Optical Fiber To Optical Storage Films

P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH
PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
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OPTICAL FIBER SENSOR TECHNOLOGY: constraints. Among the few sensors suited for incorpora-
INTRODUCTION AND EVALUATION tion into materials and structures made of carbon- or glass-
AND APPLICATION fiber-reinforced polymer composites, optical fibers are at
the forefront.
NEZIH MRAD Compared to more traditional measurement methods,
Institute for Aerospace Research fiber-optic sensors offer unique capabilities: monitoring
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada the manufacturing process of composite parts, perform-
ing nondestructive testing once fabrication is complete,
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and enabling health monitoring and structural control.
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INTRODUCTION Because of their minimal weight, small size, high band-
width, and immunity to electromagnetic interference,
Imagine a world where mechanical structures achieve the fiber-optic sensors have significant performance advan-
optimum functionality demonstrated by biological systems tages over traditional sensors. Furthermore, optical fibers
such as the human body. These nonbiological mechanical
ate are steadily becoming more cost-effective due to advances
structures that are also known as smart, adaptive, and in the telecommunication and optoelectronic industries.
intelligent structures could mimic human muscular, sen- The applications of this sensing technology include civil
sory, and nervous systems by employing embeddable sen- structural monitoring systems (e.g., vibration and struc-
sors, actuators, advanced signal processing, and control tural monitoring of a bridge), military systems (e.g., under-
systems. Sensors act as the structures nerve endings send- water acoustic arrays), industrial manufacturing systems
ing signals to the processor (brain) which in turn sends (e.g., process control sensor networks), chemical monitor-
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signals to the actuators that take on the role of respon- ing (e.g., corrosion detection in aircraft structures).
sive or adaptive muscles. Figure 1 illustrates the concept In contrast to the classical sensors based largely on the
of such a smart structure. These structures, introduced ap- measurement of electrical parameters such as variable re-
proximately three decades ago, are only recently finding sistance or capacitance, fiber-optic sensors use a variety
wider acceptance and generating greater interest among of novel phenomena inherent in the structure of the opti-
researchers and industry. Aircraft, spacecraft, bridges, cal fiber. These phenomena are presented in the following
highways, airport runways, and buildings are among the sections of this article. The next section briefly introduces
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many areas of development for which the combination of optical fibers and their characteristics, and the section fol-
advanced materials, sensors, actuators, control systems, lowing provides an overview of fiber-optic classifications.
and signal processing schemes are suitably blended to The different transducer mechanisms of fiber-optic sensors
achieve smart structural systems whose objective is op- are presented in the subsequent section. Then, an evalu-
timizing safety, reliability, cost, and performance. ation of the sensing technology is presented and finally,
Advanced structures and systems technology will ben- several examples of the application of the fiber-optic sens-
efit the areas of aerospace structural health monitoring, ing technology. Also highlighted are some of the trends and
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nondestructive inspection (NDI), quality control and ad- requirements of this technology for smart structure imple-
vanced processing, noise reduction and elimination, vibra- mentation.
tion isolation and damping, and shape and structural con-
trol. These nonbiological mechanical systems, have also
been found to benefit the civil infrastructure, the automo- FIBER OPTICS
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tive industry, and the biomedical sector. Not only can these
systems monitor their structural integrity, but they can The principal component in optical fibers is a bundle of
also forewarn the onset of abnormalities in their state, transparent, dielectric glass or plastic fibers that can carry
hence avoiding impending failures. There are many advan- light. In the early 1950s, it was discovered that bundles of
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tages of such systems: less downtime, less frequent main- free fibers whose ends are polished and bonded together
tenance, and more efficient material usage, in addition to with epoxy form flexible light guides. If no attempt is made
improved safety, reliability, performance, and economy. to align these fibers in an ordered array, they form an in-
Several key technologies such as electrorheological flu- coherent bundle of light carriers. The advantages of the
ids, shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric materials, mag- flexible light carriers are that they are relatively inexpen-
netostrictive and electrostrictive materials, and microelec- sive and easy to manufacture. Their primary function is to
tromechanical devices (MEMS) play major roles in the conduct light from one region to another. They are usually
development of smart structures. These technologies can used as a low-loss, low-dispersion transmission medium
all serve both as sensors and actuators. However, their and low-cost communication alternative. Conversely, when
main limitation lies in the obstacles each presents to the the fibers are carefully arranged, they transmit point-to-
process of being embedded into composite parts. Many point images through their coherent bundle that is com-
types of stand-alone sensors are available, but the ma- monly known as a flexible image carrier. Such optical
jority are not suitable for integration within smart struc- fibers are used for remote observation in hazardous or con-
tures due to shape, size, temperature, and environmental fined environments. Common applications include nuclear
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Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
716 OPTICAL FIBER SENSOR TECHNOLOGY: INTRODUCTION AND EVALUATION AND APPLICATION
Conformal load
bearing
antenna structures
Eliminate structural dynamic problems

(vibrations, buffet, flutter, etc.)
Enhance vehicle performance (manuverability, drag, radar signature)
while eliminating the need for discrete control surfaces
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Piezoelectric Adaptive
vibration structures
Figure 1. Concept of new generation smart aircraft that suppression
emulate biological functions.
ate
reactor cores and internal jet engine inspection, as well as propagation of higher order (multiple) modes. A fiber is
orthoscopic surgery. typically chosen that has a cutoff wavelength slightly below
An optical fiber consists of a light wave guide inner the desired operating wavelength. For typical laser sources
core and a surrounding cladding (Fig. 2). The refractive whose output wavelengths are between 850 and 1550 m,
index of the core, nco , is relatively large compared to that of the core diameter of a single-mode optical fiber ranges from
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the cladding, ncl . The core and cladding are surrounded, in 2 to 10 m.

practical applications, by a protective jacket. The change in There are three major types of optical fibers in current
refractive index provides the required mechanics for light use: multimode stepped index, multimode graded index,
propagation within the fiber core. Depending on the wave- and single-mode stepped or graded index fibers. The mul-
length of the light input, waveguide geometry and distribu- timode stepped index fiber has a homogeneous core that
tion of its refractive indexes, several modes can propagate has a uniform index of refraction. Typically, it has a core
through the fiber. The number of modes M is given by (1); diameter of 50 to 150 m and a cladding outer diameter
of approximately 100 to 250 m. It is the least expen-
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2 2 sive fiber type but the least effective transmitting medium.

1 2r 1 2r
M = V 2 /2 = n2co n2cl = NA , (1) Because different modes travel different path lengths as
2 0 2 0
they propagate through the fiber, transmission distances
must be kept short to avoid considerable modal disper-
where 0 is the light wavelength in vacuum, r is the fiber
sion. For a 50 m core diameter fiber, the modal disper-
core radius, and NA is the numerical aperture [NA = (n2co
sion of 14 ns/km, corresponded to a 70 Mbit km/s band-
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n2cl )1/2 ]. For monomode or single-mode optical fibers, the

width, was reported (4). These multimode stepped index
condition,
fibers are well suited for applications that require high-
power densities, such as medical and industrial laser power
V 2.405 0 cutoff = (2.6)r NA (2) delivery.
The multimode graded index fibers have a core refrac-
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must be satisfied to allow propagation of only the LP01 tive index that continuously and radially decreases from
(HE11 ) mode, where LP01 and HE11 are designated as the the center of the cladding interference. These fibers greatly
polarized and exact modes, respectively (2,3). Equation (2) reduce the modal dispersion inherent in the stepped index
represents the wavelength below which the fiber allows optical fiber because the different modes travel in curved
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Protective
jacket
Cladding
Core
r
r 210 fibe
be m
ode
e fi
501
50 m
d -m
ltimo gle
Mu Sin
Figure 2. Optical fiber characte- 100
250
801
20 m
m
ristics.

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
OPTICAL FIBER SENSOR TECHNOLOGY: INTRODUCTION AND EVALUATION AND APPLICATION 717
Refractive
Input Output High-order Dispersion
index
pulse pulse mode
profile
n2
20 MHz-km
n1
Multimode step index Low-order

mode
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n2
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n1 1000 MHz-km
Single-mode step index

Dispersion
ate n2
n1 500 MHz-km @ 1300 nm
160 MHz-km @ 850 nm
Multimode graded index

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Figure 3. Three basic types of optical fiber waveguides.
paths of nearly equal travel times. They possess core di- bandwidths are shown in Fig. 3. Typical properties of these
ameters of 20 to 90 m and are used to increase the fiber fibers are also listed in Table 1 (5). Advantages of optical
bandwidth. These intermediately priced fibers are widely fibers are numerous and include small size, light weight,
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used in medium-range communication applications, such immunity to electromagnetic and radio frequency interfer-
as local networks. ence (EMI/RFI), electrical passivity and isolation, appli-
The single-mode optical fiber transmits only the funda- cability in high-voltage environments, resistance to corro-
mental zero-order mode (LP01 ). Light beams travel straight sion and ionizing radiation, high bandwidth capabilities
through the optical fiber core without any reflections at and security, geometric versatility and flexibility, low-cost
the core-cladding sidewalls. By employing these fibers that production, and solid-state reliability.
have typical core diameters of only 2 to 10 m, modal dis- When used as sensors, optical fibers provide the abil-
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persions are eliminated. Because of their high bandwidth, ity to measure various physical parameters, such as tem-
these fibers are used in all modern long-range communi- perature, pressure, strain, displacement, rotation, mag-
cation systems. netic/electric field, and corrosion (610). Table 2 illustrates
The three basic types of optical fibers and their some of the potentially detectable parameters. To date, it
characteristic waveguides along with their corresponding is known that more than 60 different parameters can be
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Table 1. Typical Properties of Various Optical Fiber Types

Numerical
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Loss Aperture Core Size Core to Bandwidth

Typea (dB/km) (NA) (o.d. Microns) Cladding Ratio (MHz-km)
Multimode
Step Index
Glass-clad 400600 0.40.6 5070 0.90.95 20
Glass (Bundle)
Plastic-clad 310 0.30.4 200600 0.7 20
silica
Glass-clad 26 0.20.3 50200 0.40.8 20
glass
(low Loss) 26 0.15 58 0.04 1000
Single-Mode
a
A variety of material combinations can be used for both core and cladding; however it is generally application de-
pendent. Some combination examples include cladding and core of quartz glass, plastic core and cladding, normal
glass core and cladding, and plastic cladding and quartz glass core known as plastic-cladded fibers (PCFs).

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 2. Potentially Detectable Parameters Using length optical fiber sensors. Short gauge length sensors
Fiber-Optic Sensors are comparable to conventional sensors (i.e., resistive foil
Strain Chemical species Damage strain gauges and thermocouples). They are generally re-
Temperature Radiation Cracking ferred to as point or discrete sensors and typically measure
Pressure Humidity Wear physical parameters across distances of several millime-
Displacement (position) pH levels Corrosion ters (less than 20 mm). Long gauge length sensors have
Acceleration Liquid levels Impact gauge lengths that range from several centimeters to hun-
Angular (Linear) Index of refraction Vibration dreds of meters; but typically measure physical parame-
velocity ters across distances of a few centimeters to a few meters
Acoustic emission Magnetic/Electric fields Flow
(40 cm to 5 m). These are known as distributed, spatially
distributed, distributed-effect, integrating and/or averag-
ing sensors. Figure 5 illustrates the classification and con-
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measured using fiber-optic sensors. In addition, these sen- figuration of these sensors and the following sections pro-
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sors can be used in applications where no electrical analog vide mathematical models of the two broad classes of these
is suitable. When embedded directly into materials, optical sensors.
fiber sensors can be used to provide in situ process monitor- Let m(x, t) denote a spatially distributed signal associ-
ing (11,12). In conjunction with nondestructive evaluation ated with a distributed parameter of interest that is mea-
schemes, they can also be used to monitor and evaluate the
ate sured across a nonempty spatial domain 0 . A sensor is
integrity of these structures once they have been manufac- said to be spatially distributed or simply distributed, if the
tured and also to check for flaws that may have resulted sensor output ysd (x, t) is a spatially distributed function
from processing and handling. These sensors can further be proportional to the distributed parameter being measured:
connected into a health-monitoring network to determine it can be expressed as
maintenance requirements and operational readiness.
Figure 4 illustrates the concept of a health monitoring sys- ysd (x, t) m(x, t), (3)
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tem for a typical fighter jet.

where m(x, t) is defined only for x 0 and may represent
the velocity, strain, displacement, or shape of a structure.
CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS
These sensors are also known as intrinsically distributed
sensors. A sensor is said to be an integral, averaging, or
The general principle behind fiber-optic sensing is quite
distributed-effect sensor, if the sensor output yi (t) is only
simple. In fiber-optic communication applications, it is un-
a time-dependent scalar function that is derived from the
desirable for a lightwave sent through the optical fiber to
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distributed signal associated with the measured parame-

be affected by environmental disturbances (load, pressure,
ter, it can be expressed as
temperature, and humidity) because they may corrupt the
transmitted communication signals. In fiber-optic sensing
applications, through proper signal analysis and interpre- yi (t) = f (x) m(x, t)dx , (4)
tation, such corruptive environmental parameters can be 0
detected and evaluated properly to provide system infor-
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mation. Through measurement of the intensity and phase where f (x) is a spatially varying sensor sensitivity function
change in the light that exits the optical fiber, the signal that determines how the spatially distributed information
output can be quantitatively evaluated. m(x, t) is combined into the sensor output. This sensitivity
From a practical point of view, optical fiber sensors can function can be established during the manufacturing pro-
be divided into two broad classes, short and long gauge cess of the sensor to provide a desired sensor output. This
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Fiber-optic sensor
Network of fiber-optic sensor
Head on display
Central processing unit
Wing
Head on Central
Optical Fuselage
display processing
signal from
Figure 4. A typical concept of an aircraft fiber-optic unit
health monitoring system. Tail

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Point or short gauge

Signal processing unit length sensor
Communication link
Long gauge length or integrating

Signal processing unit or distributed-effect sensor
Communication link
Signal processing unit Distributed sensor
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Individually addressed,
quasi-distributed or
Signal processing unit Communication links multiplexed
sensor array
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Quasi-distributed or
Signal processing unit multiplexed sensor array
Communication links
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Figure 5. Classification of optical fiber sensors.
is accomplished by properly selecting the fiber protrusion classified as extrinsic and intrinsic. This refers to the sens-
speed and doping rate of the cladding. If the sensor sensi- ing region of the fiber sensor that is either outside or in-
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tivity function f (x) in (Eq. 4) is defined so that side the fiber, respectively. In the extrinsic (indirect) type
(Fig. 6) (4), the optical fiber acts only as a light-transmitting
f (x) = (x x0 ), x 0 , (5) and communication medium. Received light intensity is af-
fected by the variation in the physical parameters in the
then the sensor output represented by a time-dependent transducer (sensitive) element. The transducer element
scalar function, does not necessarily consist of optical fibers, and the optical
effect occurs in a different medium. Such sensors usually
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employ multimode optical fibers, although monomode opti-

yd (t) = (x x0 ) m (x, t) dx = m(x0 , t), (6) cal fibers are occasionally employed. An example of an ex-
0 trinsic sensor is the extrinsic FabryPerot interferometer
(EFPI) that has been implemented for measuring strain,
describes the sensor output of a discrete or point sensor lo- temperature, and vibrational mode analysis (1416).
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cated at x0 . Therefore, distributed and/or distributed-effect In the intrinsic (direct) type, the optical fiber itself acts
sensors could be used as point sensors through proper as the sensing element, which includes both transducer
selection of the sensitivity function and/or proper sensor and communication media. When the conditions of the
placement (13). sensed medium change, the light propagating properties
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Discrete or short gauge length sensors perform mea- of the optical fiber also change and provide a measure-
surements at a discrete point along the gauge length of the ment of the change in condition. Sensors of this type are
optical fiber. If several sensors are used, then the measure- immune to dirty environments due to their closed opti-
ment system takes on the character of a series-distributed cal path and are found in fiber-optic gyroscopes and fiber-
array of discrete transducers. This sensor configuration is optic hydrophones. Such fiber sensors include the sapphire
also known as a quasi-distributed, multiplexed, or multi- fiber-based intrinsic FabryPerot interferometric sensor
point array sensor system, as well as a distributed sensor (IFPI) (17) that has been successfully implemented for
system (Fig. 5). Practical applications of optical fiber sen- high-temperature measurements and the in-fiber Bragg
sors may necessitate using a hybrid sensing system that grating (IFBG) fiber-optic sensor that has been imple-
incorporates both distributed-effect and multiplexed opti- mented for strain and temperature measurements (8,18).
cal fiber sensors. Both multimode and monomode fibers are used for intrinsic
In addition to the classification of fiber-optic sensors as sensing.
multimode and monomode, long and short gauge, and dis- There are advantages and disadvantages of using either
tributed and discrete, optical fiber sensors can be further type of sensor. The extrinsic types are less sensitive and

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) Sensitive element

(b) Sensitive element
Optical fiber Optical fiber
Disturbance
Led Disturbance
Led Photodetector Photodetector
Figure 6. (a) Extrinsic and (b) intrinsic intensity modulation.
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easier to use. They also exhibit ingress/egress connection interrogated by using optical time-domain reflectometry
difficulties into and out of the light modulator. The intrin- (OTDR) schemes. Figure 7c illustrates the classification
sic types of sensors are more sensitive and more easily of optical fiber sensor networks for distributed measure-
multiplexed. Their intrinsic nature reduces or eliminates
ate ments.
the connection difficulties experienced by extrinsic sen- A comparison between distributed and discrete mea-
sors. However, they require more elaborate and complex surement techniques and their state of progress was tab-
signal demodulation techniques and shielding from un- ulated and discussed by Ferdinand et al. (28). A compari-
wanted external perturbations. Intrinsic sensors are usu- son of distributed sensing and multiplexing methods was
ally smaller in diameter and less intrusive for embedded also tabulated and discussed by Dakin (27). A history and
applications because they do not require a specific trans- application of some of these techniques along with basic
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duction mechanism (i.e., the diameter for an EFPI optical principles and reported performance features of various
fiber is 180 m, whereas it is only 130 m for the IFBG sen- distributed sensor configurations (intrinsic and quasi) and
sors). Extrinsic sensors are usually bulky and do not easily multiplexed sensor networks was provided by Kersey and
lend themselves to miniaturization and embedment within Dandridge (29).
composite smart structures. They also possess limited mul-
tiplexing capabilities. From a commercial point of view,
OPTICAL FIBER SENSING MECHANISMS
intrinsic sensors tend to be more robust, versatile for in-
stallation, and significantly more expensive than extrinsic
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In the sensing community, fiber-optic sensors are also clas-

sensors.
sified by their transducer mechanisms. The transducer
Several sensor output interrogation techniques have
mechanism affects the properties of the transmitted light
been developed and implemented for all classes and types
in the fiber, such as intensity, polarization, phase, and
of optical fiber sensors. These techniques are employed
modal content (wavelength). Sensors classified by these
in structural and damage assessment (19,20), nondestruc-
transducer mechanisms are known as intensity, polarimet-
tive evaluation (2124), and measurement of physical ob-
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ric, phase, or modal content sensors. In multimode sens-

servables such as temperature, external forces, pressure,
ing, external disturbances (signal contaminants) influence
strain, as well as electric and magnetic fields (9,25,26).
the transmission properties of the optical fiber (i.e., the in-
For the sake of completeness, however, it is useful to list
tensity of the light transmitted through the optical fiber
the major interrogation techniques without getting into
changes as a function of the measurand). However, ex-
details. These techniques are presented in Table 3 and
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ternal parameters acting on monomode sensors influence

in Fig. 7 (27,28). Figure 7a illustrates the possible mech-
the phase of the lightwave propagating through the optical
anisms which can be used for intrinsically distributed
fiber. Table 4 provides the optical modulation techniques
sensors, and Fig. 7b shows the various methods that can
along with their corresponding physical mechanisms and
be used to effect quasi-distributed optical fiber sensing sys-
measuring methods. An overview of the effects of some
tems based on a simple in-line array of sensor elements
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physical disturbances on the lightwave optical modula-

tion are provided in Table 5 (4). Sensors based on the op-
tical modulation of Table 4 are briefly presented in this
Table 3. Fiber-Optic Sensor Interrogation Techniques section.
Abbreviations Techniques
Intensiometric Optical Fiber Sensors
OTDR Optical time-domain reflectometry
POTDR Polarization OTDR Intensity-based sensors detect the change in the amount
OFDR Optical frequency-domain reflectometry of light traveling through an optical fiber as a function of
FMCW Frequency modulated continuous wave the perturbing environmental parameters. The light inten-
SFM Step frequency method sity attenuation or loss can be associated with transmis-
TDM Time delay multiplexing
sion, reflection, microbending, absorption, and scattering
WDM Wavelength domain multiplexing
Fig. 8 (5). The light intensity can also be modulated by

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) Intrinsic distributed sensors
Mode Rayleigh Raman

coupling backscatter
POTDR OFDR OTDR Scattering Amplification

Few Polarization
mode modes
fibers
Coherent Sub-
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carrier
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Measurand Measurand Measurand Measurand Measurand
dependent dependent dependent dependent dependent
coupling polarization loss scattering polarization
properties properties
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(b) Quasi-distributed sensors
Loss Fluorescence
mechanisms Reflective
Modified
OTDR OTDR
OTDR
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OFDR OFDR
Microbending
Doped fiber
Modified Retroreflection Interface sections
cladding mechanisms reflectometry
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Thermochroic Bulk
Waveguide Fabry-
elements elements
mismatch Perot
(c) Distributed measurement

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Continuous-series
Discrete
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Ring Star Parallel Series Fluorescence Rayleigh Raman

scattering scattering
CIAO TDM Coherence WDM OFDR OTDR POTDR

(digital encoding multiplexing
and optical feed)
Figure 7. (a) Intrinsic sensing mechanisms, (b) Quasi-distributed sensing techniques, (c) Classi-
fication of optical fiber sensor networks.
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PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 4. Light Wave Modulation and Measuring Methods

Modulation Physical Mechanism Measuring Method
Intensity Change in transmitted light due Analog
to change in absorption, emission,
or scattering
Polarization Change in polarization tensor Polarization analysis
and comparison of amplitudes
Modal Wavelength dependence of Comparison of the intensity
absorption, emission, and of two wavelengths
refractive index
Phase Interference between sensed Counting the fringes
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signal and reference fibers or or phase measurement
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various propagation modes in a
multimode fiber
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Table 5. Effects of Physical Parameter on Optical Modulation in
Fiber-Optic Sensors
Physical Parameter Optical Modulation Effect Fiber Physical Effecta
Mechanical force Strain birefringent a, n
Pressure Piezo-optical effect n
Deformation Piezoabsorption a
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Density change Triboluminescence e

Electric field Electro-optical effect n
Dielectric polarization Electrochromatic effect a
Electric current Electroluminescence e
Magnetic field Magneto-optical effect n
Magnetic polarization Faraday effect n
Magnetoabsorption a
Temperature Thermal effect n, a, e
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Change in chemical Absorption change a

composition Refractive index change n
Fluorescence e
a
n: change in refractive index; a: change in absorption; e: fluorescent emission.
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Microbend
Irregular
end finish
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Bubble Impurity Density change

(absorption) (scattering)
Figure 8. Causes of light intensity attenuation in an optical fiber.

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Light out
Light Light
source out
Optical fiber
Light source Composite part
Figure 9. Intensity-based damage detection using an array of
fiber-optic sensors.

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
using periodic microbends (30,31), dielectric thin films that to variations in the intensity of the light source and ambi-
offer differential spectral reflectivity (32), or Rayleigh scat- ent conditions such as dust, moisture and smoke.
tering that is used in optical time-domain reflectometry
(OTDR) (33). Polarimetric Optical Fiber Sensors
Intensiometric sensors offer the advantages of ease of
Polarimetric-type sensors rely on coherent interference
fabrication, robustness, and simplicity of signal process-
between two light beams from a common source traveling
ing. For proper functioning, these sensors require more
along two different (orthogonal) polarization axes of a com-
light due to the large multimode fiber core. Generally, they
mon optical fiber. The output of this sensor, which employs
consist of an optical power source, an optical fiber, and
an elliptical clad stress-induced high birefringent (HiBi)
a photodetector and/or optical spectral analyzer. A clas-
fiber and a polarized light source, is expressed by
sical application of these sensors is damage detection in
structural components. In this single-use application, op-
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I0
tical fibers (generally embedded) are treated to have frac- I= (1 + cos ), (7)
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ture strain equivalent to that of the structural host ma- 2
terial. They fracture when the material fractures. In this where I0 is the input light intensity and denotes the
case, one detects the on/off state of light transmission. Us- phase change between the two light beams expressed as
ing a rectangular sensing grid (Fig. 9) consisting of these
fibers, the location of the damage can be determined. Un-
ate = L,
like microbending sensors that provide incremental light
loss that is proportional to the displacement of an ex-
where
trinsic microbending device, these single-use optical sen-
sors cannot measure material properties. Figures 10ac (5) 2
illustrate three types of intensity-modulated sensors. = (np1 np2 ). (8)
0
These are reflective-based displacement sensors, also
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known as Y-guide bifurcated probes, microbending-based In Eq. (8), represents the propagation constant of the
concept displacement sensors, and fluorescent-based opti- light along the light path L, npi (i = 1, 2) denotes the re-
cal fiber sensors. Because some of these sensors are non- fractive index along the polarization axis i, and 0 denotes
contact devices, mechanical loading and wear problems are the wavelength of the light source. Perturbation of the op-
virtually nonexistent. However, they are directly sensitive tical fiber will affect the fiber length and the propagation
constant; hence, it sinusoidally modulates the intensity of
the sensor output. Figure 11 is a basic schematic of a po-
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(a) larimetric sensor.

Light Transmit leg
source Modal Domain Optical Fiber Sensors
The modal domain sensor relies on the interference be-
tween different modes of light beams propagating through
Detector Receive leg
Reflecting an elliptical core (E-core) geometrically induced HiBi op-
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surface tical fiber. For a two-mode modal domain sensor, Eq. (7)
and (8) can also express the sensor output. The propaga-
(b) Displacement tion constant of Eq. (8) is written as a function of the re-
fractive indexes n 01 and n 11 . These indexes indicate the
Detector fundamental (LP01 ) mode and second-order linearly polar-
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Optical fiber ized (LP11 ) mode of the light propagating along the optical
fiber (2),
2
= (n 01 n11 ) . (9)
0
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Light source
In a manner analogous to polarimetric sensors, perturba-
(c) Transmitting leg tion of the optical fiber changes the fiber length and prop-
agation constant and thus varies the sensor output light
intensity sinusoidally. Figure 12 is a schematic of a modal
Light source domain sensor.
Interferometric Optical Fiber Sensors

Detector Receiving leg
Phase-modulated or interferometric sensors rely on either
Figure 10. Intensity-modulated fiber-optic sensor(a) reflective a change in optical phase or spectral encoding (itself a form
mode, (b) microbending mode, (c) fluorescent mode. of phase change) of light to sense a measurand, such as

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Hi Bi (Polarization maintaining
Fiber polarizer lead-in fiber)
(or polarizing fiber)
45 splice
Source 3 dB coupler
Mirrored end
On-axis Hi Bi active fiber
splice
Reference
Figure 11. Polarimetric sensor configuration. Output
Single-mode Hi Bi Single-mode Hi Bi
Two-mode active fiber
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lead-in fiber lead-out fiber

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Source Offset Offset Output
Figure 12. Modal domain sensor configuration. splice splice
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strain, pressure, or temperature. For these phase sensitive
sensors, the output light intensity depends on the phase
of the light according to Eq. (8), where the phase shift is
instance, the MachZehnder interferometer (Fig. 13a) uses
two optical fibers (reference and sensing fibers) of simi-
lar lengths. The resulting difference in path length due to
expressed as perturbation of the sensing arm indicates the perturbed
measurand. In the Michelson interferometer, two fibers
= 2 L2 1 L1 + , of different lengths that have mirrored ends allow the
light beam to reflect and recombine at the output, as il-
dM
lustrated in Fig. 13b. Even though these sensors possess

where
long gauge lengths and a small optical path length dif-
ference (OPD), nL = n1 L1 n2 L2 , the main disadvan-
2
i = ni . (10) tage of these two configurations is that the sensing sys-
0 tem uses two separate fibers to create an optical path
difference. Any non-measurand-induced changes in the
The propagation constants of the light along the light length (i.e., temperature variations) of the fiber leads,
paths L1 and L2 are denoted by 1 and 2 , respectively, and
hte
which is not common to both fibers, will be interpreted as

the arbitrary initial phase shift between these two light a change in the measurand. In practice, fiber lead isola-
paths is denoted by . The wavelength of the light source tion can be difficult to achieve and renders the sensing
and the effective fiber refractive indexes are, respectively, system less efficient, particularly for implementing smart
denoted by 0 and ni (i = 1, 2) for each fiber. Any induced structures.
perturbation in the optical fiber therefore, induces changes In the fiber FabryPerot interferometer (FFPI), the in-
in the propagation constants, the path length of the light, or
rig
trinsic (IFPI), or extrinsic (EFPI) type, the light in the op-

both. Generally, interferometers rely on the interference of tical fiber is split into two beams at the interface of the
light between two coherent light beams that travel along sensing region. One light beam is reflected by a semireflec-
two distinct paths of dissimilar lengths but have a com- tive mirror at the beginning of the sensing region, and the
mon light source. These phase-modulated sensors consist other light beam is reflected back by a fully reflective mir-
of an optical power source, an unperturbed reference fiber,
py
ror at the end of the sensing region, as shown in Fig. 13c.

which is isolated from the perturbing environment, a per- Any change in the gauge length s introduces a change in
turbed sensing fiber, couplers/beam splitters, signal mod- phase (34).
ulator, and photodetectors. The interferometer splits the
light from a common source into two beams that travel
= 4 n s/0 , (11)
Co
along the two paths of different lengths. The recombined

light output of these two beams interferes at the photode-
tector, and the magnitude of the interference is modulated where n and 0 denote the effective fiber refractive in-
to indicate the dependence of the incident perturbation as a dex and the incident light wavelength. Because the two
phase shift in the transmitted signal. The phase of the out- beams recombine at the interface of the sensing region, any
put light is given by Eq. (10). Changes in the fiber lengths induced perturbation along the lead-in/out fiber common to
before and after the sensing regions are common to both both beams cancels out. The gauge length of this interfero-
paths. Therefore, the change in the phase from these con- meter is defined by the physical separation of the reflective
tributions is cancelled out. mirrors.
Figures 13ad illustrate several interferometer con- In the fiber Bragg grating sensor (FBGS), the light in
figurations (e.g., Mach-Zehnder, Michelson, FabryPerot, the sensing fiber is also split into two beams at the be-
and Bragg grating interferometers.) The differences among ginning of the grating. One light beam is reflected at the
these configurations is in the way the optical paths between beginning of the grating (semireflective mirror), and the
the two arms of the interferometer are introduced. For other light beam traverses the grating only to be reflected

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) Source Sensing arm

3 dB coupler 3 dB coupler

Reference arm Output

(b) Source 3 dB coupler Sensing arm

Reference arm Mirrored fiber ends

Output
Sensing region
l
Partially mirrored
ria
(c) Source 3 dB coupler Lead-in/out fiber splice
Mirrored end
Fabry-Perot
cavity
Reference
Output
(i)
ate Internal semi-
reflective mirror
(ii)
Alignment tube
Multimode fiber
Cladding Thin film R

mirror
dM
Splice Gauge s
length, s Single-mode fiber Epoxy
Sensing region
(d) Source 3 dB coupler Lead-in/out fiber

Bragg grating
hte
Reference
Output
Incident light Cladding

Transmitted light
Reflected light
rig
Gauge
length
Figure 13. (a) MachZehnder interferometer configuration, (b) Localized Michelson interfer-
ometer configuration, (c) Intrinsic (i) and extrinsic (ii) FabryPerot interferometer configuration,
py
and (d) Bragg grating sensor configuration.
at the gratings (sensing region), as shown in Fig. 13d. This source bandwidth dependent. The length of the periodic
Co
sensor converts phase changes into spectral information. gratings in the fiber core also defines the gauge length of
Its core refractive index is periodically modulated (grated) the Bragg grating sensor.
and the regions of changed refractive index reflect light
that travel down the core. The scattered light will be out
of phase and tend to cancel, except when the wavelength COMPARISON OF OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS
of the incoming light satisfies the Bragg condition,
Fiber-optic sensors are becoming increasingly widespread
and are at the forefront for incorporation into materials
0 = 2n. (12)
and structures made of carbon- and glass-fiber-reinforced
polymer composites. These sensors were initially devel-
In this case, the light reflected by each perturbation oped for military and space applications and have emerged
adds constructively and leads to the formation of back- as the new generation of sensors for disciplines ranging
reflected peaks whose center wavelength is 0 . The peri- from medical to civil engineering. Some of the earlier dis-
odicity of the grating, , also known as grating pitch is advantages of these sensors are still posing a challenge

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 6. Summary of Optical Sensors and Potential Use in Smart Structures

Typical Uses Potential Use in Smart
Sensor Type Properties Measured (Industry) Structures
Intensity Nuclear radiation Electro-optical High
Temperature transducers
Chemical variables Pressure recorders
Flowmeters
Spectrometers
Polarization Electrical variables Current transducers Low
Voltage transducers
Phase Mechanical variables Hydrophones Very high
(interferometric) Strain Magnetometers
l
Pressure Gyroscopes
ria
Temperature change Current detectors
Chemical variables Processing
ate
to the scientific and engineering communities and have
resulted in the development of different signal interpre-
tation technologies and sensing mechanisms. Although
A comparative evaluation of optical fiber sensors was
conducted by De Vries et al. (38) who concluded that Mach
Zehnder and Michelson interferometers possess the high-
the phase modulated MachZehnder interferometers have est sensitivity, followed by FabryPerot and Bragg grat-
a self-referencing mechanism, provide high level of sen- ing based sensors. It was also found that they possess the
sitivity, and are useful across a much wider dynamic highest frequency response in a moderate linear range
range, they still require fiber lead insulation and complex and have fewer range limitations. MachZehnder and
dM
output signal processing in addition to the limitation of Michelson interferometers were also found to have the
unidirectional and single parameter measurement. The most lead-in sensitivity whereas FabryPerot and Bragg
use of white-light interferometry and Brinouilli scatter- grating sensors have the least. The study further indicated
ing have recently been employed by Bock and Urbanczyk that FabryPerot and Bragg grating sensors possess less
(35) and Bao et al. (36) to reduce the existing limitation of complex signal processing requirements, moderate-to-high
fiber-optic sensors by providing dual parameter (tempera- multiplexing capabilities, and lower implementation cost.
ture, strain, and pressure) measurement. These advanced Although the previously mentioned sensors are classified
hte
and promising schemes still come with the challenge of among the most advanced and developed systems, OTDR
reducing the systems cost, enhancing its multiplexing based systems are established as the most mature tech-
capabilities, and reducing its extensive signal process- nology but have the highest cost and lowest sensitivity
ing requirements. However, from the point of view of and frequency response. Table 7 illustrates the compar-
smart structures, interferometric-based sensors are as- ative evaluation where the ranking is as follows:
sessed as most suited for material characterization and
1. Sensitivity : the higher the rating, the more sensi-
rig
mechanical evaluation, whereas intensity-modulated sen-

tive the sensor.
sors are best suited for chemical applications. Table 6
illustrates the sensor type and its potential use in smart 2. Frequency response : the higher the rating, the
structures (37). larger the bandwidth.
py
Table 7. Performance Evaluation of Fiber Optic Sensor for Engineering Structures

Frequency Signal Lead-in MUXing Range Research
Sensor Types Sensitivity Response Processing Sensitivity Linearity Capability Limitation Cost Status
Co
MachZehnder 10 8 5 3 4 7 9 7 6
Michelson 10 8 4 3 4 7 9 7 6
FabryPerot 9 8 6 7 4 6 9 8 8
(intrinsic)
FabryPerot 9 8 6 8 4 5 9 8 7
(extrinsic)
E-core, two mode 6 7 6 9 5 7 9 8 7
OTDR (Fresnel) 4 3 4 9 8 8 8 3 10
OTDR (Rayleigh) 3 3 4 4 8 5 6 3 9
Polarimetric 8 8 6 8 5 6 8 7 7
Grating-based 9 8 6 9 4 6 5 7 8
(Bragg reflector)
Twin core 6 8 5 7 7 4 8 7 6
Coupler-based 6 8 5 8 7 5 6 7 10
Liquid-core fibers 4 4 9 8 7 4 7 5 8

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Distributed system becomes

more cost effective Discrete sensors
Quasi-distributed or
multiplexed sensors
Multiplexed system becomes
Distributed long gauge
more cost effective
length sensor
System cost
Distributed-effect long
gauge length sensor
l
ria
Number of sensed points Figure 14. Selection of sensing system.
ate
3. Signal processing complexity : the higher the rat-
ing, the lower the signal processing complexity.
Recent development in the area of fiber-optic sensing
has identified EFPI and ILFE sensors as the most ap-
4. Lead sensitivity : the higher the rating, the less sen- pealing sensing technology similar to resistive foil strain
sitive the sensor. gauges. However, Bragg grating sensor technology is iden-
5. Linearity : the higher the rating, the greater the lin- tified as the undisputed champion in multiplexing consid-
ear range. erations and multiaxis parameter measurements. This is
dM
due to the sensors capabilities of multiplexing hundreds

6. Multiplexing capability : the higher the rating, the
of gratings on the same fiber with minimal added require-
higher the multiplexing capability.
ments for signal processing. In Table 8, Sirkis (39) identi-
7. Range limitation: the higher the rating, the fewer fies the sensors and their respective sensitivities and mul-
restrictions on the sensor. tiplexing capabilities.
8. Cost : the higher the rating, the less expensive the
implementation of the sensor.
FabryPerot Optical Fiber Sensor
hte
9. Research status : the higher the rating, the more

advanced the implementation of the sensor. Numerous types of optical fiber versions of the classical
FabryPerot interferometric sensors for material evalu-
Regardless of the extensive development efforts and the ation have been proposed and demonstrated (40). Tech-
countless schemes used in the interrogation of optical fiber niques to create the Fabry-Perot cavity have varied from
sensor perturbing parameters and the availability of the the fabrication of Bragg gratings in the fiber (41) to the
many types of stand-alone sensing systems, only a few can use of airglass interfaces as reflectors at the fiber ends
rig
be considered for integration in smart structures. However (42). Lee and Taylor (43) described a technique based on
the choice of these (distributed vs. discrete) sensors is ap- fabricating pairs of semi-reflective splices at predefined
plication and cost dependent as illustrated by Figure 14. locations in otherwise continuous fiber lengths. Because
The few sensors that have a potential for integration into the electromagnetic field does not leave the fiber, the sen-
smart structures focus on interferometric techniques that sor is referred to as an intrinsic FabryPerot interferomet-
py
employ either single and multimode fibers, as well as in- ric (IFPI) optical fiber sensor. To alleviate the polarization
trinsic or extrinsic transducing mechanisms. Among these problems and the limited axial strain measurements at
sensors, FabryPerot and Bragg grating sensors were the this intrinsic method, the sensor is designed to allow re-
most attractive and most promising. flecting the input light field at the surface on either side
Co
Table 8. Sensor Identification and Sensitivity

Distributeda Thermal
Sensor Type Localized Sensitivity Strain Sensitivity Ease of Multiplexing
MachZehnder Yes/No High Strain state Difficult
Michelson Yes/No High Strain state Difficult
FabryPerot (intrinsic) No/Yes High Strain state Moderate
FabryPerot (extrinsic) No/Yes Low Axial strain Moderate
Dualmode Yes/Yes High Strain state Moderate
Polarimetric Yes/Yes High Strain state Moderate
Bragg grating Yes/Yes High Strain state Easy
a
The terms distributed and localized refer to (quasi-) distributed and discrete sensing capabilities of the sensors,
respectively.

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) (b)
Temperature compensating Bragg gratings
Alignment tube
Alignment tube
Compensating material
R
R Multimode
Single-mode fiber s s
Epoxy Single-mode fiber
Epoxy
l
Figure 15. Temperature-compensated EFPI sensor.
ria
of an air gap along the length of the fiber, as illustrated by
replacing the reflective multimode optical fiber (Fig. 15) by
Fig. 13c. This latter approach is referred to as an extrinsic
a material that has the same thermal expansion as that
FabryPerot interferometric (EFPI) sensor. Analogous to
ate of the host material to which the sensor may be bonded
IFPI, EFPIs are localized sensors that operate via coherent
or embedded, or by incorporating Bragg gratings in the
interference between surface reflected light waves.
single-mode fiber.
The EFPI sensor typically consists of a FabryPerot cav-
It is known that the adhesive that secures the connectiv-
ity formed between the airglass interfaces of two fiber
ity of lead-in/out fibers and the cylindrical hollow-core fiber
end-faces aligned in a hollow core fiber. Unlike the intrin-
in the EFPI causes local stress concentrations. To reduce
sic approach (Fig. 13c), the optical fiber serves only as the
dM
this stress effect, an in-line fiber etalon (ILFE) can be used.

communication medium that carries optical power to and
This sensor, illustrated in Fig. 16 (39), provides the same
from the sensing region (air gap, s).
properties as the EFPI and has a well-defined micro size
For its operation, a single-mode fiber is used as the in-
gauge length (20 m), reduced temperature sensitivity,
put/output fiber compared to a multimode fiber that func-
and high transverse strain insensitivity. These added ad-
tions purely as a reflector for the FabryPerot cavity (air-
vantages over EFPI come at the expense of increased fab-
gap cavity). A fraction (approximately 4%) of the incident
rication difficulties and limited multiplexing capabilities.
light is reflected at the input/output end-face and returns
hte
directly back down the fiber. The transmitted portion trav- Bragg Grating Optical Fiber Sensor
els through the FabryPerot cavity and reflects at the mul-
timode target fiber. The reflected light from this target fiber Optical fiber Bragg grating technology has its origins in
is partially recoupled into the input/output fiber. Interfer- the discovery of the photosensitivity in optical fibers by
ence between the two reflections then gives rise to construc- Hill et al. (45). Since this discovery, numerous devices
tive and destructive optical fringes. This interference can and components based on this photosensitive effect have
be evaluated in terms of plane-wave approximation (44), been implemented and demonstrated for communication
rig
and the sensor output intensity can be written as (34) and sensing applications. Photosensitivity refers to the
intensity-dependent refractive index modulation in the op-
tical fiber core at some wavelength due to the absorption

2tr 4 s of light by oxygen-deficient germania centers. Meltz et al.
Idet = A2 1 + cos (46) demonstrated that a permanent periodic modulation
r + 2s tan[sin1 (NA)]
py
2 of the refractive index in the core of a photosensitive optical

tr fiber could be produced by transverse illumination with an
+ , (13)
r + 2s tan[sin1 (NA)] interference pattern created by a pair of strong ultraviolet
(UV) beams. This permanently alters the physical charac-
Co
teristics of the glass and creates a Bragg grating in the

and the phase shift can be expressed by Eq. (11), where A, t, fiber core, which essentially acts as a wavelength-selective
r, and s denote the reflection coefficient, the transmission mirror. In addition to this transverse illumination tech-
coefficient of the airglass interference (0.98), the fiber nique for modulating the refractive index, the phase mask
core radius, and the air cavity gap length, respectively. Any technique, which provides several advantages, could also
changes in the separation distance s between the surfaces be employed (39).
of the fibers aligned in the hollow alignment tube would re- A Bragg grating in the fiber acts as wavelength-selective
sult in a change in phase of the output fringes, thus yield- mirrors for incident light, as depicted in Fig. 13d. The re-
ing information on the air-gap separation and the perturb- flected portion of the light consists of a narrow spectral
ing environment. Both intrinsic and extrinsic FabryPerot band, and the remainder is simply transmitted through
interferometric sensors possess optical phase outputs that the fiber grating. This transmitted light is simply lost for a
are sensitive to strain, demonstrate thermal sensitivity, single grating. In serial gratings (multiplexed sensors), the
and provide no transverse strain effects. However, EFPI transmitted light is used to interrogate gratings further
can be modified to be thermally insensitive by simply along the fiber (Fig. 17). The wavelength 0 of the reflected

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Partially mirrored
splice
Source 3 dB coupler Lead-in/out fiber Reflective mirror

Air gap
Reference
Output
Cavity
length (s)
Hollow core Cladding

fiber
l
ria
Figure 16. In-line fiber etalon (ILFE) sensor.
(a) Reflected
(all gratings)
ate Grating1 Reflected Grating n-1 Reflected Grating n
Incident Transmitted Transmitted Transmitted

(all gratings)
Refraction
Index of
dM Incident
Incident
light
light
x
Reflected
Reflected
light
light
....

hte
o o n
Transmitted
Transmitted
....
light
light

o o n
rig
(i) Single grating fiber (ii) Multiple grating fiber
(b)
0.8 Unstrained
Normalized reflected intensity
0.7 Strained
py
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Co
0.2
0.1
0
1550 1550.5 1551 1551.5 1552
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 17. (a) Bragg grating principle of operation and (b) normalized wavelength.

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 9. Comparison of FabryPerot and Bragg Grating Reliability

Bragg Grating FabryPerot
Humidity No change in grating properties No tests have been conducted
after 1000 h at 85 C at 85%
relative humidity
Temperature No change in grating properties Stable operation from 20
after 1000 thermal cycles to 350 C, from 272 to 350 C,
from 40 to 85 C or 512 and from 272 to 750 C
cycles from 21 to 427 C (gold coatings)
Strength Mean failure strength in excess Not an issue (not strong)
of 1.38 GPa (200 Kips)
Losses Losses between gratings Very high, but not an
l
and commercial fibers issue because these sensors
ria
are less than 0.1 dB are rarely multiplexed
Strain No change in grating 107 cycles at 0 to 3600
properties after 1.4 million have been demonstrated
cycles from 0 to 2500 but commercial sensors
have not been tested
ate
signal is related to the periodicity, , of the grating and is These sensors have the flexibility of providing triaxial
defined as the Bragg condition Eq. (12), where n is the pri- parameter measurements (47,48), thus resolving the non-
mary driver and denotes the effective core refractive index. trivial transverse strain sensitivity. When dual gratings of
dM
Fiber-optic grating response arises from two sources, distinct wavelengths are overlaid, the high apparent ther-
namely, the change in the pitch length (periodicity) of the mal strain exhibited by Bragg grating sensors can be com-
grating and the perturbation of the effective refractive in- pensated for in the measured strain. Recent development
dex. The application of axial strain changes the periodicity in fiber-optic sensor technology has profited from the ad-
of the Bragg grating, which is monitored as a shift in the vantages provided by each sensing technology to produce
wavelength of the reflected light output, as illustrated by integrated Bragg grating/FabryPerot fiber-optic sensors
Figure 17. The sensor response to this change can be ex- for several parameter measurements. Liu et al. (49) illus-
pressed as (34) trated dual strain and temperature measurements using
hte
this concept. Sirkis (39) evaluated the reliability of both

/0 = (1 pe ) + ( + )T + P, (14) FabryPerot and Bragg grating sensors. Results of this
evaluation are presented in Table 9. In addition, Mrad
where pe , , , and represent the effective photoelastic, at- et al. (26) demonstrated that there were no changes in the
tenuative, thermo-optic, and Youngs modulus coefficients fiber Bragg grating strain values after 2 million cycles at a
of the fiber material, respectively, and , T, and P de- frequency of 20 Hz for a 2000 range.
rig
note the strain, temperature, and pressure changes.

These sensors, which take advantage of advances in
telecommunication technology, can be mass-produced and
FIBER OPTIC SENSOR APPLICATIONS
multiplexed easily. However, they possess high thermal
strain sensitivity, which can be compensated for by using
Fiber optic sensor technology offers a series of advantages
py
different concepts that include

and limited potential concerns compared to conventional
1. encapsulating the strain sensor into a strain relief sensors (Table 10). This technology is changing the way
tube, current products are built and are opening up the oppor-
tunity for developing many new systems and applications.
2. superimposing long period gratings (LPG)1 and stan-
Co
Several forecasts have predicted tremendous growth in the

dard Bragg gratings,
sensor market. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS),
3. superimposing standard Bragg gratings at different piezoelectrics, fiber optics, organic polymers and silicon-
wavelengths, and based sensor present a tremendous potential for smart
4. building an EFPI around the Bragg grating. sensor development and implementation into smart struc-
tures. Fiber-optic sensors, the new class of evolving sen-
Based on open literature, it has been found that Bragg sors, bring to measurement systems the many advantages
grating technology has the potential for overshadowing that optical fibers have brought to the communication in-
other fiber-optic sensing technologies due to its multi- dustry. These sensors are considered the basis for smart
plexing capabilities (hundreds of gauges on one fiber). structure development because they constitute the nervous
system of new structures. The great interest in exploiting
1 The new and promising Bragg grating based sensing technol-
fiber optic technology for sensing purposes emerged within
ogy, long period gratings (LPG), that has attracted considerable
interest in the sensing industry has shown promise in chemical
the past two decades. Impressive progress has been made
sensing, but its full advantages and disadvantages are still un- in the research and development area, as illustrated in
clear for general sensing purposes. Fig. 18 (50).
PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 10. Applications, Benefits, and Concerns about Fiber-optic Sensors

Applications Benefits Concerns
Industrial processes Compact size and small weight High cost
Industrial control Geometric versatility and Standardization
Flexibility
Biotechnology EMI/RFI Durability
Energy industry High speed and data capacity Calibration problems
(generation, distribution,
exploration, and
extraction)
Offshore oil rigs Remote sensing capability Selectivity
Undersea pipelines Tolerance of extreme environments Long-term stability
Navel vessels Intrinsic safety Reliability
Military/aerospace industry Low maintenance Accuracy
l
Spacecraft and space High sensitivity to Demand
ria
structures multiple quantities
Robotic systems Distributed sensing potential Complex signal processing
Structural monitoring Passive effect on measured Potential damage when handled
environment
Aerospace guidance Networking and multiplexing Isolation from unwanted
and control ate capabilities parameters
Passive damping Potentially inexpensive Availability of optical
sources
Damage localization in Greater sensitivity Low general awareness
civil, mechanical,
aerospace structures
Automotive monitoring Electrical passiveness Availability of suitable
dM
industry instrumentation
Intelligent transportation systems Freedom from EMI
Wide dynamic range
Environmental monitoring Insensitivity to corrosion
Intelligent building Minimum impact on mechanical
systems properties of host structure
Security systems Ideally suited for
embedding into composite structures
Load cells High-temperature capability
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Pressure vessel monitoring Both point and distributed

configurations
1200
rig
Patents Publications
1000
py
800
Number
600
Co
400
200
0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Year
Figure 18. Patents and publications on fiber and fiber-optic technology.
731
PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a)
Commercial Markets
Synergistic development in 2009
technologies parameters ($595.34 million)
Required Demand
A
resources factors
Sensors in integrated
optoelectronic networks
1 B
2 Technology
3 General
Regulatory 4 growth
factors 5 constraints
l
Competing C
ria
technologies Structural monitoring
Multiplexed and
Technology distributed sensors moves beyond
capability demonstration
stage.
Implications
ate Discrete sensors
D
Frontier New applications

applications emerge in
Market key: Time become economic. distributed sensing.
dM
A = Other
B = Industrial process control
C = Health care
D = Military /Aerospace
(b) 600
Other
hte
500
Industrial process
400 control
Millions
of 2000 300
Health care
dollars
200
rig
100
Military/Aerospace
0
2000 2004 2009
py
Figure 19. Fiber-optic sensor market.
Distributed Bragg
Co
grating strain sensors
Demodulation
system
Distributed Bragg
grating vibration
sensors
Figure 20. Fiber-optic instrumented bridge.

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Since the early 1980s, the number of publications and Embedded Bragg grating
patents in fiber and optical sensor technology has risen fiber-optic sensors
by approximately 10,000% and 400%, respectively; the
United States (in publications) and Japan (in patents) have
led this development. The major industrial sectors that
have captured the fiber-optic sensor market are health
care, aerospace, and process control; health care captured
the highest share. This technology is expected to increase
more than twofold, and its value is estimated at about
$595.34 million by the end of year 2009 (51). Figure 19
shows the trend in the fiber-optic sensor market, the tech-
nology implication as well as the progression in sensor
l
types. In addition to the three sectors identified by Coberth
ria
(51), fiber-optic sensors have been applied to several other
Demodulation units
important sectors such as automotive and transportation
infrastructure, including bridges, highways, mines, and Figure 22. Schematic of a fiber-optic, Bragg grating WIN system.
ships. Chemical, temperature, strain (vibration, accelera-
tion, shape), and pressure sensors have been identified as
ate
among the most developed sensors. In the following sec- control to enhance structural safety and reduce earth-
tions, only snapshots of a few applications of fiber-optic quake induced damage. Furthermore, fiber-optic sensors
sensor technology, pertaining to smart structures, are pre- will advance the highway system and contribute to intel-
sented followed by a brief outline of the limitations and ligent transportation systems (ITS). Sensors are embed-
the requirement for wider acceptance of fiber-optic smart ded into the pavement for the dual purpose of monitor-
structures. The author recognizes the injustice to fiber- ing pavement deterioration and weigh-in-motion (WIM).
dM
optic sensor technology in providing this short overview but Figure 22 (52) a schematic of a Bragg grating WIN
hopes to increase the awareness of the scientific and prac- system.
ticing community engaged in fiber-optic sensor and smart Fiber optic sensors are also used in military applica-
structure development and implementation. tions to provide advanced structural monitoring systems
Sensors are installed in structures for environmen- for the U.S. Navy. As shown in Fig. 23a, Bragg grating fiber-
tal and structural monitoring to improve safety, reduce optic sensor systems (120 Bragg gratings) have been in-
maintenance cost, and enhance productivity. Bragg grat- strumented in the U.S. Navy fleet to provide low-cost struc-
hte
ing fiber-optic sensors are instrumented in the Confeder- tural health monitoring. Moreover, 54 FabryPerot strain
ation Bridge, the longest bridge over iced-water spanning gauge sensors have been embedded into one of the pro-
12.9 km from Prince Edward Island to New Brunswick, pellers of the U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker, Polar Star, to
Canada, to monitor the long-term effects of wind, ice and, monitor the propellers loads and evaluate sensor response
traffic loads on the bridge (Fig. 20). Optical sensors are to ice impacts as shown in Fig. 23b (53). Further applica-
also integrated into the core of the transmission electri- tions can be found in Table 10, which also identifies some
cal power lines for load and damage monitoring and iden- of the benefits and concerns of fibre-optic usage.
rig
tification. This would provide immediate identification of In the aerospace field, fiber-optic sensors and sensor net-
the location of a problem and provides preventive mainte- works are being increasingly used because of the extremely
nance tools leading to cost-effective and reliable services. tight tolerances and safety requirements, in addition to the
These sensors can also be found in mines and tunnels, increased competitiveness in the global market. Sensors
where pressure, temperature, and strains are monitored can be incorporated into the structure either by bonding
py
for the purposes of structural integrity monitoring and or embedding. Without modifications to existing struc-
safety enhancement. New generation building structures, tures, fiber-optic sensors can be bonded to the inner sur-
smart buildings, employ distributed fiber-optic sensors faces of aerospace structures to monitor several parame-
networks for earthquake monitoring, fire detection, and ters simultaneously without affecting their aerodynamics.
Co
noise monitoring (Fig. 21). These sensors are usually in- Figure 24 illustrates a pressure and vibration fiber-optic
terfaced with a control system for structural adaptive sensor developed by researchers at NASA Ames. In this
Building structures
Dams and Bridges
Communication and
power lines Figure 21. Fiber-optic application to dams,
power lines, and smart buildings.

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) (b)
Sensor nodes Control computer

(stress concentrations)
Instrumented
propeller blade
Sensor nodes Sensor nodes

Optical data bus network
l
(hull response) (wave impacts)
ria
Figure 23. (a) Bragg grating sensors instrumented in the U.S. Navy fleet, (b) FabryPerot fiber-
optic sensors instrumented on the propeller of a U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker.
ate research efforts are underway to develop advanced struc-

tural health monitoring systems for aerospace structures.
Figure 26 (53) illustrates a postinstallation check of the in-
strumentation of a fiber-optic sensing system on the com-
posite fuel tank prototype of the X33 reusable space vehicle.
More research is being conducted on integrating temper-
dM
ature fiber-optic sensors on the skin of the spacecraft for

Sensor glove mounts to trajectory optimization during reentry into the earths at-
rotor/airfoil no modification
mosphere. Multiplexed long period grating and Bragg grat-
of airfoil required
ing sensors are currently being investigated by several or-
4 mil ganizations for corrosion detection, chemical sensing, and
Detection, demodulation
structural monitoring. Figure 27 illustrates a potential ap-
and control electronics
plication of fiber-optic sensors for structural integrity and
hte
Array of fiber sensors provide

performance monitoring. The sketched F-18 has become
4 mil resolution
a flying test lab for smart structures at NASA Langley
Research Center.
Figure 24. Fiber-optic pressure and vibration sensor.
As the number of applications of this innovative technol-
ogy continues to grow, critical areas of potential impact on
the advancement and development of new sensing systems
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application, a fiber-optic instrumented glove is fitted on the continue to be identified and explored. Areas of potential
rotor/airfoil without any modification of the airfoil; the de- growth and development identified (Fig. 28; 51) include
tection and demodulation system is placed as shown in the specialty fibers, optical signal processing, optoelectronic
figure. integrated circuits, and optical multiplexing. Successful
When embedded into composite aerospace structures, development in these areas is expected to accelerate the
py
these sensors would provide self-sensing capabilities and development and implementation of smart structures.
potential real-time and in situ monitoring capabilities to However, regardless of the effectiveness of the sensor
the structure. Figure 25 (54,55) illustrates the concept technology, several key issues that hamper the wider ap-
of a fiber-optic smart wing. The in situ sensing system plication of this technology to smart structures must be
can monitor temperature, pressure, strain, humidity, vi- addressed. Mrad (56) has identified some of the immediate
Co
bration, shape, and most importantly the structural in- issues:

tegrity of the structure during operation. The capabilities
of the system are also exploited during the manufacturing
of the composite structure to provide both part and au- The development of environmentally insensitive
toclave information such as temperature, pressure, resid- sensors that have acceptable performance (e.g.,
ual strain, degree of cure, voids, and delamination for the temperature-compensated sensors),
development of an intelligent autoclave process monitor- The development of rugged, robust, and nonintrusive
ing system. For such systems, the sensors are employed connectors at the ingress and egress regions (i.e.,
for in situ process monitoring, part handling, installa- FC/PC connectors are not acceptable solutions),
tion, and in situ structural integrity monitoring. Informa- A better understanding of sensor/material interaction,
tion provided by the systems can be employed to reduce such as sensor compatibility with composites and
inspection, maintenance requirements, and cost. Several prolonged sensor fatigue life,

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) (b)
Fiber-optic sensors
Embedded optical fibers
Structural Ingress/Egress FC/PC connection

interconnect/interface
Multisensor architecture
Multiplexing system and
multisensor signal recovery
l
Input/output
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optical cable
Electrical cable Display and
computer system
ate
Figure 25. (a) Concept of a fiber-optic smart wing structure; (b) embedded fiber-optic Bragg grating
sensor for composite process monitoring.
CONCLUSIONS
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In this article, several long and short gauge fiber-optic

sensors and their applications were introduced. These
sensors included MachZehnder and Michelson interfer-
ometers, polarimetric and dual-mode sensors, long and
short period Bragg grating sensors, intrinsic and extrin-
sic FabryPerot sensors, as well as in-line fiber etalon
sensors.
hte
Long gauge fiber-optic sensors are employed mainly

in civil infrastructures, such as bridges, skyscrapers,
mines and, underground excavations. Although these in-
terferometric and Brillouin scattering sensors exhibit
the potential for use in large space structural appli-
cations for simultaneous strain/pressure and tempera-
rig
Fiber-optic sensors ture measurements, they lack the spatial resolution re-
(in white) quired for aerospace applications such as composites
process monitoring, nondestructive testing, and vibra-
tional monitoring. These sensors also suffer from the
Figure 26. Fiber-optic sensors for pressure monitoring in the
composite fuel tank of the X-33 reusable space vehicle.
elevated cost of manufacturing, operation, and signal
py
demodulation.
Short gauge length sensors provide potential solutions
to challenges in the aerospace field and continue to provide
The reduction in cost of fabrication complexity of the
technological advances for the development of smart struc-
sensor and sensing systems,
tures and their applications. Bragg grating and extrinsic
Co
The development of multitechnique demodulation sys- Fabry-Perot optical fiber sensors were demonstrated as the
tems for interrogating distributed and discrete sen- most promising and relatively mature technology for inte-
sors (e.g., demodulation system for simultaneous gration into smart structures. These sensors provide high
interrogation of Bragg gratings and FabryPerot resolution, improved accuracy, high sensitivity, and gauge
sensors), lengths in the millimeter range suitable for confined and
The development of multiparameter and multiaxis sen- harsh environments. However, Bragg grating sensors were
sitive sensors for application to smart structures fab- identified as the undisputed champion due to their supe-
rication and operation (e.g., cure rate, temperature, rior multiplexing capabilities.
pressure, and strain or three strains and tempera- Regardless of the advances in fiber-optics sensor tech-
ture), nology issues related to advances in optical signal pro-
The development of sensing systems that have in- cessing, the development of specialty optical fibers, system
creased response time and a higher dynamic range. integration, and system economics need to be addressed

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Metal-ion sensor element

HO Sensor element
NO Sensor element
SO Sensor element
pH Sensor element
Cl Sensor element
Areas prone
to corrosion
l
ria
ate Corrosion sensor
demodulator box
Centralized monitoring
system
Figure 27. Fiber-optic sensors for structural integrity and health monitoring.
dM
hte
Optical signal processing
Optoelectronic integrated circuits
Optical
rig
multiplexing
Components
py
Specialty
fibers
Intelligent transportation systems

Co
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Figure 28. Areas of development for
fiber-optic sensors. Year
because these systems form the nervous system of struc- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

tures from the stages of its development throughout
its operation. Current efforts are underway to intro- The author acknowledges the financial contributions of the
duce new designs and integrate different sensing mech- Department of National Defence of Canada (DND) and the
anisms to render sensing systems more efficient and cost- Structures Laboratory of the Institute for Aerospace Re-
effective. search (IAR) at the National Research Council Canada.
PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
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PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
738 OPTICAL STORAGE FILMS, CHALCOGENIDE COMPOUND FILMS
OPTICAL STORAGE FILMS, CHALCOGENIDE very much larger than that of n, then the material becomes
COMPOUND FILMS an amplitude recording material.
Phase recording materials are poor light absorbers and
A.G. VEDESHWAR are normally useful in high-efficiency holographic record-
University of Delhi ing. Photoinduced processes can be of direct and indi-
Delhi, India rect types. The direct type leads to bond breaking and
charge transfer because of the direct electronic excitation
by photon absorption causing the promotion of atoms from
INTRODUCTION bonding to nonbonding states. The indirect type may be
understood as due to the conversion of excess electronic
The utilization of novel physical properties of materials energy of excited atoms (by the photon absorption) to vi-
for their possible commercial applications has opened up brational energy (phonons), causing the generation of heat
l
tremendous scope for materials research. In the last two and hence a thermally activated structural changes. There-
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or three decades there has been increasing interest and re- fore the indirect type can occur only in high light ab-
search, both basic and application oriented, on materials sorbing medium at relatively high light intensity. The di-
behaving smartly. Along with the developments in storage rect type needs comparatively low light intensity. Both of
capacity, data stability, storage speed, and the saturation these processes occur in chalcogenide films in which the
in magnetic recording, there are research on new materi-
ate reversible photoinduced structural changes are attributed
als suitable for optical or magneto-optical storage applica- to the direct process, while amorphous-to-crystalline
tions. Chalcogenide compounds have been known for more (ac) phase transition is attributed to the indirect pro-
than a half century as disordered semiconductors. Their cess. The materials like chalcogenides that exhibit phase
potential as storage materials became recognized three transition between two stable phases find applications in
decades ago. Chalcogenides have peculiar properties that optical storage. They are known as phase change opti-
make them smart enough to occupy an important class of cal storage media. The indirect type, commonly known
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materials known as phase-change media in optical stor- as photothermal recording, uses the temperature rise in
age applications. thin films caused by the absorption of energy from the
laser beam to initiate a local physical or chemical change
ESSENTIALS OF OPTICAL RECORDING MEDIA at the irradiated site. This process is used to produce large-
scale read-only optical memories. Such recordings are real
The literature devoted to optical storage technology is time because the stored data can be readily read out
small, numbering just a few books and monographs. These and do not need any processing (either chemical or heat
hte
sources deal with high-density optical storage technology processing) after completing the recording to develop the
(1,2), basic principles of optical recording systems (36), latent image. Optical storage can take several forms: di-
and materials media for such applications (57). Addi- rect image storage, holographic recording (two- or three-
tionally, a large number of reports cover various issues dimensional), and digital (binary) storage in the form of
and materials on this subject, and they are available as small, well-resolved data bits. Digital storage can be either
technical digests and proceedings of conferences sponsored Write-Once-Read-Manytimes (WORM) type (irreversible)
annually by the Optical Society of America, SPIE, and oth- or erasable/rewritable type (reversible). Each of these has a
rig
ers. Whether reversible or irreversible, the optical record- wide range of applications, and the application is what will
ing process is used to modify the physical, chemical, or determine the requirements and qualities of the recording
structural properties at the irradiated region of an opti- media.
cally sensitive material using optical radiation. The optical We will mainly focus on the real-time digital record-
radiation effectively comes from a laser. This laser source ing in chalcogenide compound films, though holographic
py
is now available with varying power at wavelengths rang- recordings can also be done on these materials. In general,
ing from infrared to visible light. The most commonly used the optical recording materials are characterized by the
laser source in recording applications is the diode laser be- parameter known as optical sensitivity. Light sensitivity
cause it is cheap and compact. When the materials are ir- is the measure used to the required exposure for optical
Co
radiated, the photons may be absorbed, scattered, or lead imaging and therefore can be determined by the minimum
to secondary emission of radiation or particles. However, absorbed energy sufficient to induce the change in optical
only the absorbed photons can induce useful change in the parameters of the recording medium. The light sensitivity
properties of the optical recording medium. of a material can be estimated for the desired magnitude of
Normally, the optical property of the medium is charac- change in optical density D as S D = 1/(It) D , where I is
terized by the complex refractive index n = n ik, where n the light intensity and t is the time of exposure (5). How-
is the refractive index and k is the absorption index. There- ever, the inverse value S1 (measured in J/cm2 ) is being
fore, a considerable contrast in n between unirradiated widely used in the literature. In digital recording on an op-
and irradiated regions of the medium must exist for opti- tical disk or on any phase change recording materials, S1
cal recording applications. The change in n may be due to is generally determined by the energy required to record a
change in n or k, or both. Obviously, if the change in n is circular bit of 1 m diameter and is of the order of 0.5 to
dominant and is larger than that of k, the medium becomes 50 nJ/bit (or 0.055 J/cm2 ) for chalcogenide compounds. In
a phase recording material as n is proportional to the phase holographic recordings, S1 depends on the diffraction effi-
of the radiation. The opposite occurs when change in k is ciency (in %) of the material and is determined for every

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
OPTICAL STORAGE FILMS, CHALCOGENIDE COMPOUND FILMS 739
1% of change in as S 1
1% = It/ (6). Many chalcogenide
Chalcogenide compounds are interesting and smart due
compound films show good optical sensitivity (5,6). to their unique properties:
Phase change materials competing for optical storage
applications should have some of the essential properties 1. They can easily be prepared in amorphous or vitreous
as discussed below: (glassy) forms in a number of ways. Usually, the bulk
glass or amorphous materials are prepared by a rapid
1. Thermal conductivity (). The material should have melt-quenching technique, while the amorphous thin
low to moderate . The low ensures a faster and films are easily obtained by physical vapor deposition
higher temperature rise at the irradiated spot. This on a cold substrate.
in turn leads to faster ac switching, a well-defined 2. They can be produced with widely varying stoichiom-
smaller spot size, and use of less laser power. As etry in binary Ax B1x and more complex ternary and
increases, the heat begins to constantly flow out of
l
quaternary compounds. Most of them form stable
the irradiated spot, resulting in a slow temperature
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off-stoichiometric amorphous and crystalline phases
rise and a larger spot area, which reduces the storage over a wide range of compositions exhibiting ac tran-
density. sitions. Particularly, this property makes them smart
2. Melting point (Tm ). The temperature should be mode- for potential technological applications, among which
rate (400800 C). Many chalcogenide and other com- optical recording is a prominent area.
ate
pounds with Tm in this range were observed in the
literature to give stoichiometric films (if the disso-
ciation temperature is higher than Tm ) and better
3. The physical properties also vary continuously with
the varying compositions of these phases.
4. Most of the chalcogenide compounds have a layered
recording sensitivity. structure in their crystalline form with comparable
3. Light absorbance (A). High A is preferred to ensure heteropolar bond lengths of amorphous phase. This
a high temperature rise upon irradiation, and thus makes the ac transition possible at moderate tem-
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high quantum efficiency of the material. However, peratures.

while A can be optimized by the films thickness, the 5. They normally have low Tm , with their glass forming
quantum efficiency is material dependant. temperature (Tg ) quite lower than Tm .
4. Activation energy (Ea ) and ac transition tempera-
ture (Tc ). Moderate to high Ea (23 eV) ensures data Physical vapor deposition of thin films from their bulk
stability. Similarly, a moderate Tc (150250 C) is pre- counterparts onto substrates at room temperature, or be-
ferred from the point of view of both data stability and low, is an easy way for getting the materials in amorphous
low recording laser power.
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form. Many other materials need substantially low sub-

5. Optical contrast (n). Ideally, the optical contrast strate temperatures below room temperature to form the
should be as high as possible to get the highest signal- amorphous structure. However, most chalcogenide mate-
to-noise ratio (SNR). Nevertheless, a 20% contrast is rials give amorphous films at room temperature. This is
considered sufficient in most of the applications. an advantage of the film deposition technique; otherwise,
6. Corrosion resistance of the film. This obviously many compounds in bulk form could not be obtained in
should be high. amorphous form by melt-quench technique even at very
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7. Cyclability (only for the case of rewritable media). To high cooling rate. Normally, the glass-forming phases or
ensure cyclability, the films should have low internal compositions give rise to amorphous films when the va-
stresses and diffusionless transformation. por deposited on the substrates is held at temperatures
below the Tg of the material. The simplest thermal evap-
8. Recording and readout times. Both should be as short
oration method is referred to as physical vapor deposi-
py
as possible.
tion because the solid materials are converted physically
into their vapor phase, which condenses on the substrate
Although it is almost impossible to find a single material
to form the film. However, sputtering and chemical va-
having all these properties, chalcogenide compounds have
por deposition techniques can also produce amorphous
many of these properties.
Co
films. It should be noted that the substrate temperature

(Ts ) is the dominant factor, and not the method of de-
PROPERTIES OF CHALCOGENIDE COMPOUND FILMS position, in achieving the amorphous films. This is be-
cause Ts dictates the quenching rate, and therefore dif-
The amorphous chalcogenide semiconductors, the first ferent materials form amorphous structures at different
class of disordered semiconductors, were discovered as Ts . Also, a low Ts lowers considerably the adatom mobil-
early as 1950 (8). There are few excellent books dealing ity, which in turn favors only local clustering leading to
with the general properties of chalcogenide compounds as the amorphous structure. Thermal evaporation can result
amorphous solids (812). Chalcogenide materials are com- in the formation of nonstoichiometric films, compared to
pounds containing elements S, Se, and Te. Oxides also the stoichiometric starting material if the compound dis-
could be included in this category, since oxygen belongs to sociates before melting. The usual experience in the liter-
the same group in the periodic table. However, because of ature is that most of binary inorganic compounds, includ-
their entirely different nature and properties from those ing chalcogenides having low Tm , yield stoichiometric films.
of chalcogenides, they are often considered separately. However, the more complex compounds containing more

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
than two elements show nonstoichiometry in film form. If variations existing in many chalcogenide films are be-
the films are slightly nonstoichiometric, they can be im- lieved to be responsible for many interesting photoelec-
proved to some extent by a flash evaporation technique in tronic and optical properties. The distribution of bond types
which the powder of the material is poured by some mech- is specified by two models (1315). The first is known as a
anism on a pre-heated filament or boat above the Tm of random covalent network (RCN), which is statistical and
the material or highest Tm of a constituent element of the depends on the local coordinations and the fractional con-
material. centrations of A and B atoms. This model neglects the rela-
tive bond energies and can give the description of AA, A
B, and BB bonds at all compositions except x = 0 and 1.
Structure
The second one emphasizes on the relative bond energies
The amorphous structure of chalcogenide compounds and assumes only heteropolar (AB bonds) bonds at all
makes them useful in many applications. The general de- compositions and is known as chemically ordered covalent
l
scription and details about the amorphous structure of network (COCN). In this model the homopolar AA and B
ria
solids including chalcogenides can be found in (814). Par- B bonds are possible only in A-rich and B-rich phases, re-
ticularly, (15) is an excellent review on structural and other spectively. The bond-counting statistics for both these mod-
related properties of chalcogenide glasses. The amorphous els are shown in Fig. 1. However, it should be noted that
phase of a compound lacks long range order and periodicity these are the idealized models; in reality, additional com-
in structure unlike its crystalline counterpart. The descrip-
ate pound phases may also present at other compositions with
tion of the amorphous structure is essentially the speci- a molecular entity containing both AB and BB or AB
fication of the short-range order (SRO) and the topologi- and AA bonds without disturbing the bond distributions.
cal rules that determine it. The most important aspect of These homopolar bonds are known as wrong bonds, and
SRO are the number and type of immediate neighbors and they lead to a defective structure that affects the electronic
their spatial arrangement about a given reference atom. and optical properties. The occurrence of wrong bonds is
However, this description does not reveal in any way the more probable in vapor-deposited films. Amorphous ma-
dM
connectivity of the coordination polyhedra (SRO structural terials are thermodynamically unstable systems and tend
units), in other words, the medium range order (MRO). to relax to stable crystalline state. However, the relaxation
Usually, the most disordered amorphous phase and the time of many amorphous materials is extremely long, of the
slightly better-ordered glassy phases are characterized by order of thousands of years. Most of the chalcogenide com-
SRO and MRO, respectively. The probes of SRO are the pounds have layered structures (i.e., strong covalent bond-
radial distribution function (RDF) or radial electron den- ing within a layer along the xy-plane and a weaker van der
sity distribution (REDD) derived by the traditional X-ray, Waals bonding between layers along z-axis) in their crys-
hte
neutron, or electron diffraction measurements, extended talline form. The structural details of various crystalline
X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS), and the analy- phases of binary and ternary chalcogenide compounds hav-
ses of vibrational spectra measured by infrared absorp- ing the layered structure can be found in (16). The SRO
tion and Raman scattering. These techniques can also be of many chalcogenides in their amorphous and crystalline
used to probe MRO. RDF yields direct structural infor- forms is similar (5,15). Compared to crystalline form, the
mation, bond lengths, coordination number, and the like, bands and the chains are shorter in the amorphous form.
whereas vibrational spectroscopy reveals the information Also, the local coordination variation is quite common in
rig
about bond types and the symmetries of the local atomic chalcogenide compounds. It seems that this fact is respon-
environments. The description of SRO and MRO is fairly sible for their ac transitions at moderate temperatures.
straightforward for a single element but becomes compli- Indeed, this may be the key factor in making them as smart
cated for binary compounds or alloys, and more compli- materials. There are only few structural studies on thin
cated still for ternary or quaternary compounds. For ex- films using various techniques and analyses as described
py
ample, in a binary system Ax B1x (or Ax B100x , x in atomic above for As-chalcogenides (1719), Sb-S systems (2022),
% as also used in the literature) made up of atomic species and GeTe (23,24).
A and B with normalized concentration variable x, the lo-
cal order or SRO needs the specification of local coordina-
Optical Properties
Co
tion of each atomic species, the distribution of bond types

AA, AB, and BB and the local molecular environments. The optical properties of materials depend on the struc-
MRO needs the information about the interconnection of ture in either crystalline or amorphous phase. A detailed
the molecular building units. It has been found in a large description of the optical properties of amorphous solids,
number of systems that the 8-N rule is satisfied for nor- including chalcogenides, can be found in (8,9,12,25). Many
mal covalent bonding regarding the local atomic coordi- chalcogenide and other semiconductors show a distinct
nation. Then the coordinations of A and B atoms are change in their optical properties in amorphous and crys-
given by Figs. 8(a) and (b) respectively, where a and b talline forms. The shifting of the band gap, changes in n
are the columns of the periodic table to which atoms A and k, the change in absorbance or reflectance, are common
and B belong. Theses kinds of coordinations are realized features. Optical properties are unique in the crystalline
in bulk melt-quenched glasses and well-annealed films. form due to the ordered stable configuration of the struc-
The deviations from these coordinations at any atomic site ture, and they are sensitive to the chemical composition of
lead to wrong local atomic coordination in many chalco- the material. However, in the case of amorphous materi-
genide systems. Even a small number of such coordination als, the optical properties are determined by the degree of

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
2.0 the Urbach tail as mentioned in region 3 above. Coming

3:2 to the specific case of chalcogenide compounds, the opti-
(a) RCN
4:2 cal properties in the amorphous phase would mainly de-
pend on the coordination variation and homopolar bonds,
A x B1 x
which are very common in these materials, especially in
thin films. It seems that the coordination variation plays
a dominant role in explaining the observed optical prop-
1.2 erties of many chalcogenide compounds in the amorphous
A B2 A2 B3 phase (25). The effect of homopolar or like-bonds in chalco-
genide compounds are less dramatic due to its covalent
nature of bonding because of which any chemical disorder
AA
leads only to small changes in the local potential resulting
l
in a shallow level. Therefore, their effects are consequently
ria
0.6 AB less significant in bulk materials. Nevertheless, they can
be quite significant and dramatic in asgrown amorphous
films (2628). Strong electron-phonon coupling seems to
BB
explain the photothermal structural changes in chalco-
Bonds / atom
ate genide glasses and amorphous films. As a result changes

0.0 in film thickness, structure, chemical reactivity, refractive
1.8 (b) COCN index, and the absorption edge have been observed in a
number of chalcogenide compound films. The magnitudes
of these changes are found to be dependent on film stoichio-
metry (5).
The optical measurements of the films are usually done
dM
using a UV/ VIS spectrophotometer either in absorption

1.2 or transmission mode. With a special attachment the re-
AB
flectance can also be measured. The optical properties of
narrow band gap materials (0.20.8 eV) are usually mea-
AA sured by infrared spectrometers as the band gap lies in
this range. Spectrometers are based on a two-beam ra-
1.6 tio recording technique following Beer-Lamberts principle,
BB
hte
according to which the transmitted light intensity through

a nonreflecting medium of thickness d and absorption co-
efficient is given by (29)
0.0 I = I0 exp(d), (1)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
rig
x, Atomic fraction A
where I0 is the incident light intensity. The measured ab-
Figure 1. Bond-counting statistics for 3:2 networks (Sb2 S3 type) sorbance (A = log{I0 /I}) as a function of wavelength can
and 4:2 networks (GeS2 type) in (a) random covalent network then be used to calculate . The band edge or band gap
(RCN) and (b) chemically ordered covalent network (COCN) mod-
(Eg ) of crystalline material as well as the absorption edge
els, calculated following (13).
or energy gap (E0 ) of amorphous materials can be de-
py
termined using (30,31). The absorption in many amor-

phous materials is observed to obey the relation h =
disorderness, and they can vary from sample to sample of constant (h Eo )2 above the exponential tails, where Eo is
the same material prepared by different techniques. The the absorption edge or the optical energy gap (8). The plot
of (h)1/2 versus h, known as the Tauc plot, can be used to
Co
optical properties of amorphous chalcogenide semiconduc-

tors can be broadly separated into three regions: (1) the determine Eo by extrapolation. The optical properties of as-
region of the largest photon energies where absorption co- grown antimony chalcogenide films and their dependence
efficient () is highest and saturated resulting from the on annealing temperatures are shown in Fig. 2.
transition across the energy gap within the fully coordi- The other optical constants like n and k can be mea-
nated system, (2) the region of the absorption edge, and sured in the region away from the band edge by an ellip-
(3) the region of lowest photon energies, where is con- someter. However, such measurements are quite tedious
siderably low and arises due to the transitions involving and are very few in the literature. Still, it is possible to
mid-gap defect states. The absorption edge spanning re- determine n and k as a function of wavelength if the trans-
gions 2 and 3 could therefore consist of a defect-induced mission spectra contain interference fringes, which arise
tail at lower energies, an exponential region at intermedi- from substrate-film and film-air interfaces as shown in
ate energies, and a power law region at the higher energies. Fig. 3. Swanepoel has developed a simple method of cal-
The optical absorption in amorphous materials is not sharp culating n, k, and other optical parameters of the film from
due to which a long tail in the gap region exists, known as the transmission spectra containing interference fringes

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(b) 1.4 1.8 2.2

1000
110 C Sb2 Se3

120 C
140 C
800
l
(a) 3.0
ria
600
Sb2 Se3
ate 400
h (eV/ cm)1/2
170 C
100 C A
Asgrown
dM
81 C
140 C
1000 121 C
153 C
Asgrown
100 0
hte
Sb2 S3
600
Asgrown
rig
50
T%
120 C
200
134 C Sb2 S3
py
0
0 1.5 2.1 2.7
700 900 h (eV)
Co
(nm)
Figure 2. Effect of heat treatment or annealing on optical properties of antimony chalcogenide

films: (a) Absorbance and transmission spectra of 150 nm thick Sb2 Se3 and 440 nm thick Sb2 S3 films
and (b) Tauc plot for determining absorption edge (E0 ) of these amorphous films. The annealing
temperatures are indicated in the figure.
(32). The report claims that the calculation of optical pa- Phase Transition in Chalcogenide Compound Films
rameters is quite accurate for wavelengths well below the The optical storage in chalcogenides can be realized by
absorption edge. The interference fringes show thickness exploiting various kinds of phase transitions exhibited
dependence (33). Many chalcogenide compound films ex- by them, like amorphous to crystalline (ac), amorphous
hibit such fringes in both amorphous and crystalline films phase I to amorphous phase II (aIaII), crystalline phase
(26,27,33,34). I to crystalline phase II (cIcII), semiconductor to metal,

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) 100
d = 750 nm
T%
A Sb2S3
l
ria
0 100
d = 530 nm
(b) 0.15
ate T%
Absorption index (k)

C Sb2S3
A Sb2S3
dM
0.03
100 0
3.7 0
d = 280 nm
Refractive index (n)
hte
T%
2.7
rig
2.6
500 600 700 800 900 600 680 760 840 920
(nm) Wavelength (nm)
Figure 3. The optical constants n and k of crystalline and amorphous Sb2 S3 films (b) determined
using the envelope shown by broken curve in (a) constructed on the interference fringes, as in (32);
py
also depicted is the thickness dependence (a).
and so on, if the two phases are stable and a sufficient op- transitions. These informations together would be very
tical contrast between the two phases exists. These tran- useful in improving the properties of the known compounds
Co
sitions can be reversible or irreversible and can be stud- as well as in the search of better new compounds. However,
ied by measuring any parameter of the system that shows a clear picture in this regard is yet to emerge. Thermally in-
switching behavior at the transition as a function of tem- duced transitions are routinely studied by differential ther-
perature. Since the indirect photoinduced process also gen- mal analysis (DTA) or differential scanning calorimetry
erates heating, laser-induced transitions are also studied. (DSC). Although both DTA and DSC are used to measure
Therefore, the basic research on chalcogenide films in es- the amount of heat absorbed (endothermic or negative) or
tablishing the possible optical storage is mainly divided liberated (exothermic or positive) during the transition,
into two categories, the thermally induced transitions and they only differ in the measurement technique. The details
laser or photothermally induced transitions. Sometimes of these techniques can be found in (35). However, DSC may
both these studies are carried out on the same material be considered as the improved technique over DTA and is
and compared. Systematic basic investigations are abso- widely used presently for the study of crystallization kinet-
lutely necessary in correlating structural, compositional, ics in both bulk and thin film amorphous materials. In the
optical properties of the material, and the nature of the case of films the sample is taken by scraping the asgrown

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 1. Some Results of Crystallization Studies (DSC) on As-grown Amorphous

Chalcogenide Films
Material Tc ( C) Ea (eV) n Reference
SbSe 170 1.56 2.25 (44)
Sb2 Se3 210 3.01 2.85 (44)
SbSe2 220 1.98 2.37 (44)
Sb2 Te3 170 2.00 1.80 (40)
In100x Tex (x = 4852) 200 4.00 2.50 (38)
In100x Tex (x = 5255) 280 2.20 1.50 (38)
In100x Tex (x = 5560) 230 3.50 2.50 (38)
Bi10 Se90 1.20 1.37 (39)
Bi20 Se80 1.51 1.37 (39)
l
Bi50 Se50 1.05 1.45 (39)
ria
Ga20 Ge30 Te50 2.58 1.66 (39)
Ga5 Ge19 Te76 222 0.90 1.20 (39)
Ga2 Sb2 Te5 142 2.23 (42)
GaSb2 Te4 131 1.82 (42)
GaSb4 Te7 123 1.52 (42)
ate
In47 Sb14 Te39 300 2.9 (43)
film off the substrates of about 10 mg. DSC can normally indicate unambiguously whether the process is diffusion-
be used in both isothermal and isochronal annealing mode. less or diffusion dominated. This is important because
In isothermal annealing, the sample is taken to the desired the two crystallization processes differ greatly in crystal-
dM
temperature quickly by very high heating rate, few hun- lization speed. The diffusion-dominated process is very
dred C/minute, and then the temperature difference of the much slower than the diffusionless process. The diffu-
sample is measured as a function of time, which gives the sionless process is dominant in those chalcogenides where
isothermal curve for that temperature. Thus, the isother- phase segregation does not occur during crystallization.
mal curves can be obtained for various temperatures be- It therefore should have shorter crystallization time, in-
low crystallization temperature. In isochronal annealing, dicating the possibility of faster writing. Also, diffusion-
the heating rate is quite low, usually in the range of 5 to less process without phase segregation may indicate the
20 C per minute, and measurements will be done in the reversibility of the transformation. Further, the activation
hte
heating cycle, which gives endothermic/exothermic peaks energy of crystallization (Ec ) can be calculated from the
on the base line at the temperatures characterizing vari- relation (37)
ous phenomena. It is then possible to identify the various
transition points such as glass transition temperature (Tg ), K = Aexp(Ec /kT). (3)
ac transition temperature or crystallization temperature
(Tc ), and melting point (Tm ) from the peak values of the This kind of measurement and analysis is well demon-
rig
temperature. If the results are reproducible in the cooling strated in InTe systems for the variation of 50 to 60 atomic
cycle as well, the transition may be taken as reversible. % of Te, that is, between InTe and In2 Te3 (38). Although
DSC is usually done in the inert gas atmosphere to avoid the JMA equation is strictly for the isothermal case, many
possible oxidation. The parameters of crystallization kinet- workers have applied it to the isochronal case as well fol-
ics can be calculated easily from the isothermal annealing lowing the idea that the crystallization process may be
py
curves using Johnson-Mehl-Avarami (JMA) equation given treated as a sequence of infinitesimally small isothermal
by (36,37) steps so that JMA equation can be valid. Such studies
using isochronal measurements have been done on vari-
Xc = 1 exp(Ktn), (2) ous chalcogenide compound films (3944), some of which
Co
are summarized in Table 1.

where Xc is the fraction of crystallized phase, K is the reac- There has been large number of reports on thermal
tion rate constant, and n is the index that characterizes the annealing experiments for numerous binary, ternary and
mechanism of nucleation and growth during the transition. quaternary chalcogenide systems (2628,34,40,4548). In
Normally, n can be integral or half integral, and it varies this experiment the as-grown amorphous films are heat-
from 1/2 to 4, indicating various growth mechanisms as tab- treated or annealed for 2 to 6 hours in vacuum or inert
ulated in (36). The integral values of n indicate polymorphic gas at ambient pressure at temperatures above Tc . The
or diffusionless transformations, while the half-integral time of annealing varies from report to report. In most of
values indicate diffusion-controlled transformations. How- the cases, films were annealed at only one temperature
ever, n = 1 can occur in both processes. The calculation T > Tc . In few reports, films were annealed at various tem-
of Xc is simply the time integration of isothermal curves, peratures scanning the ac transition. The structural, op-
and then K can also be calculated from Eq. (2). This tech- tical, and morphological studies were then carried out on
nique may be important and useful in the study of crys- these treated films and compared with those of asgrown
tallization kinetics if n can be determined accurately to film. In this category, the majority of the reports are just

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 2. Results of Heat Treatment or Annealing of As-grown Amorphous

Chalcogenide Films.
Absorption Edge (eV)
tAnn TAnn
Material As-grown Annealed (Hour) ( C) Reference
GeSe2 2.073 2.233 2 250 (28)
Ge40 Se60 1.452 1.699 2 300 (28)
Ge25 Se75 2.044 2.115 2 250 (28)
Ge15 Se85 2.017 2.029 2 100 (28)
Ga2 Se3 Ga2 Se3 2.230 2.330 2 400 (34)
Ge30 Sb10 S60 4.460 4.72 2 235 (27)
As40 Se24 S20 Ge16 1.790 1.850 0.5 180 (46)
l
Note: tAnn is the duration of annealing and TAnn is annealing temperature.
ria
indicative in nature to highlight or demonstrate the dis- transition in Sb2 S3 as Tc lies outside the box. However, still
tinct properties of amorphous and crystalline phases as one can expect a reversible aIaII type of transition, which
summarized in Table 2. However, the more systematic an-
ate can be exploited if a considerable optical contrast exists
nealing experiments done at several temperatures across between the two phases. Sb2 Te3 could be studied for the
the ac transition are quite useful and give lot of informa- plateau composition, as its Tc is thickness dependent and
tions. Such reports are few in literature. Recently, P. Arun can be located within the box. We have to analyze the opti-
et al. have shown that the annealing or treatment dura- cal properties of these compounds for their possible utility
tion can be as small as 40 to 60 seconds in air. They have in optical storage. The absorbance at 520 nm of all three
studied Sb2 S3 , Sb2 Se3 , and Sb2 Te3 films systematically by films is compared in Fig. 6(a). The boxes show the constant
dM
short duration or instantaneous heat treatment and laser stoichiometry region within which a considerable optical
irradiation methods (22,4952). The films were grown by contrast exists for all three compounds. The irreversible
vacuum thermal evaporation (at 106 Torr). In the heat or WORM kind of storage can easily be realized between
treatment experiment, samples were placed on the pre- amorphous and crystalline phases having sufficient opti-
heated copper plate at the desired temperature for about cal contrast in all the three compounds, which has been
40 to 60 seconds in air. These samples were then studied demonstrated in the studies of laser-induced transition
by X-ray diffraction, SEM/TEM, ESCA, and UV/ VIS op- to be discussed next. However, looking at the box region
hte
tical absorption/transmission. All three compounds were where considerable optical contrast exists, the reversible or
also studied by DSC (isochronal) to determine the Tc of the rewritable storage can be expected in Sb0.62 Se0.38 , Sb3 Te2
films, which agreed well with that determined by struc- (ac type), and Sb2 S3 (aIaII type). The variation of absorp-
tural studies on treated samples. The representative X-ray tion edge in amorphous and crystalline phases of Sb2 S3 and
diffractograms for three compounds are shown in Fig. 4. Sb2 Se3 with annealing temperatures is shown in Fig. 6(b).
The Tc s were determined by the temperature at which
crystalline peaks just appear. The RDF or REDD was also
rig
Photoinduced Effects
calculated for T < Tc in order to study possible MRO (22),
which agreed well with earlier reports. For some materials, A wide variety of photoinduced changes in bulk glassy and
Tc may be thickness dependant as in the case of Sb2 Te3 , amorphous chalcogenide films have been the subject of ba-
which is displayed in Fig. 5(a). Sb2 S3 and Sb2 Se3 do not sic research since last several years. We consider here only
show such a behavior. Therefore, Sb2 Te3 is quite flexible metastable changes, which exist after the light exposure
py
and advantageous in tailoring its Tc for optimization. The and which may be reversible or irreversible. Among the
stoichiometry of the film is quite important and can be de- irreversible kind of changes, photodissolution, photocrys-
termined by ESCA. The dependence of stoichiometry on tallization, and photodensification have been normally ob-
treatment temperature shows a similar trend for all three served apart from various photoinduced chemical changes.
Co
compounds as appears in Fig. 5(b). The interesting part is In most of the photoinduced studies the wavelength of ir-
the plateau region where we can assume a constant chem- radiating light was chosen to be comparable or equal to the
ical composition within the experimental error which is absorption edge or band gap of the concerned material. The
indicated by the box. If Tc of the corresponding material common source of unpolarized light routinely used in these
exists within the box, then a reversible ac transition can experiments were mercury lamps, halogen lamps, or even
be expected, since the stoichiometry is same in both amor- the usual tungsten lamp. Photodissolution is also known as
phous and crystalline phases. The materials having the photodoping in which an underlying metal layer (Ag, Cu, or
same stoichiometry in both the phases could have diffu- Zn) dissolves into chalcogenide layer by band edge absorp-
sionless growth and hence a faster transition. Therefore, tion (5557). Photocrystallization (5860) and photodensi-
the film of mean composition indicated by the plateau could fication (61,62) have been studied in as-grown amorphous
be studied and tried as a reversible phase change medium. films by prolonged light exposures (30 minutes17 hours)
In the case of Sb2 Se3 , such an expectation has come true in a variety of chalcogenide compounds and alloys. Re-
as reported (53,54); the composition Sb0.62 Se0.38 (plateau) sults of these studies have already established the applica-
shows reversibility. There may not be any reversible ac tion of some materials in photolithography (as submicron

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
photoresists), optical memories, diffraction elements, opti-

Sb2 Te3 cal light guides, and optoelectronic elements and devices
(030)
(240) (63). The most studied photoinduced change in chalco-

(320)
(212)
(040)
genides is the reversible photodarkening in well-annealed

(200)
films and melt-quenched glasses. However, the as-grown

films show irreversible changes. There are a number of re-
views on this topic (6469) and an extensive amount of
work is going on, both experimentally and theoretically,
Tc = 115 C for a better understanding. The photodarkening is char-
acterized by a parallel shift in the absorption edge E0
or Urbach tail to lower energies on band edge illumina-
105 C tion, and it is reversible on thermal annealing at T Tg
l
of the material. The magnitude of the shift E0 is in-
ria
versely proportional to the temperature at which material
was illuminated and becomes zero at T = Tg (65). Inter-
60 C
estingly, E0 peaks at an average coordination of 2.67, as
has been studied in many chalcogenide systems (65,70).
d = 230 nm ate The coordination 2.67 is the optimum value for the real-
Asgrown ization of mechanical constraints in a 2D-like MRO in the
d = 150 nm glass (71).
Sb2 Se3
With the easy availability of many types of pulsed and
(222)
(400)
(111)
cw lasers, the study of the laser-induced effect in chalco-

(440)
(331)
genide films has become easier and is extended from simple

binary chalcogenide compounds to more complex ternary
dM
240 C and quaternary systems in an attempt to find better mate-

rials for optical storage applications. Laser-induced crys-
Tc = 145 C tallization (40,4952,7274), amorphization (7577), local
evaporation (creation of holes) (78), and the like, have
140 C been studied. Few laser-induced phase transformations
(laser marking or writing) are demonstrated in Fig. 7
110 C for antimony chalcogenide films. The laser-induced effects
hte
Asgrown in chalcogenide films are mainly attributed to the ther-

mally induced changes caused by the temperature gener-
(340)
(610)
(422)
(003)
Sb2 S3
ated by the laser irradiation. Therefore, it is often called
(024)
(723)
(342)
a photothermal effect or recording. The temperature rise

(734)
(030)
at the irradiated site depends on the parameters of both

(300)
the laser and the material, such as power (P), radius (r0 )
of the laser beam and thermal conductivity (), specific
rig
Tc = 165 C heat (Cv ), and absorbance ( A) at the laser wavelength of

the material. There have been some attempts to calcu-
late the temperature rise and its distribution as discussed
160 C in (79). Recently, P. Arun et al. have derived a relation
for the calculation of temperature rise at the irradiated
py
spot, its radial distribution, and depth profile along film

thickness in terms of the above-mentioned parameters
120 C
as (79)
Co

A0 exp{z(r/r0 )2 }
d = 350 nm Asgrown Tr,z (t) = + T0 exp t ,
Cv

10 60 5.784 1
= + ,
2 r02 d2
Figure 4. X-ray diffractogram of heat-treated antimony chalco- AP

Ao = , (4)
genide films. The annealing temperature for each diffractogram, r02 d
crystallization temperature Tc at which just crystalline peaks ap-
pear and the film thickness d are shown for each compound in the
figure. where is the absorption coefficient and d is the thick-
ness of the film. The temperature is maximum at the cen-
ter of the spot and falls off exponentially along the radius.
Similarly, the temperature is highest at the film surface

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a)
200 (b)
1.2
TC (C)
0.8
1.6
100
C
l
Sb 0 S
ria
0.8
0.4 Se
Tc C
0 Te
2.5 ate 5.0 7.5 0 100 200
Ln (d in nm) T (C)
Figure 5. (a) Thickness dependence of Tc for Sb2 Te3 films and (b) Variation of chemical composition
with treatment temperatures for antimony dichalcogenide films. The boxes show the constant
chemical composition region and the vertical arrows indicate Tc .
dM
(b) 0 100 200
1.5
hte
(a)
Tc = 145 C
Sb2 S3 1.0
2.0 Sb2 Se3

Sb2 Te3 Sb2 Se3
rig
0.6
Eo (eV)
Amorphous (Eo)
2.8 Tc = 165 C
Crystalline (Eg)
Absorbance
py
1.0
2.2
1.6
Co
Sb2 S3
0 1.0
0 100 200 0 100 200 300
T (C) T (C)
Figure 6. (a) Variation of absorbance at = 520 nm with treatment temperatures (optical contrast)
for antimony dichalcogenide films. The boxes show the constant chemical composition region, and
the vertical arrows indicate Tc for each compound. (b) Variation of absorption edge with annealing
temperatures for Sb2 Se3 and Sb2 S3 films. The broken vertical line indicates Tc .

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a) (b)
l
ria
(c)
ate (d)
dM
hte
(e) (f)
rig
py
Co
Figure 7. Laser (cw Ar+ , = 514 nm)-induced phase transformations in as-grown amorphous
films of Sb2 S3 (d = 530 nm): (a) Amorphous I (background) amorphous II (dark circular
spot) transition at laser power P = 20 mW and irradiation time t = 15 s; (b) ac transition at
P = 100 mW, and t = 15 s; (c) ac transition at P = 200 mW and t = 30 s, Sb2 Se3 : (d) ac tran-
sition at d = 230 nm, P = 100 mW, and t = 15 s; (e) ac transition at d = 410 nm, P = 200 mW,
and t = 30 s; (f ) ac transition at d = 600 nm, P = 360 mW, and t = 60 s, and Sb2 Te3 (d = 380 nm,
P = 300 mW): (g) ac transition at t = 15 s; (h) ac transition at t = 30 s; (i) ac transition at
t = 60 s.

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(g) (h)
l
ria
(i)
ate
dM
hte
Figure 7. (Continued )
and decreases along the depth. The decay of the tempera- reflecting, we have Pth = constant dTc /A(1 R). Behavior
ture after switching off the laser source can be given as of Pth with film thickness is compared in Fig. 8(c) for all the
three compounds. Sb2 S3 and Sb2 Te3 show similar behavior,
rig

while the quite different nature of Sb2 Se3 may be due to
Tr,z (t) = Tm exp t + T0 , (5) the existence of reflectance at higher thicknesses and the
Cv
known photosensitivity of selenium.
where Tm and T0 are the maximum temperature attained
during irradiation and the initial temperature, respec-
py
tively. The authors claim that these simple relations give OPTICAL STORAGE IN CHALCOGENIDE FILMS
quite accurate results for materials of low by comparing
their heat treatment and laser irradiation experiments on The concept of optical storage based on the laser-induced
amorphous Sb2 S3 films. Here, we can see the requirement ac switching in Te based chalcogenide films was first
of low and high A of the material for a better temperature
Co
demonstrated by Feinleib et al. (80,81) as early as 1970.

rise as discussed earlier. Equation (4) can be rearranged Soon after, the efforts started in the direction of realizing
to estimate the radius of the crystalline spot induced by this concept for commercial optical storage disks. Initially,
laser irradiation by knowing the Tc of ac transition of the the crystallization in amorphous film was termed as writ-
material as r 2 = r02 Ln(constant AP/ Tc ). The dependence ing and the reamorphization of crystalline spots as eras-
of crystalline spot radius on and Tc expected by Eq. (4) ing from the point of view of data stability. The crystalliza-
is compared for the three materials in Fig. 8(a). Agree- tion time (c ) is far greater than that of amorphization (a )
ment between the calculated and the observed is best in and depends on the materials and its stoichiometry. Barton
the case of Sb2 S3 due to its very low . As increases, et al. have shown that c for chemical compounds is shorter
the agreement becomes poorer because of the faster heat than alloys (77). However, for faster writing, the idea of
flow outside the spot. The growth of the grain size depends amorphization on a precrystallized [known as initializa-
on irradiation time as illustrated in Fig. 8(b). We can also tion of the disk in which the crystallization of as-grown
estimate the threshold laser power (Pth ) just needed to in- amorphous film is carried out either by thermal annealing
duce crystallization by setting T = Tc of the material in or by laser annealing (82)] film as writing and recrystal-
Eq. (4) to get Pth = constant dTc /A. If the film is also partly lization as erasing was also demonstrated quite early in
PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
(a)
3
1/2
(b)
[Ln (1/Tc )]
2 95
Sb2S3
1 r Sb2Se3
(m)
2.0 Sb2Te3
90
l
ria
D (m)
200
Tc
100
1.0
0
1
Sb2 S3
ateSb2 Se3 Sb2 Te3
log ()
0
0 30 60
dM
5
t (sec)
(c)
300 Sb2S3
Sb2Se3
Sb2Te3
200
P (W/cm2 )
hte
100
0
rig
0 500 1000
d (nm)
Figure 8. (a) Comparisons of thermal conductivity () and Tc for antimony dichalcogenide com-
pounds. The calculated radius (X) of crystalline spot using Eq. (4) depends on both of these param-
eters and is compared with the observed radius of crystalline spot () induced at threshold laser
py
powers. (b) The dependence of grain size (D) on irradiation time (t) for the three compounds. The
grain size was measured from SEM micrographs taken at the center of irradiated spot for each
compound. (c) The threshold laser power (Pth) required to induce a-c phase change in the three
compounds as a function of film thickness (d).
Co
1972 (76), then it was termed reverse-mode writing. This subsequent researches on optical storage media were in the
idea was used by many people to demonstrate reversible direction of improving c , cyclability, data stability, and the
cycles as high as 104 to 106 (41,75,77,8385) without any like. Multilayer structures containing the recording active
data deterioration. However, it is no longer called reverse chalcogenide film sandwiched between protective dielec-
mode, and it has become routine in optical storage disks. tric films have also been developed and studied for their
A few issues regarding reversible phase change materials possible commercial applications (83,8892). The addition
are discussed in (86). If the difference between c and a is or doping of certain elements like Sb, Ge, Ag, Cu, Co, Tl, Ti,
large, a two-laser-beam configuration, one for writing and and V in some chalcogenide films shows improvement in c
another for erasing with different power and pulse width, and data stability (41,9396). The writing/erasing charac-
is required for rewriting, and if they are comparable, a teristics and cyclability of reversible phase change storage
single beam is sufficient. There have been several attempts media are tested usually by a static laser pulse tester (84).
to produce the materials suitable for single-beam writ- The actual disk structures or practical disks are tested
ing and erasing (42,54,77,82,8588) by improving c . The using a disk dynamic tester (82,83). The writing/erasing

PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43
Table 3. Optical Recording / Erasing Characteristics of Some Reversible Phase Change

Chalcogenide Films
Laser Pulse Width (ns) Laser Power (mW)
Material Writing Erasing Writing Erasing Reference
Sb2 Se 50 (a) 200 (c) 20 7 (77)
GeSb2 Te4 50 (c) 50 (a) 8 20 (88)
GeSb2 Te4 40 (c) 50100 (a) 8 25 (42)
Ge2 Sb2 Te5 50 (c) 50100 (a) 8 25 (42)
GeSb4 Te7 30 (c) 50100 (a) 8 25 (42)
Ge33 Sb11 Te56 100 (a) 100 (c) 25 10 (97)
Ge25 Sb23 Te52 100 (a) 150 (c) 25 8 (97)
l
Ge47 Sb11 Te42 150 (a) 100 (c) 20 9 (97)
Ge50 Sb13 Te37 150 (a) 100 (c) 22 7 (97)
ria
Ge12 Sb27 Te61 200 (a) 100 (c) 22 7 (97)
Ge21 Sb26 Te53 25 (a) 66 (c) 11 5 (82)
In47 Sb14 Te39 500 200 9 6 (98)
Pd-Ge-Sb-Tea 50 (a) 100 (c) 20 10 (87)
AgInSbTe 12 7 (85)
a
ate
Pd0.002 Ge0.168 Sb0.265 Te0.056 .
characteristics of some rewritable chalcogenide storage 2. R.A. Bartolini. Proc. IEEE 70: 589597 (1982).
media are shown in Table 3. Most of these materials show 3. G. Bouwhuis, J. Bratt, A. Huijser, J. Pasman, G. van Rosmalen,
105 to 106 cyclability and are useful media for single-beam and K.S. Immink. Principles of Optical Disk Systems. Adam
Hilger, Bristol, England, 1985.
dM
writing and erasing. The holographic recording has also

been tried on chalcogenide films, mainly in Asx S1x (or Se) 4. A.B. Marchant. Optical Recording: A Technical Overview. Ad-
systems, the details of which can be found in (5,6). dison Wesley, Reading, MA, 1990.
5. K. Schwartz. The Physics of Optical Recording. Springer,
Berlin, 1993.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS 6. K. Schwartz. J. Inf. Recording 22: 289311 (1996).
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hte
InSbTe systems with binary, ternary, or quaternary FL, 1995, pp. 3778.
(with some other metal) combinations are being pursued 8. N.F. Mott and E.A. Davis. Electronic Processes in Non-
as high-density, high-cyclability rewritable storage media crystalline Materials. Clarendon, Oxford, 1979.
in competition with magneto-optic materials. However, as 9. S.R. Elliot. Physics of Amorphous Materials. Longman Scien-
we have seen, the WORM kind of storage is realizable in tific and Technical, London, 1990.
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rig
of research in this area would be to examine and ana- Berlin, 1985.

lyze more closely the correlations among structural, optical 11. Z.U. Borisova. Glassy Semiconductors. Plenum Press, New
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py
and will likely continue. The effect of the dielectric lay- 13. G. Lucovsky, F.L. Galeener, R.H. Geils, and R.C. Keezer. In P.H.
ers, the nature of the multilayer structure, and their in- Gaskell, ed., Structure of Non-crystalline Materials. Taylor
terfacial properties on the storage properties will have to and Francis, London, 1977, p. 127
be studied. Even though, the antimony chalcogenide com- 14. G. Lucovsky and T.M. Hayes. In M.H. Brodsky, ed., Amor-
pounds have shown a lot of promise right from the be- phous Semiconductors. Springer, Berlin, 1985, pp. 215
Co
ginning (54), studies on these compounds are relatively 250.

few. These compounds need more attention because their 15. S.R. Elliot. In R.W. Cohn, P. Haasen, and E.J. Kramer, eds.,
SRO is exactly similar in their amorphous and crystalline Glasses and Amorphous Materials. VCH Publishers, New
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ria
ate
dM
hte
rig
py
Co

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PB091-O-DRV January 13, 2002 2:43

Eliminate structural dynamic problems

the cladding, ncl . The core and cladding are surrounded, in 2 to 10 m.

2 2 sive fiber type but the least effective transmitting medium.

n2cl )1/2 ]. For monomode or single-mode optical fibers, the

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Multimode step index Low-order

Single-mode step index

Multimode graded index

Figure 3. Three basic types of optical fiber waveguides.

Table 1. Typical Properties of Various Optical Fiber Types

Loss Aperture Core Size Core to Bandwidth

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

tem for a typical fighter jet.

distributed signal associated with the measured parame-

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Point or short gauge

Long gauge length or integrating

Signal processing unit Distributed sensor

Figure 5. Classification of optical fiber sensors.

 employ multimode optical fibers, although monomode opti-

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

(a) Sensitive element

In the sensing community, fiber-optic sensors are also clas-

ric, phase, or modal content sensors. In multimode sens-

ternal parameters acting on monomode sensors influence

physical disturbances on the lightwave optical modula-

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

(a) Intrinsic distributed sensors

Mode Rayleigh Raman

POTDR OFDR OTDR Scattering Amplification

(b) Quasi-distributed sensors

(c) Distributed measurement

Ring Star Parallel Series Fluorescence Rayleigh Raman

CIAO TDM Coherence WDM OFDR OTDR POTDR

Table 4. Light Wave Modulation and Measuring Methods

Density change Triboluminescence e

Change in chemical Absorption change a

Bubble Impurity Density change

Figure 8. Causes of light intensity attenuation in an optical fiber.

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

(a) larimetric sensor.

Interferometric Optical Fiber Sensors

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

lustrated in Fig. 13b. Even though these sensors possess

which is not common to both fibers, will be interpreted as

trinsic (IFPI), or extrinsic (EFPI) type, the light in the op-

ror at the end of the sensing region, as shown in Fig. 13c.

along the two paths of different lengths. The recombined

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

(a) Source Sensing arm

Reference arm Output

Reference arm Mirrored fiber ends

Cladding Thin film R

Incident light Cladding

and (d) Bragg grating sensor configuration.

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Table 6. Summary of Optical Sensors and Potential Use in Smart Structures

mechanical evaluation, whereas intensity-modulated sen-

Table 7. Performance Evaluation of Fiber Optic Sensor for Engineering Structures

Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Distributed system becomes

employ multimode optical fibers, although monomode opti-

2 of the refractive index in the core of a photosensitive optical