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READING literacy and language July 2003 65
grammar. In other words, we understand teaching and cultural difference on learning, and a powerful
literacy skills as a multimodal production, and speech commitment to raising students academic attainment.
and writing as just two modes among many in the Her aim, she says, is to provide students with a
multimodal ensemble of the English classroom. framework within which they will be able both to
succeed academically and to read real life critically.
The starting point for multimodality is to extend a She is able to create a particular relationship with her
social interpretation of language and meaning to a Black students, such as those participating in the
range of representational and communicational incident we shall describe in this paper, by sharing
modes. Multimodality assumes that all these modes, some of her own life experiences as a Black woman
like language, have been shaped through their cultur- with her class. In return, the students told us in
al, historical, and social usage to realise social func- interviews, in English lessons: We voice our opinions
tions. We understand all acts of communication as y We are allowed to talk and say what we feel; we
socially made and meaningful. At the same time we feel we have got respect. Although our focus is on the
view meanings as realised differently in different construction of gender as a frame for the analysis of
modes. In the example discussed in this paper, the text in analysing one classroom episode in this paper,
distance of a gesture, the intonational range of voice, this shared social positioning and relationship of trust
the direction and length of a gaze are all treated as part with students, constructed over time, underlies and
of meaning making. The meanings of these multi- makes possible the specificities of the particular
modal signs, like the meanings of speech, are located in interactional event.
the social origin, motivation, effect, and result of the
sign that is made. In order to explore the relationship Our research question does not concern what is
between talk and other modes in the classroom, we typical or atypical in the English classroom, rather
turn to the social semiotic notion of meaning functions our aim is to provide a social explanation for the
(Halliday, 1978) to analyse how the modal resources production and realisation of school English as it
involved realise ideational and interpersonal meaning. appeared in the classrooms we observed. The
Alongside Hallidays concept of meta-functions, multi- example analysed in this paper is selected for three
modal theory provides a range of tools with which to reasons. First, it enables the value of multimodal theory
prise open the multimodal environment of the to be tested in an incident when talk is ostensibly to the
English classroom. This includes frameworks detailing fore. Second, it enables us to explore the co-production
the semiotic resources of gaze (Lancaster, 2001), of school English by teachers and students. Third, it is
movement and gesture (Franks and Jewitt, 2001; an example of how the teachers knowledge of the
Martinec, 2000), and image (Kress and van Leeuwen, students rhetorically shapes the production of school
1996). We apply these conceptual tools to the data to English.
examine the meaning functions realised by co-occur-
ring modes and identify repetitions of signs and what
Scheflen (1973) calls customary acts: acts that happen Teaching literacy through social interaction
in a particular context at a particular time, and have an
established function. In the lesson we focus on here, the teacher is working at
mediating a text to the students as part of the KS4
In the remainder of this paper we focus on an instance national curriculum requirements for wider reading.
of the multimodal orchestration of a whole class The text she has chosen is a short story by William
debate around a text, as an example of a particular Trevor called Teresas Wedding. It examines the
schooled literacy practice. relationships among an Irish Catholic family and their
friends and partners, as revealed at a wedding
reception. The teachers curriculum objective is to
The context of the case study develop students skills in providing evidence from the
text to justify their interpretations of these characters,
Our example is drawn from an urban multi-ethnic their feelings and motives.
school that has achieved consistently high examination
results in comparison to schools with a similar At the start of the critical incident which we have
intake of students from socially disadvantaged chosen to analyse here, the teachers position in the
backgrounds. It is based on videotaped observations classroom changes and her posture alters from formal
of one experienced teacher working with a class of (seated in an upright posture at a desk at the front-
1415-year-olds, together with interviews with her centre of the classroom) to informal (sitting on the edge
and a group of her students. As the social origins of a desk at the front-left side of the classroom). This
of signs are deeply implicated in the multimodal marks and, we would argue, permits a significant
meanings created, it is important to note the teachers change in the style of discourse then adopted both by
own social positioning. She is a Black African- the teacher and by the students. In the multimodal
Caribbean woman, an ethnic background shared analysis that follows, we show how the teacher draws
with a significant number of her pupils. In interviews, on and rhetorically orchestrates the students them-
she expressed a strong interest in the impact of selves as a resource in the analysis of the text. We see
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66 Classroom interaction
the teacher deploying her knowledge of her students choice and its position is therefore meaningful. Kress
lives to offer a simple framework by which they can and van Leeuwen (1996) theorise that the direction of
construct a successful interpretation of the text in order written scripts has come to shape how people come to
to meet assessment requirements. Simultaneously she read and produce images and that as a result
uses the text to ask students to interpret their own lives particular meanings (information values) have come
and social positioning. In this case, the students are to be associated with the position of an element in an
asked to focus on the particular construction she offers image. In societies where people read from left to right,
of gender relationships or of how boys need to think the informational value of given is associated with
about the ways they treat girls. elements on the left, and the informational value of
new is associated with elements that are positioned
Our purpose in this paper is to show the value of a full on the right of the text. In the diagram shown in
multimodal analysis to classroom interaction and to Figure 1, there is a polarisation between the two
comment on the way in which this interaction shapes elements and women is awarded the value of given
school English and literacy. For this reason and within and known (for the teacher is of course a woman
the limitations of a short article, we focus in detail on herself), while men is compositionally associated
the first stage of the sequence the setting-up, and on with the value of new and problematic. The separa-
the conclusion of the incident, sketching in the four tion of women and men is emphasised by the teachers
stages between these. repeated gesture at the two sides of the diagram and
her comments that this is the men now and were
looking at how men act. She discusses the authors
Creating a framework for critical text placing of male and female characters in different
analysis settings in the story. While talking about the story the
teacher makes several circling gestures around the
In the first stage of the sequence the teacher sets up a diagram. These gestures place the diagram and the
framework for the critical analysis and debate of the debate that follows within the context of the story.
text through use of the photocopied text of the story,
talk, gesture, drawing, and writing on the board. She The story as a resource itself, the physical text of
marshals the modes of gaze, gesture and posture to Theresas Wedding is with each student. They look
focus on the text, subduing her own and the students through it, find and agree the page, and read the
bodily movement. She stands at the front of the passage. The teacher deals with the text at the abstract
classroom and instructs the students to find the page level of theme, in this case gender relations. The
where the revelation that Theresa has slept with Screw diagram and her gestures with it link the text as
Doyle is revealed. The teacher then moves away from abstract theme and the text as concrete story. The
centre to perch informally on a table in the far-left diagram serves as a visual backdrop throughout the
corner of the classroom, at the same time expressing lesson, on to which the teacher maps both the text
her own difficulty in making sense of the reaction of itself, the analytical theme for the assignment and the
the male character in the story. Her move from the classroom interaction.
centre opens debate to the students, positioning the
text as the alternative and ultimate authority in critical In the second stage of the sequence, the teacher
reading events. The teacher then draws a diagram on opens up the text for the students personal responses.
the board (see Figure 1). The text is read and then the teacher asks Alright.
Would whats wrong with that? What makes you
Through her talk and gesture with the diagram, the feel what is wrong with Screw Doyle telling Artie
teacher produces a gendered analytical device or frame on his wedding day?. The students begin to
for the discussion of the text. The diagram visually respond and the teacher then begins to orchestrate
polarises women and men literally dividing them the debate.
into two elements. Visual semiotics argues that where
an element is placed compositionally in an image is a In the third stage of the discussion the teacher sets up a
debate between the students on the basis of their
gender, calling first on the female students and then,
separately, on the male students. At this point the
teachers talk changes. Her voice adopts a more varied
pitch, tone and rhythm signifiers of heightened
emotion (van Leeuwen, 1999). Her choice of lexis
Women Men
changes from formal address to the more colloquial,
for example: Ah. Alright! Hold on to that! and later,
Ah, I like that inequality. Who takes responsibility
for this?. The teachers gestures change from infre-
quent small hand movements near to her body to
Figure 1. Representation of the teachers diagram on the frequent large gestures directed at the students. This
board shift in voice quality, lexis, and gesture can be
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READING literacy and language July 2003 67
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68 Classroom interaction
Posture: sitting on edge of desk, one leg on rhetorical purpose of the lesson. For instance the
floor, back less upright, body angled teacher uses gaze to nominate female students to talk
towards Peter and to visually associate Christopher with her com-
(5) Speech: Some men might possibly would ment on some mens potential violence. Earlier in the
have become violent towards episode, she used gesture in order to orchestrate a
Screw Doyle debate along gender lines (holding her hand up in a
Gaze: around classroom to places occupied stop sign) to subdue male students from talking.
by male students then directly at Through her gesture and gaze the teacher naturalises
Christopher the gender terms of the debate: she did not have to say
Gesture: Drops and sweeps right hand/arm I dont want to hear from the boys right now, but was
away from body out towards the able to stop them as individuals without referring to
classroom takes left hand from men gender. She was also able to carefully select which boys
on board and keeping it stretched contributed to the debate.
sweeps it out around the classroom
moves left arm back again to touch the Although the teacher herself has drawn the line
men side of the diagram between the sexes, and gestured it into existence in
Posture: bends forward, leans in toward the the classroom, she attributes the production of the
class separation of men and women to men. Of course,
Note: The transcription convention of McNeill she could have attributed the line to herself as an
(1985) is used in which the underline shows the analytical device for looking at the theme of gender in a
temporal extent of the gesture in relation to text, or to William Trevor, the author of the text, as a
speech. literary device, or to the position of the girls and herself
as women. However, she attributes it to the attitudes
Through her gesture the teacher transforms the (and potential actions) of men in general, the male
diagram on the blackboard into an analytical grid for students in the classroom, and to the response of Peter
use on the text. Augmenting the line acting as a and Christopher in particular. In doing this she links
division between women and men on the blackboard, the text, men as a group and the male students in a
she gestures with her hand to create a barrier in front of particular way. Through her gesture, talk, and use of
her body between herself and Peter as she says: theres the image the teacher, together with the students she
a line between male and female it seems. This gesture has selectively nominated to contribute to the debate,
serves to realise the line between men and women as collaborate in positioning the text as a reflection of
physical. She gestures back at the line of the diagram social reality.
and by so doing, links the line on the board with the
physical barrier she has created between herself and Without the diagram the teacher would have had to
Peter. She embodies the separation of men and women. talk the abstract notion of gender into existence and to
In this way the teacher places herself and Peter either directly link the behaviour of the male students to the
side of the positions in the diagram and the text more characters in the story and men in general. To say such
generally. She also momentarily re-frames the power things would both take time and be contentious. The
structure of teacher and student to female and male. diagram enabled the teacher to establish the divide as a
fact, and to do so quickly and without debate. Her
Sitting on the table, she gestures at men written on the gesture with the diagram enabled her to make a visual
board, and as if lifting the generalised term from the link between the characters in the story, the students,
board, she sweeps her arm around the room as she says and men in general. This enabled the teacher to elide
you know, because the men Some men might the move from literary fiction to the lived lives of the
possibly become violent towards Screw Doyle. She young men in the classroom and to homogenise them
gazes directly at Christopher, who had earlier in the within the category men: the young Black men in the
discussion made a punching gesture in response to classroom and the young Irish men in the story. It
how he might feel in the characters position, and other enabled her to introduce the concept of gender and to
male students. We argue that here the teacher is isolate and simplify it as an analytical tool.
drawing the social positions and the responses of the
male students into her abstract thematic discussion of
the text as realised in the diagram. Through her
gesture and gaze she is both commenting on the men in Talk show
the text and the young men in the classroom at the
same time. However, this happens in different modes: In the concluding stage of the discussion the teacher
the teachers comment on the young men in the stands up and asks So, why wasnt he angry with his
classroom is implicit in her gaze and gesture, while her friend?. As she does so she gestures to emphasise her
comment on the men in the text is explicit in her talk. question and her negative evaluation of Arties
behaviour. As the students all begin to respond
Throughout the lesson the teacher uses gaze to simultaneously, Peter says Because and puts his hand
nominate, and gesture to subdue the students for the up. The teacher does not respond immediately, but
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READING literacy and language July 2003 69
then looks directly at him and nominates him: Peter Gaze: turns to look at Christopher
and he responds. Gesture: stretches left arm, palm open, swe-
eps out directed at Christopher/
(Throughout this episode the students are positioned Then drops arm and hand to rest
at their desks and the teacher is seated on a desk front- on her lap
left of the classroom.) Posture: leans back onto desk, moving
away from Christopher
Peter: Christopher:
(1) Speech: What I was going to say is (8) Speech: He probably thought if shes
Gaze: Smiles, looks directly teacher having my baby I gotta marry
Gesture: holds left hand high in air finger her religious as well. Thats
pointed why he married her
Posture: Leans back in chair, body angled Gaze: at Philip, then at teacher
toward teacher Gesture: rubbing hands together on desk
(2) Speech: Hey probably could, - true, it IS and moves hands apart/moves
different between men and wo- left hand in front of and away
men. from right hand, then clasps them
Gaze: at teacher Posture: leans to right (towards Philip)
Gesture: holds left arm high, wags finger (9) Speech: Finds out she been having sex
up and down at teacher/moves with the best man mixed
arm to point at Lizzy / then back emotions
to teacher wags finger Gaze: at Philip, then at teacher
Posture: leans further back in seat Gesture: holds hands open and apart,
(3) Speech: But also, a friend - yeah, hes swings both hands towards Pe-
been his friend for years. Her, he ter, holds hands to side of head,
didnt even love her too much. makes soft circular motions
Gaze: at teacher Posture: leans back slightly in seat, faces
Gesture: holds left arm high, hand front
pointed/ wags finger up and Teacher:
down / wags finger up and
down / wags finger up and down (10) Speech: So men can behave in a certain
Posture: leans back in chair way? That is acceptable.
But a woman cant? He was cross
(4) Speech: Its not a, its not a proper with Teresa. Didnt even want to
relationship sit next to her, on the bus. Do you
Gaze: at teacher remember?
Gesture: lowers arm, brings both elbows Gaze: At Peter and Christopher
to side body, opens arms apart, Gesture: makes slow circular movement
palms open on knee with left-hand
Posture: sits forward, shaking head from Posture: leaning back on right arm
left to right stretched to side, legs crossed,
Lizzy: head up back slightly, and tilted
to the left (in direction of Peter)
(5) Speech: Its his pride, its his pride. Hes
damaged his pride Darcus: (off camera)
Gaze: looks at Peter then at teacher
Gesture: hands clasped on lap (11) Speech: No - where does it say that?
Posture: leaning right arm on desk, facing
Teacher:
teacher (back to Peter)
(12) Speech: Look at your story.
(6) Speech: Cos its a male thing, cos he Gaze: at Darcus
doesnt really care Gesture: holds up left hand, points slowly
Gaze: at teacher moves arm up and down
Gesture: holds hands apart, fingers Posture: (as before)
spread moves to and way from
her body [Students look for place in story]
Posture: facing teacher (back to Peter)
(13) Speech: Didnt affect his relationship,
(7) Speech: What, if he doesnt love her it friendship, with Screw Doyle.
doesnt really matter too much! Gaze: looks at Peter
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70 Classroom interaction
Gesture: waves left hand right and left in Christopher. Her voice quality changes, becoming
front of face, fingers spread loud and high-pitched, indicating emotion, and her
Posture: turns to face Peter gestures are bigger as she leans back and points
(14) Speech: Thats a men thing. And you into the air towards Christopher, saying What if
boys will need to examine some- he doesnt love her, it doesnt really matter too
times how you behave towards much!. Through her posture, gesture, gaze, and
girls, even in school as well. Yes? talk of love, Lizzy resurrects the talk show genre.
Gaze: Turns to look at Christopher then Through their posture, gesture and gaze Lizzy and
around the room Peter make Christopher the focus of the debate: he is
Gesture: Nods head/ holds up left arm the person both try to convince of their argument.
opens fingers, cups hand and However, Christopher does not side with either
flicks open fingers/ drops hand Lizzy or Peter, although he does try to appease
to knee/ Nods head. Peter, through leaning toward him, looking at him
Posture: leaning back on right arm stre- and gesturing at him. But Christopher also looks
tched to side, legs crossed, head at the teacher, his clasped hands echoing the earlier
up and back slightly, hand on knee gesture of the teacher, and shifts the discussion
Note: Where more than one gesture accom- back to the text: He [Artie] probably thought if
panies an utterance the text is underlined to shes having my baby I gotta marry her religious
show the extent of the gesture in relation to as well.
speech, and the corresponding gestures are
separated by a 0 / 0 . Although Christopher brings in the issue of religion,
the teacher chooses not to pick up on this alterna-
tive reading. Indeed, when she speaks she does
Peters jabbing pointing gesture, his laid-back posture, not comment on what Peter, Lizzy or Christopher
the increased volume, variable pitch, and rhythm of his have said. Following Christophers lead, the teacher
voice, and his use of colloquial language combine to returns to the text to show how men and women
shift the style of interaction and reintroduce the genre of seem to be expected to behave differently: Didnt
the talk-show debate. Peter wags his finger at the even want to sit next to her, on the bus. Do you
teacher, in an echo of the teachers earlier gesture that remember?. In this way she uses the text as evi-
negatively evaluated the response of the male character dence of the wrongness of Arties (and Peters)
Artie (and Peter). He gazes directly at the teacher as he male response. The students start to look for
gestures, and his body is turned toward her. His gaze this line in the text. As the students are examin-
and gesture direct his words at the teacher (and at one ing the text for the evidence of Arties behaviour
moment Lizzy). He acknowledges the teachers (and toward Theresa, the teacher says And you boys
Lizzys) earlier point (that men and women might be will need to examine sometimes how you behave
different) but directly challenges her interpretation of towards girls, even in school as well. Yes? As she
events. He offers an alternative view of male behaviour says this she looks first at Christopher, and then
(Arties behaviour): it is not that men do not listen, but around the classroom. Through her talk and gaze she
that long-term friendship is more valuable than thus directly links the examination of the text with
immediate and potentially false love. This can be read the examination of self.
in different ways, perhaps that men are more reliable
than women or that you can depend on long-term The boys comments offer an alternative reading of
friendships more than sexual partnerships (the latter of Arties behaviour as a matter of friendship, time,
which may be true for many young people). trust, and religion, rather than gender. However, these
alternative readings unsettle the analytic frame of
The teacher does not comment, leaving the floor now to marriage and gender equality that the teacher is
the students. Lizzy responds initially: she looks at the working to establish for the students to use in
teacher, echoing her usual more-restrained body making their assessed written response to the text.
posture, open gestures, and calm voice, to suggest Thus, the teachers refusal to acknowledge alter-
authoritatively that it is Arties male pride that causes native views is not simply a response to gender
him to be angry with Theresa instead of with his friend. relations in the school and society more generally, the
Peters response is to change his body posture: he turns insertion of a piece of social and moral instruction into
away from the teacher and Lizzy and his gestures the English lesson, a distraction from curriculum
change to a wide-open surrendering movement, as if objectives. On the contrary, the issues raised, the
he is giving up. He puts his hand to his mouth and debate itself, are directly linked to the teachers
turns to face and talk to Christopher. Physically objective, to provide an analytical device or frame
through body posture, gesture and position, Peter which the students can then deploy in order to receive
withdraws himself from the debate. good grades in their next essay. Gender provides that
frame, with the relationships between the distant Irish
Lizzy then shifts her body posture and position wedding guests played out in their own classmates
in order to address her own comments also to bodies and emotions. Now the students can approach
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READING literacy and language July 2003 71
a personal response to the text, as required by the can not be easily spoken is realised in the English
National Curriculum. classroom.
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72 Classroom interaction
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