Measurement

of Directly Designed
Gears with
Symmetric and
Asymmetric Teeth
Dr. Alexander L. Kapelevich
(This paper was first presented at the 2010 VDI International Conference on GearsVDI Wissensforum).

a b

Figure 1Gear tooth profile: a = external gear; b = internal gear; da = tooth tip circle diameter; db = base circle diameter;
df = form circle diameter; d = reference circle diameter; S= circular tooth thickness at the reference diameter; a = involute
profile (or pressure) angle at the reference diameter; v = involute intersection profile angle; n = number of teeth; subscripts
d and c are for the drive and coast flanks of the asymmetric tooth.

Management Summary
In comparison with the traditional gear design approach based on preselected, typically standard generating rack
parameters, the Direct Gear Design method provides certain advantages for custom high-performance gear drives that
include: increased load capacity, efficiency and lifetime; reduced size, weight, noise, vibrations, cost, etc. However,
manufacturing such directly designed gears requires not only custom tooling, but also customization of the gear mea-
surement methodology.
This paper presents definitions of main inspection dimensions and parameters for directly designed spur and helical,
external and internal gears with symmetric and asymmetric teeth.

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Kappelevich pgs 60-65.indd 60 1/19/2011 10:38:08 AM

 bc

inv( )+ inv(c)=c)=
d d)+ inv(
inv( inv(
inv( )+ inv(c)+c)+2 x2 Sx S, ,
d d)+ inv(
dd
inv(d)+ inv(c)= inv(d)+ inv(c)+ 2 x S ,
inv(d)+ inv(c)= inv(d)+ inv(c)+ d2 x S ,
d
Measurement Over (Between) Balls or Pins x is S involute
2 x d S, ,
where:inv(
inv(x))+= tan(x)
inv(
inv( x inv(
)= is involute function
)+ inv( )+ 2 xand
inv(d)+ c )= inv( d d)+ inv(c )+
Spur gears. The Direct Gear Design method (Refs. 12) profile angled in radians.c The centers of thec ballnorn the dpin are
presents the gear tooth by two involutes of two base circles locatedinv(
on the)+ inv(
diameter )= dinv(
(Fig. )+ inv(
2), which)+ is:
2 x S ,
)+ 2 x d S ,
d c p d c
n
with the angular distance between them and tooth tip circle inv(d)+ inv(c)= dinv(d)+ inv( d
d d
dpd=p = bd bd = = bc bc , ,
c
n d
arc (Fig.1). The equally spaced n teeth form the gear. The cos cos (4)
cos cos
fillet between teeth is designed independently, thus providing dbd pd dbc pc
pd pc
,
minimum bending-stress concentration and sufficient clear- where the angles apddpand =
a dare
cos
=
cosdpc
defined by equations (Ref. 3):
dp = pc pd bd
=
bc ,
ance with the mating tooth-tip in mesh. If the two base circles cospd cospc
are identical, the gear teeth are symmetric; if they are differ- For external gear: 2 , ,
inv( ) + inv(pc)=
pd pd) + inv(
inv( )=inv(
inv() + inv(c)+c)+D D+ +D D 2
d d) + inv(
ent, the teeth are asymmetric. pc dbddbd dbcdbc n n
D 2 , (5)
Measurement over (between) balls or pins for spur gears is inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c)+ D +
defined based on the given: d D d D n 2 ,
inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c)+ bd + bc
Number of teeth n For internal gear: d bd
d bc
n
Reference circle diameter d
Involute profile angles at the reference diameter ad inv( ) + inv(pc)=
pd pd) + inv(
inv( )= inv(
inv( ) + inv(c) c) D D D D (6)
d d) + inv(
pc dbdd dbcdbc
and ac; for symmetric gears involute profile angle at
inv( ) + inv( )= inv( ) + inv( ) D bd D
the reference diameter a = ad = ac The ballpd or pin touches
pc thedgear toothc in dthe D points
d D T and
Circular tooth thickness at the reference diameter S inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c) bd bc d
Tc. They should be always located on the involute dbd flanks.
dbc This
Gear tooth-tip diameter da condition is described by the following equation:
Initially selected ball or pin diameter D can be adjusted dbddbd dbddbd
, ,
arccos tdtdarccos
arccos arccos
d
based on the calculation results. The relation between angles For external gears: ddfddfd d
dbd a
a
vd and vc, and ad and ac is: arccos d td arccos d ,
bd
d bd d
arccos fd td arccos a ,
bd
(7)
cosd cosd dbd dfd d
= = , (1)
a
cosc cosc dbc
and:
cosd cosd dbd d
= = , dddbcbc arccos ddbcbcbc ;

cos
where: dbd = d x cosad andcd d= bccos dbcbd , .
= d cdx=cosa arccos
arccos bc tc arccos
arccos d ;; (8)
arccos
dddfcfc tctc dda a
cosc cosc dbc c fc a

Angles vd dand
inv( vc arec)=
)+ inv( defined
inv(dfrom )+ 2 x S ,
equations:
)+ inv( c
For internal gears:
d d
For external gear:
arccos dddbdbd arccos ddbdbdbd
inv(d)+ inv(c)= inv(d)+ inv(c)+ x S , 2 bd td arccos (9)
arccos
arccos arccos d
ddda a tdtd ddfdfd
inv(d)+ inv(c)= inv(d)+ inv(c)+ 2 dx S , (2) a fd
d and:
inv( )= inv( )+ inv( )+ S ,
inv( )+
For internaldgear: c 2 x d
d c
n d
arccos dddbcbc arccos ddbcbcbc
arccos bc tc arccos (10)
arccos dda tctc arccos ddfc
inv(d)+ inv(c)= inv(d)+ inv(c)+ 2 x S , (3) daa
dfcfc continued
dbc c)+ 2 x n Sd
dbd d)+ inv(
inv(d)+ inv(c)= inv( ,
dp = , n d
=
cospd cospc
dbd dbc M = d + D;
dp = , MM == dd p++ D; D;
dbc pc
dbd pd = cos
cos pp
dp = ,
=
cospd cospc
D 2 ,
inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c)+ D +
dbd dbc n

D 2 , M =ddp. .cos cos + D.
inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c)+ D + M ==
M dpp . cos 2n++ D.
2n
D.
dD D
d 2
n , 2n
inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c)+ bd + bc
dbd dbc n
D
inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c) D
dbd dbc
D
inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c) D
inv(pd) + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c) dDbd dDbc

dbd dbc
dbd d bd ,
arccos arccos
dfd td da
dbd dbd
arccos d td arccos ,
d a d
d bd , b
arccos fd td arccos a
bd
dfd da
Figure 2Ball or pin position: a = external gear; b = internal gear; D = ball or pin diameter; P = center of the ball or pin; apd
and apc = involute profile angles at the center of the ball or pin; dp = ball or pin center location diameter; Td and Tc = contact
points of the ball or pin with the tooth drive and coast tooth flanks; atd and atc = involute profile angles at the contact points.

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 arccos bd arccos bd
arccos da tdtd arccos dfd
da dfd

dbc dbc
arccos dbc tc arccos dbc
arccos da tc arccos dfc
da dfc
The measurement over two balls or pins for the external ment between balls or pins for internal gears should be M <
gear is for even number of teeth (Fig. 3a): da. These and conditions (Eqs. 710) define the ball or pin
M = d + D; diameter.
M = dpp+ D; (11) over (between) balls or over
Helical gears. Measurement
pins for helical gears is defined based on the given:
For odd number of teeth (Fig. 3b): Number of teeth n
Reference circle diameter d
(12) angles at the reference dia-
Normal involute profile
M = dp . cos + D.
M = dp . cos 2n + D.
2n meter and and anc; for symmetric gears an = and =
The measurement between two balls or pins for the inter- anc
nal gear is for even number of teeth (Fig. 4a): Normal circular tooth
M = dthickness
D; at the reference dia-
p
M = dp D; meter Sn
M = dp D; (13)
Helix angle at the reference diameter b
Gear tooth-tip diameter da
For odd number of teeth (Fig. 4b): Cylindrical pins cannot be used to measure the internal
helical gears, because cannot be tangent to the
M the
= dpin surface
. cos D.
p
2n
M = dp . cos D. (14) internal helical gear flanks.
The transverse tooth thickness at
M = dp . cos2n D.
2n the reference diameter S is:
For inspection convenience the measurement over balls or
pins for external gears should be M > da and the measure- S = Sn/ cos . (15)
S = Sn/ cos .
S = Sn/ cos .

a b
Figure 3Measurement over balls or pins for external gears: a = even number of teeth; b = odd number of teeth.

a b
Figure 4Measurement between balls or pins for internal gears: a = even number of teeth; b = odd number of teeth.

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 The transverse involute profile tan angles at the reference
nd
diameter ad and ac are: d = arctan tan
tan ndnd ,
d ==arctan cos ,,
arctan tan
cos nd
d cos
d = arctan , tan (16)
cos tan nd
tan nc =darctan = arctan nd , ,

tan nd = arctan tan d . cos
tan tan cos
d == arctan
arctan nd c, cos nc.
nc

d cos ,c c==arctan
cos arctan tan cos nc .
(17)

cos
c = arctan . tan
The helix angles at the drive and
cos coast tan ncb
base diameters
= arctan nc . .bd
and bbc are: tan nc c = carctan cos
tan = cos
c == arctan
arctan nc arctan(tan
. x cos d) ,
bd==.arctan(tan
bd
c cos
cos bd
arctan(tanxxcos cosd)d), , (18)
bd = arctan(tan x cos d) ,
= arctan(tan x cos ) ,
=bdarctan(tan x cos d) , d
bc = arctan(tan bd x cos c) . (19)
bdbd= arctan(tan xx cos
= arctan(tan cos d)) ,,
bcbc==arctan(tan
arctan(tan
d
xxcos cosc)c). .

The centers of bcthe ball or the pin
= arctan(tan x cos (forc)external
. gear with
even number of teeth) are located onthe = diameter
arctan(tandpthat, x cosde-).

fined by the equation (4), wherebcthe angles apdand
=bcarctan(tan x cosapcare
c
) .c

2
inv(pd)bcbc+ xxdcos c)) .. )+
arctan(tan
=inv(
defined by: cos D D ,
= )= inv(
arctan(tan ) + inv( D + D 2 Figure 5Measurement over balls of the external helical
pc c c
d x cos
D d x cos
D n 2 ,,
inv( inv(pcpc)=
inv(pdpd) )++inv( )=inv(
inv(d)d)++inv( inv(c)+ )+
c d
bd
xD cos
bd ++ bc
bd ddbc xxD cos
bc
bc nngear.
For external helical gear: bd x
d cos cos 2 ,
inv(pd) + inv( )= inv( ) + inv( )+ bd +
bd bc bc
pc d c
dbd x cos bd dbc x cos D n D 2 ,
inv(+pd)inv( + inv(pc)= inv( ) + inv( )+ D bc + D 2

inv(pd) )= inv( ) + d inv( )+c
dbd x cos
(20) +
bd d dxbccos x cos bc n ,n
D
pc
Dd
D
c
2 d x cosD .
2 , bd
)= inv(
inv() + ) +inv(
inv()+ )= inv( D d) + inv( + c) D n , d x D
bd bc bc
c)= inv( d)pd+ inv( c)+
inv( d ) + inv(
pc
d
)= x
inv( cos ) + +
inv( dbcc)xxcos
cos
d xD
cos
D n D bc . .
cos

inv(pd) pd + c
inv( pc d x cos dbd
)=bd inv( d ) +
bd d
inv( )
bc c d
bd bc
xbcD
cos
bd bc
bd ddbc xxD cos bc dp
cos + 4 x (tanp x cos( + ))2 ,
pc bd
bd x
d cos .
L
= 2
inv(For ) + inv( )= inv(d) +(for
pd internalpchelical gear
inv( )
measurement bd bd bc bc
c
dbd x cosover bd balls):
dbc x cos D bc 2 x tan
D p . 2n 2
inv(+pd)inv( + inv(pc)= inv(d) + inv(c) D D
inv(pd) )= inv(d) + inv(c) d x cos d x cos .
D
pc
D . (21)bd bd
dbd xbdcos dbc xbccos bc bc
( )= inv( ) + inv( ) D
pcpc)= inv(dd) + inv(cc) d xDcos d x cos .
dbdbd x cos bdbd dbcbc x cos bcbc
The ball or pin diameters should also satisfy Equations dp
p = arctan( x tan),
710. Measurements over two balls for external helical gears d
(Fig. 5) and between two balls for internal helical gears (Fig.
6) are defined by Equations 1113 and 14, accordingly.
Measurement over two pins for external helical gears with
even number of teeth is also defined by Equation 11.

For external helical gears with odd number of teeth, the sin( + ) = 0.
shortest distance L between the pin centers does not lay in the tanp n
transverse section of the circle diameter dp. This distance and
measurement over two pins for external helical gears with odd Figure 6Measurement between balls of the internal helical
number of teeth definition is described in Reference 4. The gear.
transverse distance Lt between the ball centers, in case of the (25)
dp M= L+D.
oddLnumber of teeth,is + 4 x (tanp x cos( the
2 always greater than ))2 , L that
+ distance
=
is (Fig.7): 2 x tanp
dp
2n 2 Span Measurement
2 + 4 x (tanp x cos( + ))2 , Span measurement is the measurement of the distance
L=
L = 2 x tan
d p
2 + 4 x (tanp x cos(2n + 2 ))2 , (22)
2 x tanp p
2n 2
across several teeth, along a line tangent to the base cylinder
(Ref. 5). This kind of inspection is used for gears with ex-
dp ternal teeth. It is also applied only for gears with symmetric
where the helix angle p = arctan(
at the pin center diameter bp is:
x tan), teeth, because it is impossible to have a common tangent line
d
dp to two concentric base cylinders of asymmetric tooth flanks.
p = arctan( dp x tan), (23) Span measurement over nw teeth (Fig. 9) is:
p = arctan( d x tan), W= (Sb+(nw 1) x pb) x cos b,
d
and the angle l is a solution of the equation: W= (Sb+(nw 1) x pb) x cos b, (26)
where Sb is the tooth thickness at the base diameter:
sin( + ) = 0. (24)
tanp n
Sb= S x cos + db x inv(), (27)
Then the measurement over sin(twopins + )for = 0. external helical = S x cos + db x inv(),
S
tanp sin(n + ) = 0. b
continued
gears with odd number tan of teeth (Fig.n8) is:
p
www.geartechnology.com January/February 2011 x dbGEARTECHNOLOGY 63
M= L+D. pb = x db ,
p = n ,
 Figure 7Definition of the distance between the pin centers Figure 8Measurement over pins of the external helical gear
for the helical gears with odd number of teeth. with odd number of teeth.

W= (S +(n 1) x p ) x cos ,
. W= (Sbb+(nww 1) x pbb) x cos bb,
a b
Figure 9Span measurement; a = spur gear; b = helical gear.
S = S x cos + d x inv(),
Sbb= S x cos + dbb x inv(),
pb is the circular pitch at the base diameter
x db
pb = x db ,
pb = n , (28)
n
nw is number of teeth for span measurement
2 n nwmax ,
2 nww nwmax ,
(29)
nwmax is maximum number of teeth

d dp
d d
2 2
S
nwmax = 2a 2b
S bb . (30)
nwmax = a b
.
pbb
Calipers, micrometers or special gages are used for span
measurement.
CMM Gear Inspection
Figure 10CMM measurement of asymmetric gear. CMM gear inspection (Fig. 10) allows mapping the whole
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Kappelevich pgs 60-65.indd 64 1/19/2011 10:38:14 AM

surface of all teeth including the fillet profiles. However, it
is typically used to control the involute accuracy. Although
the gear tooth fillet is an area of maximum bending stress
concentration, its profile and accuracy are marginally defined
on the gear drawing by typically very generous root diameter
tolerance and, in some cases, by the minimum fillet radius.
The Direct Gear Design method optimizes the gear tooth fil-
let profile for minimum bending stress concentration (Ref. 6).
For such critical- application gears the tooth fillet profile must
be clearly specified, toleranced and inspected.
The whole tooth (including the fillet) CAD profile at the
average material condition presented as the B-spline or the
tangent arcs accompany the gear drawing for the CMM in-
spection. The data set also includes the involute flank and
fillet profile tolerances that are established by the designer
depending on the gear accuracy and also the manufacturing
technology. The CMM is programmed to indicate if the in-
spected tooth profile points lay within the corridor defined by
the CAD tooth profile profile tolerance. A similar inspec-
tion technique is used to inspect curved surfaces, for example,
of the airfoil air compressor or gas turbine blades.

Summary and Conclusion

This paper has covered the measurement specifics of the
symmetric and asymmetric gears that are designed using the
Direct Gear Design method. They are:
A defined measurement over (or between) balls and
pins for external and internal gears
A defined span measurement for external gears with
symmetric teeth
Descriptions of some CMM inspection issues for
directly designed gears

Presented materials should be helpful for manufacturing

custom gears with symmetric and asymmetric teeth.

References:
1. Kapelevich, A.L. Geometry and Design of Involute Spur
Gears with Asymmetric Teeth, Mechanism and Machine
Theory, 35 (2000), 117130.
2. Kapelevich, A.L. and R.E. Kleiss. Direct Gear Design for
Spur and Helical Gears, Gear Technology, September/Octo-
ber 2002, 2935.
3. Kapelevich, A.L. Measurement Over Pins of the Gears
with Asymmetric Teeth (in Russian), Mashinovedenie, (6)
(1986) 109110.
4. Nezhurin, I.P. Calculation of the Measurement Over pins
of the Helical Gears with Odd Number of Teeth, Vestnik
Mashinostroeniya, (2) 1961, (in Russian).
5. Standard ANSI/AGMA 1012F90, Gear Nomenclature:
Definitions of Terms with Symbols.
6. Kapelevich, A.L. and Y.V. Shekhtman. Tooth Fillet Pro-
file Optimization for Gears with Symmetric and Asymmetric
Teeth, AGMA Fall Technical Meeting, San Antonio, Texas,
October 1214, 2008, (08FTM06), republished in Gear Tech-
nology, September/October 2009, 7379.
Dr. Alexander L. Kapelevich possesses more than 30 years
custom gear research and design experience, as well as over 100
successfully accomplished projects for a variety of gear applica-
tions and clients. His company, AKGears, provides consulting
servicesfrom complete geartrain design (for customers with-
out sufficient gear expertise) to retouching (typically tooth and
fillet profile optimization) of existing customers designsin
the following areas: traditional or direct gear design; current
design refinement; R&D; and failure-and-testing analysis. The
company provides gear drive design optimization for increased
load capacity; size and weight reduction; noise and vibration
reduction; higher gear efficiency; backlash minimization; in-
creased lifetime; higher reliability; cost reduction; and gear
ratio modification and adjustment. Kapelevich is the author of
numerous technical publications and patents, and is a member
of the AGMA Aerospace and Plastic Gearing Committees, SME,
ASME and SAE International. He holds a Ph.D. in mechani-
cal engineering from Moscow State Technical University and
a Masters Degree in mechanical engineering from the Moscow
Aviation Institute.

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