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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents some foreign and local

literatures and studies which the researchers deemed

relevant with the present study. Such literatures and

studies cited paved the way in determining the extent of

how far researchers have gone through along the area under

investigation.

Related Literature

Tracer Study

In the book of Frich (2012) entitled Tracer Study

defined a tracer study as a graduate or alumni survey that

attempts to trace the activities of the graduates or

previous students of an educational institution. Tracer

studies enable the contextualization of graduates of a

particular university through a system that is dynamic and

reliable in order to determine their life path or movement.

Current students view the purpose of university education

as a step to career preparation. Many faculty members, on

the hand continue to uphold the creation of knowledge and

the development of intellectual mind while employers,

demand highly skilled-workers.

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According to Thomas (2012) in his book entitled

Tracer Study: Employability to Industries pointed out

that industries and other business institutions depend so

much on the huge contributions of learning institutions in

providing human machineries shaped in conjunction with

their needs. They firmly believed that successes would

primarily depend on the output of these institutions.

Universities failure to provide the needed learning arid

skills among the graduates may result to disequilibrating

force in the countys economy. They further mentioned that,

individuals invest time and money in order to become more

skilled. Firms and societies typically invest in human

capital for the development of their employees and citizens

in hopes of a future return on these investments.

Drell (2012) in his book entitled Employability

Skills mentioned that industries complain that new

recruits from schools sometimes do not have the basic tools

that are required. The skills mostly in demand by the

employers, as measured by the wide range of skills asked of

future employees, are typically the least in supply, as

measured by the skills, abilities and competencies that

university graduates bring to the job. He emphasized that

the goal of education is to equip children to the best of

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their ability, for a lively, constructive place in society,

and also to fit them to do a job for work.

Holland (2011) in his book entitled Employability

Skills pointed out that the notion of employability skills

development in the university environment continues to

challenge traditional thinking and concepts on higher

education and raises the question of the role a university

education provides. The rapidly changing economy has

fuelled the desire for university graduates to adapt

according this poses a problem for universities because of

growing dichotomy between the purposes of education for

employment and education primarily based on content

knowledge for its own sake..

Robinson (2014) in his book entitled Professional

Qualifications presented two contending theories about the

role of advance education in the evolving world of economy.

These theories are the common view and the Organization of

Economic Cooperation and Development. According to the

common view, high unemployment and falling incomes due to

globalization and the pressure of imports from low wage

countries characterize the new world economy. The only way

to get a job today is to exactly meet the needs of

employers and that is having the specific skills they

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require at the moment of hiring. In the past before

globalization and high unemployment, a general education

might have been acceptable because employers could not be

choosy in their hiring. General academic preparation like

humanities, Social Sciences, and even natural sciences

should be cut back, university resources should be

concentrated on professional programs and more sweeping

one-and two-year college programs aimed at imparting

specific skills should be expanded The second theory about

the labor market is the Organization of Economic

Cooperation and Development model. The OECD is an important

international organization whose views are highly

influential. According to the OECD model, the demand for

labor in all industrialized countries has increased

strongly for people with college or university education

and has declined for people with high school education or

less. These changes reflect the twin processes of

globalization and technological change.

Wright (2012) says that employment, unemployment and

underemployment have gained serious implications for

educators. The education system can and should do a great

deal to prepare graduates for employment, which is to make

them employable. It is employability then, not employment

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that should be the prime responsibility of education with

respect to the problems of graduates with becoming members

of the occupational society. He then further said that in

solving high unemployment among graduates, employability

skills rather than entry level skills should be the focus

of schools. If this aim is to be reached, it will mean

major change in schooling. The basic strategy for bringing

this about is to reallocate current education resources.

The broader community must join forces with the education

system. Some attempts to implement educational change the

strategy have been carried out under the banner career

education. It is difficult but not an impossible task.

This idea of career education is further bolstered that

career education must not be seen as the enemy of liberal

arts but as their salvation. It can enliven the classroom,

given good models of curricular design and teaching

strategies and style. Faculty members may well choose to

adopt the career education concept as a mean; of improving

instruction. If students perceive liberal arts as

extraneous to their own momentary materialistic objectives,

teachers may become aware that conscious and thoughtful

attention to the relationship between education and work

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can be woven into their subject matter and that subject

matter will be no less worthy and scholarly.

Tracer Study

As Lambert (2012) alleged, college graduates hold a

competitive edge in the labor market. They are more likely

to find high-level professional Jobs than workers with less

education. Yet not all college graduates secure high level

jobs. Based on the skill levels of occupations, a similar

portion employed in lower jobs such as secretary, and

service workers, where a college education is hardly

necessary and may even be detrimental to satisfactory work

performance. Also, an increasing number will be forced to

accept jobs incommensurate with their level of training.

Camarao (2013) pointed out, that the transition of the

Philippines from an agro-industrial to a newly

industrialized country necessitates the acceleration of

industrial development which requires the development of

highly skilled manpower that would bring about the

modernization of industrial production system. Industries

are built to meet local consumption, produce exportable

goods, create job opportunities, provide income for the

people and enhance socio-economic development.

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Juan (2012) pointed out that one of the problems of

college graduates is job placement. Aware of this

condition, the government, as well as educational

institutions, is doing its role so as to alleviate

employment problems. The government is trying to identify

effective programs that will provide college graduates with

employment which could make them productive and relevant to

their training skills.

Colleges and universities gear their curriculum

towards the demand of economy. Innovations are being

introduced in the countrys educational system to make it

more responsive and relevant to the pressing needs and

demand of the country.

As Gonzales (2012) puts it, there is, therefore a

compelling need for education leaders to face the challenge

of adaptive change or be left behind by nations, which

are trailing us today.

Speaking before the General Assembly of the Philippine

Accrediting Associations of Schools, Colleges and

Universities (PAAECU), Gloria said that it is the quality

graduates that measure the quality of schools. He

encouraged the used of mechanism of voluntary

accreditation, likewise the benefit of the accreditation

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now granted to school by way of liberalizing administrative

and academic regulations, as well as grants of subsidies

and other financial incentives. He also emphasized to the

delegates the role of voluntary accreditation in improving

the quality of higher education in the country. (Eddie

Castro, Quality Schools Equal Quality Education Manila

Bulletin, Manila Publishing Corporation).

In 2010, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, Cited the

role of academic community during the CHEDs 16th

Anniversary, particularly the Commission on Higher

Education (CHED) in strengthening the economy and education

must be the center of any government platform. She pointed

out the importance of working towards achieving a main

education highway towards a knowledge-based economy that

will result in a seamless education from re-school to

tertiary level. She further recommends that there must be

consultation between academe and industry and business

leaders to determine new skills needs for present and

future manpower. Thus, the objective of such consultation

is to make the skills of our college graduates more

relevant to the jobs with high demand, therefore closing

the job-skills gap and improving the employability of the

graduates. She further stated We want a seamless education

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highway toward a knowledge-based economy because we are in

the knowledge century and I desire to see a brighter future

for the hardworking men and women of his nation. I have an

abiding interest in seeing your clients and mine, in other

words, the students of higher education, come into their

own, and seized the value of modernity and education and

use these tools to advance themselves and the nation.

According to a study of DOLE (2012) labor mismatch

slows Philippines economic growth. Schools in the

Philippines are producing the wrong kind of skills for its

labor market needs, which is hurting economic growth There

are too many educated people chasing too few jobs. It also

added that with higher education being an important

determinant of employment in the Philippine market by

productivity jobs are taken over by the more educated labor

force, which in turn, has lowered the price for skilled

labor over the period. Further, Son findings show that

current education sector does not supply the right kind of

skills that are demanded by labor market. Accelerating

growth would require government action in addressing the

labor mismatch. From policy perspective, going beyond

universal coverage in education is imperative because what

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is required is an expansion of the supply of the right kind

of skills.

Related Studies

The ILO Thesaurus 2005 defines a tracer study as an

impact assessment tool where the impact on target groups

is traced back to specific elements of a project or program

so that effective and ineffective project components may be

identified. In educational research according to Schomburg

(2013), tracer study is sometime referred to as graduate

survey, alumni research, or follow-up study since its

target is former student.

Canon (2013) noted that graduate survey is popular for

analysis of the relationship between higher education and

work: They provide quantitative-structural data on

employment and career, the character of work and related

competencies, and information on the professional

orientation 3nd experiences of their graduates.

Furthermore, he enumerated the following objectives of

tracer studies; (1) To get valuable information for the

development of the university; (2) To evaluate the

relevance of higher education; (3) To contribute to the

accreditation process and (4) To inform parents, students,

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administrators and lecturers. Graduate survey provides

rich experience about the whereabouts of graduates, which

might broaden perspectives among administrators, scholars

and students. Such information like the income, economic

sector, job titles, working time, duration of search for

the first job, methods of job search are relevant for

higher education institutions to note.

Schomberg (2003), made a study which started from

autumn 1998 to spring 2000. About 3000 graduates each from

nine countries in European region (Austria, Finland,

France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and

United Kingdom), one EFTA country (Norway), another from

the Central and Eastern European countries in transition

(The Czech Republic) and one economically advance country

outside Europe (Japan) provided information through a

written questionnaire on the relationship between higher

education and employment, four years after graduation.

Totally, more than 40,000 from institutions of higher

education answered questions on their socio-biographic

background, study paths, transition from higher education

to employment, their job satisfaction and their

retrospective view on higher education.

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The African Graduate Survey (2014) provides the

highest comparative information on graduate employment and

work and the links between higher education and graduate

employment and work ever provided. Selected results of the

European Graduate Survey were compared with results of ten

graduate surveys (about 6000 graduates Involved) conducted

in six African countries using a questionnaire quite

similar to the European one. Different indicators of

professional were presented: duration of job, search

income, employment conditions, appropriateness of position,

and content of work, use of knowledge and skills, and job

satisfaction. The comparison provides a unique opportunity

in examining the extent to which the relationship between

higher education and the world of work are similar or

different among the Western European and the African

countries.

The National Council for Higher Education (NCHE)

Markerere lnstitute of Social Research, (MISR) and Centre

for Higher Education Policy Studies, (CHEPS) (2012)

conducted Graduate Tracer Study and employers expectations

studies at Kampala, Uganda. Their study aims to investigate

the conditions under which graduates from the tertiary

sector were employed and to explore the employers

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expectation of graduates. The study targeted one thousand

(1000) degree and diploma graduates of year 2002 from four

(4) universities and other tertiary institutions with a

target of one hundred (120) employers from the public and

private sectors. Results revealed the following: (1) the

majority of graduates ninety percent (90%) were employed

during the first year after graduation in mostly urban

areas; (2) the field of study is the single most important

factor for securing gainful employment, (3) a sizable

number of graduates were employed by the private sector;

and (4) other findings were on salaries, job security,

status, gender, recruitment procedure, and staff training,

among others.

Kardi (2012), on her Tracer Study of Institute of

Statistics and Applied Economics graduates working in

Kampala City-Uganda for the period of 1990 to 1995

concluded the following: most graduates are employed either

in public sector or private sector; graduates use the

knowledge and skills acquired to a high extent, more males

are satisfied than females at work; and there are

significant associations between sex vs. employment,

performance at work vs. class degree, and satisfaction at

jobs vs. job titles. Furthermore, she identified

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limitations on time to carry out the study and financial

constraint.

In the Jamaican case (2012) as reported in a 1992

tracer study, it is revealed that its graduates are more

likely to be employed relative to dropouts and non-

participants in the ratio of 63%; 37: 43%: respectively.

However, only a fair match existed between areas of

training and that of employment of HEART/NTA. In Jamaica,

it was found that YETPs appear to make little difference

to the employment and income prospects of graduates of

YETPs in the short run.

The Graduate Tracer Study (GTS) (2010) generated

valuable information on the whereabouts of University of

the Philippines Los Baos ( UPLB) graduates from academic

year 2001 to 2004, particularly their employment status

which in turn, will serve as a guide in improving the

curricula, as well as plans for faculty development

activities. Specifically, it (a) determined the programs

mostly sought by employers and with the highest potential

initial earning, (b) competencies and skills learned in

college that are highly applied at the present work, (c)

assessed the length of time before the graduates got

employed after graduation, and (d) enumerated and analyzed

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both the academic and personal background that contributed

to graduates employability.

In the survey conducted by Solis (2012)it presented

three (3) main findings. First, first jobbers have a low

level of competence especially in handling and in the use

of the state-of-the-art technology such as computer

software and new instruments. Ii this regard, there is a

mismatch between the educational preparedness of the

graduates and the demands of employment in this respect.

Second, the graduates analytical skills are not sharp

enough, particularly in problem-solving and decision-

making. Third, the first jobbers have underdeveloped work

values. They lack enthusiasm, innovativeness and self-

confidence. It is quite clear from these findings and

recommendations by the PMAP that the fresh graduates have a

lot of thing to excel as first jobbers.

Soliva et.al. (2012) conducted a tracer study on the

employability of Bachelor of Secondary Education and

Bachelor of Science in Industrial Education graduates from

years to 2002 to 2006. They revealed, among others, the

following: The BSIE major in different technology courses

have a wider opportunity in finding employment in the

industrial manufacturing sector than BSED graduates;

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Majority of the graduates of the two programs are gainfully

employed in line with their fields of specialization; A big

number of licensure examination for teachers (LET) passers

ate teaching their major fields while the non-passers and

non-takers in the year they graduated were underemployed

and a handful of them were unemployed due to non-

availability of jobs related to their specialization; and

Only a few of BSIE graduates were self-employed due to lack

of capital.

Sadac (2013) conducted a follow-up study of the civil

engineering graduates of the University of the Assumption

from school year 1995-1996 to 1999-2000. She found out that

an alarming 30% are not presently employed. Of those

employed, 76.8% are involved in jobs or tasks related to

civil engineering related jobs. Most of the graduates

landed their first job within two years after graduation.

Findings revealed the five most common problems in

obtaining employment: 1) salary offer is too low; 2) there

is little or no advancement; 3.) job is to far from home;

4) there are no job opportunities, and 5) working

conditions are not satisfactory.

Rodriguez (2011); analyzed the school and soda-

psychological determinants of the employability of the

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graduates of the technical vocational education program of

two institutes of higher learning in region 1, and revealed

that there was no significant relationship found that exist

between employability and school characteristics. Positive

and significant findings were established between

employability and social characteristics.

A tracer study by Dikman (2012) of high school

graduates of seven regions in the Philippines used school

measures of guidance programs as one institutional service.

Her study provided five variables namely: careers talk by

outside speakers, homeroom guidance by class advisers,

group conference with guidance counsellors, film showing on

career education, and visit to offices and companies, it

was found out that homeroom guidance was reported by 1,286

or 57% of the graduate-subjects as the program most often

conducted on their own school.

On the profile of high school graduates, Rapenet

(2010) also found out that the typical high school graduate

was 17 years old at the time that the study was conducted.

This means that he/she was able to finish elementary and

high school levels of basic education without repeating any

grade or year, and about one-fourth of the total number of

graduates were over age (18-37) when they graduated. Many

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of these graduates might be those who benefited from the

putting up of barangay high schools or who had taken

advantage of the vocational secondary schools that were

accessible in the rural areas. On the proportion of male

and female graduates in the different career paths with

2,262 graduate subjects, 1,138 or 50% are enrolled in

college. Of the 1,138 in college, 464 or 41% are males; 674

or 59% are females. There are more females enrolled in

college than males.

In a five-year tracer study of the BS Criminology

graduates of Nicomedes M. Eustaquio (2010), he found out

that: Majority of the graduates are male, age 27-29 years

old, single and majority receive an annual income of

P80,000 to P99,000 or a monthly income of P6,666.00 to

P8,250.00; Majority are employed with the Philippine

National Police, Armed Forces of the Philippines and with

government offices. Most of the graduates are employed as

uniformed officers in the Department of Interior and Local

Government (DILG), the Department of Labor and Employment

(DOLE), Government Service Insurance System (GSIS), Bureau

of Jail Management (BJMP), Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP),

Department of Justice (DOJ), the Bureau of Customs (BoC)

and the Philippine Ports Authority (PPA). The rest of the

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graduates are employed as private investigators,

instructors, and security of private companies, individual

and organizations; Many of the graduates are now on their

third year of employment with their present job placement.

These graduates also enjoy permanent status and are

satisfied with their present work. Majority did not change

employment because of the security and stability that the

job gives to them; The respondents feel that their

undergraduate training in the BS criminology program had

been very useful in helping them to become confident and

competent in their jobs. The respondents were also very

satisfied with their on-the-job training in the

undergraduate level, and many feel that they are

knowledgeable to apply what they have learned to their

present job;

In so far as curricular implementation of static and

dynamic training skills were concerned, respondents felt

that these skills were adequately emphasized during their

undergraduate training. Static training skills include the

integration of theory, concepts with techniques. Skills are

developed in a controlled environment and primary emphasis

is place on isolating the specific skills through

repetition and drills. Some of these skills include

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handling safe weapons, basic marksmanship instruction,

combat shooting techniques, judgment drills, defensive

tactics and domestic violence. In dynamic training,

students are provided with a more realistic and challenging

environment for the static skills to be applied. This phase

combines skills and decision making on the part of the

students when they are confronted with tactical concerns.

Some of these skills include advance skills in firing at

moving targets, cooperative work with partners, survival

mind-set drills, violence prevention, motor vehicle law,

analytical thinking and problem solving in dispute

resolutions.

The Tracer Study of Bachelor of Science in Industrial

Technology Automotive Graduate of Marinduque State College

conducted by Ruben Labay (2012), presented the following

salient findings of his research: Out of 141, 114 or 80.85%

of the graduates age range between 20 to 40, they were

considered to be on their productive stage; Simple majority

of graduates were married with 74 or 52.48%; There were

graduates who pursued masteral program in public

administration, technology, management, mechanical,

electronics and marine engineering, with a total

representation of 7; There were 51 or 36.17% who were hired

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in the same company where they underwent OJT; Job hunting

best strategies include walk-in applicants and being

recommended by someone; Longest waiting period on the

average before landing first job after college was between

I month to 6 months, Majority of the graduates were

employed in the private agencies with76%; No job

opportunity got the highest rank on respondents reason why

they were not employed; Salaries and benefits got the

highest rank on why respondents stop in their present job;

There were only 28 or 19.86% who stayed in the same job

after 3 years and above; Strong work ethic is highly

developed among graduates in terms of values There were 52

or 36.88% of the graduates landed jobs in industrial

occupation; and There were 83 or 58.86% who answered

affirmatively into the relevance of the course taken in

college.

Synthesis

The related studies herein discussed are both related

in a way that it deals on the graduate tracer study on the

employability of the courses offered in the higher

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education institution like the University of Cagayan

Valley.

The above-cited studies were cited will help the

researchers in conducting the study because of its

similarities and dissimilarities. In the study of Corni

(2013) argues that there is significant relationship

between higher education and work of the respondent. The

present study aims to analyze the relationship of the

employment data of the respondnets and their profile

variables. However, they differ on the setting and locale

of the study.