62 Chapter 5 FRICTION 5.1 Introduction If a body resting on a horizontal surface as shown in Fig.1 is subjected to a gradually increasing horizontal force P, a frictional resisting force F equal and opposite to P is set up, acting tangentially to the surface in contact This force F will continue to increase as P increase until motion occurs, when it will fall slightly and then remain constant, Before motion occurs the friction is static and it is known as kinetic after motion occurs, Friction is cased by the pressure of the surface on the body, i.e. by the weight of the load acting perpendicularly to the supporting surface and is called normal pressure. L Fa “2 FRICTIONAL FORCE Re WORMAL REACTION Fig! There are several types of friction conditions: (1) Dryand clean, (2) Greasy and boundary. (3) Fluid and viscous (4) Rolling. In this chapter we shall consider the dry sliding friction. 5.2 Basic Laws of sliding friction The following laws of sliding friction have been established experimentally: (1) Ifa force is applied tending to move one body over another the opposing friction force brought into play is tangential to the surface in contact and is just sufficient to balance the applied force. There is a limit beyond which the friction force cannot increase. When this limit is reached sliding is about to start and the corresponding friction force is termed the limiting value.63 (2) The ratio of the limiting ftiction force F and the normal reaction R is constant and the value of this ratio depends on the nature of the pair of surface in contact. a) pis called the coefficient of static or limiting friction. The coefficient of sliding friction Thus F/R = = a contant is an abstract quantity. (3) The limiting friction force does not depend on the area of constant; in other words the force of sliding friction does not depend on specific pressure. - (4) The frictional force does not depend on sliding velocity, although the force necessary at the start of sliding is greater than when momentum has been achieved. 5.3 Angle of friction 4 A block of weight W is resting on a rough horizontal surface as shown in Fig, 2(a). Ifa force P, is applied to the block which is insufficient to cause motion it is evident that the surface have developed a friction force F which just balances P,. The surface \ reaction R supplies both, (i) normal force R equal to W and, (ii) tangential frictional force F; which is equal to P) The resulting reaction R, is inclined at an anglo yto the normal reaction as shown in Fig, 2 (b). If P, if gradually increased to the particular value P which is just sufficient to move the block, then at the point of slipping, the friction force developed will have reached its maximum or limiting value F. With increasing value of P), the angle y also increases and the resultant reaction becomes more and more inclined to the normal until the body is on the point of slipping as shown in Fig. 2 (c). If for limiting conditions shown in Fig, 2 (¢), the reaction R_ makes an angle @ with the normal reaction R, then, tan @ = for F=Rtano @ If w be the coefficient of limiting friction then, F = wR 8) By comparing (2) and (3), we get uetaneoro=tand we (4)64 @ is called the angle of friction and it is the angle between the resultant reaction of the plane on the block and the normal to the surface of contact. (a) (b) (©) Fig.2 5.4 Motion on a horizontal plane If P be the force required to move the block of weight W along a horizontal plane a with uniform speed as shown in Fig. 3, then, P=F=pR=pW see (8) The resultant of the frictional resistance F and the normal reaction R is represented by R, and the angle, between R, and R is termed the angle of friction @. If the force P is inclined to the horizontal at an angle, as shown in Fig.4, then, Fig3 Fig.465 5.5 Motion on an inclined plane If a block of weight W moves along an inclined plane, Fig. 5, then resolving W into components paralled and perpendicular to the plane, component parallel to the plane equal W sin 8, Component perpendicular to the plane = Weos 8. Friction resistance 1R= 1Weos 8. The friction resistance acts in the direction opposite to that of motion. (i) Motion up the plane: If the force P is applied parallel to the plane as shown in Fig.6, then, P=Wsin®+pWeos@ ee (8) (ii) Motion down the plane: if the plane is tilted until the block just slides down with uniform motion as in Fi, 7, then, Wsin 0 = pWeos0 Ee (9) If 8 1+sing tsin&) 1420s? sine 2 2 a= (cos? 2 mee i) =k 7 For reversed efficiency, the condition for maximum efficiency and it expression will be the same as above. 5.8. Overhauling of a screw When the load moves down and overcome the thread friction by its own weight it ‘aid to overhaul. When the load moves down against a resisting force P, we known that P=Wtn(a-o) When load overhauls, P=0 and therefore e. Hence when the angle of inclined plane is just equal to the angle of friction, the load will overhaul. The angle of inclined plane is less than the angle of friction, the arrangement is known as self locking. Let us consider a machine which a load W moves through a distance x while the We effort P moves through the distance y in the same time interval. n =~ y2 If F is the energy lost in friction, then , F= Py-Wx If a machine just overhauls under load, then work done by load in descending a distance x is Wx. If the energy lost in friction is assumed to be the same as when the load is raised, then F = Wx, Wx = Py - Wx or = Py=2Wx FE Ly = p01 50% Py Thus a machine wil] overhaul if a efficiency is more than or equal to 50% and if the efficiency is less than 50%, the screw is self locking. Self locking is desired property. Generally the screw efficiency is near about 25%. This efficiency can be increased by substituting the slide friction by rolling friction, which is the case in re-circulating ball nut. Such a screw has a minimum efficiency of 90%. This re-circulating ball screw are used in automobile, air craft, nuclear power and machine tool industries. Example(1). A load of 1,000 kg is supported by a screw jack having a single start square thread. The mean diameter of the thread is 5 cm and the coefficient of friction is 0.127. Determine the pitch of the screw so that it will not unwind by itself and also the horizontal force required at the end of a lever 40 cm long to raise the load. What will be the efiliciency of the screw ? Solution. If the screw is not unwind itself the helix angle 0. should be less than or at the most equal to friction angle. Let us considsr the extreme case. In the extreme case we have tanc = tana = coefficient of friction. @ = tan’! 0.127 = 7° 24" P For aa ingle start square thread, we have, tan a = —— where p is the pitch of the Td, thread and dy, is the mean diameter of the screw P 0.127 = or = p= 0,125xnx5=2em. mx d, Torque required to overcome friction at the thread surfaces T= P > tan (a+) On substitution of numerical values in the above formula, we get T = 1000 x (5/2) tan (7°14! + 7°14") = 645 kg cm.B If Q be the effort applied at the end of a lever 40 cm long, then Q x 40 = 645 or — Q= 645/40 = 16.1 kg. With usual notations, efficiency is given by y = —22%_ tan +) In this case tan a. = tan o. “tana tan(7°14') _ 0.127 tan 2a tan(14°28') 0.257 Example (2) A square thread screw has an efficiency of 65% when raising a load. The coefficient of friction for the thread is 0.15, with collar friction negligible. The mean diameter of the square thread screw (pitch diameter) is 6 om. When lowering a load, uniform velocity is maintained by a brake mounted on the screw. If the load is 2,000 kg, * what torque must be exerted by the brake? . Sol*: The efficiency of the square thread screw is more than 50%, theref ore the screw is not self locking. When the screw is not self locking, the braking torque must bet applied to lower a load with uniform velocity. tana tana anor (1 — tana. tang) "ana +o) tana +tand tana: + tang T= tana tang On simplification we get the following quadratic equation for determination of the helix angle: tan20 -2=Drang +n =0 tand On substituting of values, we get, tan 2a 2982) tang, +065 =0 ie, tan’o: - 2.33 tana + 0.65 = 0, a = 18° friction angle @ = tan"' 0.15 = 8° 32° Breaking torue to be applied to lower the load with uniform velocity, tan (c1-2)=2000 x 6/2tan (18°-8°32') = 986.4 kg em or 9,864 kgm.14 Problem, (1) A load of 1,000 kg is supplied by a screw jack having a single start square thread. The mean diameter of the thread is 6 cm and the coefficient of friction 0.15. The pitch of the screw is 2 cm. State whether the screw will unwind by itself or not. What will be the efficiency of the screw? Determine the horizontal force required at the end of the lever 45 cm long to raise the load. (2) The cutter of a broaching machine is pulled by a square threaded screw of mean diameter 6cm and 1.3cm pitch, the operating nut taking the axial load of 60 kg. Determine the horse power required to rotate the operating nut when the cutting speed is 10 metre/minute. (3) A square thread screw has an efficiency of 70% when raising a weight. The coefficient of friction is 0.12. The pitch diameter is 3 cm and the load is 2,600 kg. Find" the torque which a brake mounted on a screw must exert when lowering the load at the uniform rate. (4) A screw operated arbor press has a single start square threaded screw 5 cm mean diameter and 0.6 om as pitch. If the efficient of friction at the threads is 0.10, what load may be applied by the press when an effort of 20 kg is applied at the end of a handle 40 cm long attached to the screw. (5) A fly press has a screw of 6 cm lead, the efficiency of which is 60 %. Neglecting the weight of the screw and the top arm, what force must be applied at the end of and perpendicular to the lever 40 cm radius to put a pressure of 300 kg on the arm? 5.9. Friction of pivot and collars. ( Disc friction ) Disc friction occurs when surfaces having relative motion are brought together by means of an axial thrust. Shafis carrying axial thrusts are supported either by collars or by pivots. A pivot bearing may be on the end ofa shaft, but a collar may be at any part of the length of the shaft. The rubbing surface of a pivot or collar may be any surface of revolution, the axis of the surface of revolution being the axis of the shaft. In case of a pivot the rubbing surface is generally either flat or conical. In a collar the rubbing surface is generally flat. There are two assumptions generally made for calculating the power lost in friction at the pivot and collar bearings75 ‘When the bearing is newly fixed in position, the intensity of pressure for a flat collar may be assumed uniform at various radii. When the motion takes place, the rubbing velocity will be zero at the centre of the contact area in case of flat pivot and maximum at the outer radius. Therefore, the wear will be unequal at various radii. It will be greater at those parts where the velocity of rubbing is greater, that is, at the outer radii. This will simultaneously alter the distribution of pressue over the surface since it is obvisous that the pressure cannot remain constant if one part wears more than the other. This variation in rate of wearing alters the distribution of uniform pressure and pressure will tend to increase from outer radius to the centre. This alternation of pressure again alters the rate of wearing; this effect may be to cause ultimatley an even distribution of pressure; but it does not necessarily follow that the pivot again becomes flat. It may become slightly concave or convex depending on the materials of the shaft and bearings. * While making allowance for friction power, one of the following two assumptions are made in practice, though it is highly probable that neither is strictly correct: (a) The intensity of pressure is uniform. (b) The wear at the bearing surface is uniform. Let p = total axial load carried by pivot or collar. P = _ intensity of normal pressure on rubbing surfaces when uniform or ata radius r when variable. + = __ radius of an indefinitely narrow ring of the surface and dr is width T 7 moment of friction on pivot or collar. Case 1. Flat pivot P (@) Uniform pressure: p= > Load on ring of radius r and width dr Load = 2nrdrp. Moment of friction on the ring = 2nr drPr x. T = fupar dr = 2upn & = SR, 3) af76 (b) jiform wear Let pr = Constant Load on ring of radius r and width dr Load = 2nrdr=2 nodr Total load P= 2nC far =2nCR, or 6 Moment of friction on the ring = 2ar drx Cx p 4 2 R T = fanCudr = 22Cu 2 a j i a) Substituting the value of C in equation (37) we get Ye uPR, FLAT PINOT FAT COLLAR , (a) (b) Fig.13 Case 2. Flat collar or recessed footstep (a) Uniform pressure: P= n(R; Load on ring of radius r and width dr = 2nrdrp Moment of friction on ring = 2nedrp.ur = 2uparédr r [uprr'dr a7) P When we substite = > We get en we substitute p za 2) ge7 (18) (b) Uniform wear. Let pr =C Load on ring of radius r and width dr =2nprdr = 2n Cdr 2 Total load = = P=2nC fdr = 2nC(R-R,) (ag) Moment of friction on ring = 2nCyur dr D T = 2nCu frdr=2nCu (RR) o- (20) 4 Dividing the equation (4.7) by (4.8) we get- T BL BP = =E Mir, Ryt+R2) we eee 21 iB p RAR2) or 7 RrtRe) @) When the axial load carried by the shaft is large the provision of a single collar as shown in Fig. 4.2(b) would result in seizure due to excesive pressure. To reduce the bearing pressure it is usual to fit the number of collars as shown in Fig. 4.2(c). The value of limiting bearing pessure does not exceed 5 Kg/sq.cm. Ifn be the number of collars, the load taken by each collars is p/n. The purpose of introduction of many colars is to reduce the intensity of pressure but has no effect on the torque required. Case 3. Conical pivot xR? Area of surface ofa cone = sind aR) P P =P sing = therefore are P = —— as for a flat pivot. The normal sind aR? pressure on the surface of the cone is, therefore, independent of the angle at the vertex of the cone.78 Load on ring of radius rand width dr = 224-4" sind 2 Moment of friction on ring = 2H2™”_4r sin@ " 2 = 2H pay = 20D sind sind 3 Conical Pivot Conical Collar Fig.4 (b) Uniform wear, From the above and case 1, it follows that — JPR, 2sin® T Case 4. Conical collar If in case 3 the limits of integration for two integrals are taken between R, and R,, we get for uniform pressure, Too = 24) For uniform wear, we get, pt aBe(R +R) (23) 2 sindIt can be seen that if we put in sin @ = 1 in formulae for conical pivots and conical collars, we get the formulae for flat pivots and flat collars. Thus a flat collar can be regarded as a special case ofa conical collar for which 8 = 90°. Comparing the different cases for uniform pressue and uniform wear, it will be . 4 RR; seen that the moment of friction for uniform pressure is 4-24] of the moment Ry for uniform wear, and when R,=0, this ratio becomes 4/3. Thus we see that calculated friction moment is higher if uniform intensity of pressure is assumed than if uniform rate of wear is assumed than if uniform rate of wear is assumed. Which of the two assumptions should be made in any given problem is a matter of opinion. However, it would be better to use that asumption which will be given , a result on the safe side friction occurs when surfaces having relative motion are brought together by means of an axial thrust. In thrust bearings power is lost due to disc friction, whereas in the ese of clutch plates, disc friction is used a means of transmitting power from one shaft to another. If the problem is concerned with the power absorbed by friction a thurst bearing, we make an assumption of uniform pressure. If on the other hand the problem is to find the power which can be transmitted by friction between the surface, we make an assumption of uniform rate of wear. In short we make an assumption which is the safer side. Power lost in friction = 2xNT/60 watts. Where N is the speed of the shaft in r.p.m and T is the torque in N-m Example(1) A flat foot step bearing 15cm in diameter supports a load of 1,500 kg. If ient of friction is 0.07 and the r.p.m 90, calcularte the horse power lost in the coetf overcoming friction at the bearing. Solution We assume that the intensity of pressure is constant. Torque required to overcome friction at the bearing, T= 2/3 wPR T= 2/3 x 0.04 x 1500 x 7.580 T = 525 kg.cm or 5.25 kg.meter 2nNT _ 2m x90x5x5.52 _ 4500 4500 HP lost in friction = 0.61 Example (2) A thrust beraring has 12 collars, 40 cm external diameter and 30cm intemal diameter and carries a load of 20 Ptomnes. If the coefficient of friction is 0.06, calcualte the horse power lost in friction at collar bearing if the shaft runs at 140 r.p.m Also, calculate the bearing pressure intensity at the collar. Solution Load per collar = 20/12 x 1000 = 1.666 kg. ‘Area of each collar = 1/4 (40°-30*) = 550 sq.c.cm Bearing pressure = 1666/50 = 3.04 kg/sq.cm Torque required to overcome friction at the thrust bearing, T 6 20° T = «20x 1000] 22 => 00° E | T = 21,200kg.cmice. 212 ke.meter. HP lost in friction = 22%40*212 _ 4) 5 4500 Example (3) A conical pivot supports a load of 2.000 kg. The cone angle is 120° and the intensity of normal pressure is not to exceed 3.5kg/sq.om. The external diameter is three the internal diameter. Find the dimensions of the bearing surface. If the coefficient of friction is 0,06 and the r.p.m of the shaft 120, calculate the horsepower lost in friction. Assume that the pressue intensity is constant. Let R, be the inner radius of the conical bearing. The outer radius will be equal to 3 R. 2000 =n [QR )-R2]35 or RK =4.75 em 2 Viex3 5x881 The outer radius will be 3 x 4.73 = 14.19 cm Torque required to over come friction at conical pivot p= 2p [RAR 3 sind| R?-R? Example (4) The rotating parts of a heavy grinding mill are carried on a vertical shaft running at 120 r-p.m, The load of 2,000 kg is carried by a conical beraring of 12 cm outside diameter and 4 cm inside diameter, with an included angle of 120°. Assuming p= 0.075 and that the intensity of pressure varies inversely as the radius, determine the horse power wasted in friction. Solution As the intensity of pressure varies inversely as the radius, the rate of wear is uniform. On substitution of the values, we get HP lost in friction = 2nNT/4500 2m «1206.92 _ 4500 1.16 Problems 1 An axial thrust of 5,000kg is carried by a plain collar type thrust bearing having inner and outer diameters of 25 and 40cm respectively. Assuming that the coefficient of friction between thrust surface is 0.025, determine the horse power absorbed in friction at 150 rpm. If (a) the pressure intensity is uniform, (b) if the wear is proportional to the pressure and to the rubbing speed. 2. Assuming on the basis of uniform wear, find the power lost in friction in the foot siep bearing of a vertical shaft running at 120 rpm, having a weight of 1,500kg and a diameter of 13cm. The coefficient of friction between the surfaces is 0.1 3. A thrust bearing supports a load of 24,000kg on collars of 40cm external diameter and 30cm intemal diameter. If the coefficient of friction is 0.07 calculate the horse power lost in friction at bearing if the shaft rotates at 90 rpm. If the permissible bearing pressure intensity does not exceed 4kg/sqem, calculate the number of collars required. 4. A foot step bearing supports a shaft of 15cm diameter, running at 100 rpm. The shaft is bored with a shallow hole of Sem, at the end, If the bearing pressure is limited to82 8kg/sq cm. Find (a) load to supported, and (b) horse power lost in friction. Take p= 0.015 5. A thrust of 3,000kg along the axis of the shaft is taken by a pivot bearing consisting of the frustum of a cone. The outer and inner diameters are 20cm and 10cm and semi-angle of cone is 60°, The shaft speed is 180 rpm. and p = 0.02. Calculate the maximum value of a bearing pressure intensity and the horse power lost in friction on the assumption of (a) uniform pressure (b) uniform wear. 6 A single start square threaded screw of a 48mm mean diameter and 8mm pitch is required to transmit maximum load of 10 tonnes and rotates 30 rpm. The screw thread friction coefficient is 0.15. (a) Find the torque to drive the considering screw thread friction only. (b) If the motor horse power required to drive the screw is 3.8, determine the torque required to overcome collar friction. (c) Assuming uniform wear condition find the mean diameter of collar bearing when coefficient of friction for the collar bearing is 0.15. (d) If the screw friction and collar friction are not taken into account, find the torque required to move the load. (e) Also determine the efficiency of the screw. (£) Check whether the screw is overhauling or not. 7. The lead screw of a lathe has square threads of 50mm outside diameter and 10mm. pitch. It drives the toll carriage and exerts an axial pressure of 250kg. A collar bearing with outside diameter 10cm and inside diameter 4cm is provided to take up the thrust. If the lead screw rotates at 30 rpm., find the efficiency and horse power required to drive the screw. Take coefficient of friction for screw threads as 0.15 and for collar as 0.12.