the division of the main scale.
6. Youll have to repeat steps 5 and 6 after rotating the body by 90o for measuring the diameter in a
perpendicular direction.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 7 for three different positions and record the observations.
8. Now find total reading using the equation, TR = MSR+VSR = N+ (n x L.C) and apply the zero
correction.
9. Take the mean of the different values of the diameter and show that in the result with the proper
unit.

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PRINCIPLE AND WORKING OF MICROMETER
Sometimes known as a micrometre screw gauge, is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used
for precise measurement of components in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most
mechanical trades, along with

other metrological instruments such as dial Vernier, and digital callipers. Micrometres are usually, but not
always, in the form of callipers (opposing ends joined by a frame), which is why micrometre calliper is
another common name. The spindle is a very accurately machined screw and the object to be measured is
placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning the ratchet knob or thimble
until the object to be measured is lightly touched by both the spindle and the anvil.

Procedure of Micrometre
In order to take the reading using a screw gauge, the object is placed between the jaws which are moved
by the thimble. The ratchet knob is used to adjust the object firmly between the jaws. For accurate
reading, the thimble should be moved until three clicks are heard from the ratchet. The ratchet ensures
accuracy and also prevents the object from getting damaged. The main scale reading is taken by
considering that marking on the sleeve which is visible just to the left of the thimble. It is also to note that
the 0.5 mm divisions that are provided below the main scale should also be considered while taking the
reading. The auxiliary scale reading is taken by observing the marking on the thimble that coincides with
the main scale on the sleeve. The auxiliary reading figures will follow the main scale reading figures in the
final reading. Lets take an example to understand this.

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