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© State of Queensland (Department of Main Roads) 2009
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DISCLAIMER
This publication has been created for use in the design, construction, maintenance and operation
of road transport infrastructure in Queensland by or on behalf of the State of Queensland.
The State of Queensland and the Department of Main Roads give no warranties as to the
completeness, accuracy or adequacy of the publication or any parts of it and accepts no
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If the publication or any part of it forms part of a written contract between the State of Queensland
and a contractor, this disclaimer applies subject to the express terms of that contract.
January 2009
Queensland Department of Main Roads Pavement Design Manual
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Foreword ..................................................................................................................................1
1.2 MR Pavement Design System .................................................................................................1
1.3 Scope and applicability ............................................................................................................2
1.3.1 General ......................................................................................................................2
1.3.2 Applying the MR Pavement Design System..............................................................2
1.3.3 MR Pavement Design System policy parameters .....................................................3
1.4 Definitions ................................................................................................................................4
2 PAVEMENT DESIGN........................................................................................................................8
2.1 Overview of MR Pavement Design System .............................................................................8
2.1.1 Design models and mechanical properties................................................................8
2.1.2 Designers...................................................................................................................8
2.1.3 Unbound granular design charts ...............................................................................8
2.1.4 Mechanistic design ....................................................................................................8
2.1.5 Estimate of life ...........................................................................................................8
2.2 Reliability..................................................................................................................................8
2.3 Selecting a trial pavement configuration and minimum standards ..........................................9
2.3.1 General ......................................................................................................................9
2.3.2 Project-specific factors.............................................................................................10
2.3.3 Specifications...........................................................................................................10
2.3.4 Minimum pavement standards ................................................................................10
2.4 Shoulders ...............................................................................................................................17
2.4.1 General ....................................................................................................................17
2.4.2 Shoulders with a lower structural standard..............................................................17
2.4.3 Unsealed shoulders .................................................................................................18
3 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS......................................................20
3.1 General ..................................................................................................................................20
3.2 Unbound granular ..................................................................................................................20
3.3 Stabilised materials ................................................................................................................20
3.4 Temporary connections for HILI pavements ..........................................................................21
3.5 Asphalt pavements.................................................................................................................21
3.6 Working platform ....................................................................................................................21
3.7 Settlement ..............................................................................................................................22
3.8 Moisture ingress and maintenance ........................................................................................22
3.9 Trafficking of incomplete pavement .......................................................................................22
3.10 Thickness of bituminous seals ...............................................................................................22
4 ENVIRONMENT..............................................................................................................................23
4.1 General ..................................................................................................................................23
4.2 Climatic zones........................................................................................................................23
4.3 Water environment.................................................................................................................24
4.4 Minimising exposure to and influence of water......................................................................27
4.4.1 General ....................................................................................................................27
4.4.2 Design requirements................................................................................................27
4.4.3 During construction..................................................................................................28
4.5 Situations where pavement or subgrades cannot be protected ............................................28
4.6 Temperature environment......................................................................................................29
5 SUBGRADE ....................................................................................................................................30
5.1 General ..................................................................................................................................30
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Foreword
The Queensland Department of Main Roads (MR) Pavement Design Manual (this manual) is
written as a supplement to ‘Part 2: Pavement Structural Design’ of the Austroads Guide to
Pavement Technology (Austroads, 2008), hereafter referred to as Part 2 of the Austroads guide.
The MR Pavement Design Manual, used in conjunction with Part 2 of the Austroads guide and the
other components of the MR Pavement Design System, provides requirements for the design of
new pavements for MR.
Designers are also referred to the following MR documents:
● Pavement Surfacings Manual
● Pavement Rehabilitation Manual
● Road Planning and Design Manual
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Because of differences between design inputs and whole-of-life realities (e.g. traffic growth,
enforcement of and legislative changes to legal axle loads and tyre pressures, variability in
construction control and ongoing maintenance and rehabilitation) the analytical processes and
tools contained herein can provide only an indication of future pavement performance.
If a contract interface involves a planning and/or design component, requirements separate to the
MR Pavement Design System must be developed to address the means of supplying an
acceptable design process and design to the owner/client/principal.
1.3.3 MR Pavement Design System policy parameters
The MR Pavement Design System has evolved and been developed to provide solutions that best
serve the needs of the MR controlled road network as a whole and applies only in this context. The
policy parameters that provided guidance and the context of developments to date have included:
a) a historic priority for
i) all-weather connections with the consequence of lower initial standards in order to
favour maximum length constructed
ii) an adequate level of service over the whole network within the context of budgetary
constraints and the comparatively large geographical area with relatively low population
density
b) a project delivery system requiring a defined contract between the owner and the contractor,
for construction only, based on detailed drawings, specifications and test methods.
Imperatives that have had to be considered in recent times include:
a) high cost of maintenance interventions and associated user disruptions on highly trafficked
urban roads, leading to the lowest whole-of-life cost solution for such pavements being high
load intensity low intervention (HILI) pavements
b) increasing load intensities caused by increases in vertical loading and major increases in
horizontal shear loading caused by increased truck gross masses. This has required stiffer
and stronger pavement bases and surface layers.
c) increased expectations about safety requirements, leading to increases in surface property
requirements such as macrotexture and microtexture but also requiring stiffer and stronger
pavement base layers to support these requirements
d) a greater emphasis on whole-of-life cost rather than initial cost.
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1.4 Definitions
Table 1.4-1 – Definitions
Term Description
assessment period The time span over which total costs for the pavement are determined so that whole-
of-life cost comparisons can be made between alternative pavement design options.
Refer to Table 7.2-1 for determination of the assessment period.
The assessment period may be the same as the design period, or there may be
several design periods within the assessment period due to decisions to reconstruct
or rehabilitate the pavement at intermediate intervals.
base layer The main structural layer nearest to the surface in a pavement.
binder layer An asphalt layer that is placed between an asphalt base layer and an asphalt surface
layer. The binder layer is included for its better workability to reduce permeability and
improve roughness levels.
capping layer A layer that provides cover over an in situ material that has a design CBR of less than
3.0% but not less than 1.0%.
cover over reactive A thickness of material beneath the lowest pavement layer intended to reduce water-
subgrade induced volume change effects on the pavement where there are in situ materials
with the potential for water-induced volume change.
Cover thickness may include any working platform, select fill, capping layer and/or
drainage layer.
deep strength A pavement structure consisting of a minimum total thickness of 175 mm of dense
asphalt pavement graded asphalt over a cementitiously stabilised subbase (subbase thickness range
150–200 mm).
design period Main Roads definition (this applies to Main Roads works)
The time span considered appropriate for the major structural elements of the road
pavement to function without rehabilitation and/or reconstruction. Treatments, such as
replacement of surfacing layers and stage construction treatments, that maintain the
integrity of the other components of the pavement are included within the design
period.
Austroads definition
The time span considered appropriate for the road pavement to function without
major rehabilitation and/or reconstruction.
drainage layer A layer located between the pavement and the untreated subgrade that intercepts
water and/or breaks capillary rise.
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Term Description
flexible composite A pavement structure consisting of a minimum total thickness of 175 mm of dense
pavement graded asphalt over a lean mix concrete subbase (subbase thickness range 170–
240 mm).
full depth asphalt A pavement structure consisting of full depth asphalt usually over a working platform.
pavement
functional Characteristics provided by the particular pavement that address the necessities for
characteristics traffic and are expressed in terms of lane availability, rideability, grade, cross-fall,
water film thickness, flood immunity, skid resistance, etc.
functional Requirements related to a standard of service for the pavement user, such as
requirements roughness, grade, cross-fall, rutting, surface defects, texture depth, skid resistance,
delineation, visibility, etc.
HILI pavement High load intensity, low intervention pavement as defined in Table 2.3-2.
load intensity Traffic loading applied to the pavement over a specified time period, comprising the
accumulation of applications of a variety of pavement contact stresses and repetitions
derived from the traffic spectrum, vehicle frequency and growth rate.
low pavement water A low pavement water content environment is where the pavement:
content environment a) has an adequate and well maintained seal;
b) is not subject to flooding;
c) has adequate surface and subsurface drains;
d) has no standing and / or ponded water within 5 m laterally of the trafficked lane(s);
e) has no water within 2 m vertically from the bottom of the lowest pavement layer
unless there is a minimum 150 mm thick capillary break layer; and
f) is located where the average rainfall is less than 500 mm / year and the
Thornthwaite Index is less than 0.
Main Roads (MR) The State of Queensland operating through the Queensland Department of Main
Roads
mechanical Properties that can be used as direct inputs into a mathematical equation and/or
properties model, such as layered linear elastic theory or finite element. At this time only the
layered linear elastic model CIRCLY is calibrated for use.
MR Pavement Main Roads Pavement Design System as defined in Section 1.2 and applied as
Design System described in Section 1.3.
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Term Description
pavement A pavement that will be used by traffic and designed and constructed in accordance
with the Main Roads Pavement Design System, including this manual.
property Result of a test method that is used to provide useful information about a material or
product.
reactive subgrade A subgrade material with CBR swell greater than or equal to 0.5%.
rigid pavement A pavement of Portland cement concrete or having a Portland cement concrete base
course.
safety Qualities of the pavement and associated facilities that directly affect vehicle safety
related to but not limited to: surface type, surface texture, skid resistance, surface
drainage, cross-fall, delineation, sight distance, guide posts, lighting and guardrail.
settlement A lowering of the height of the pavement and subgrade as a result of loading imposed
by traffic, the pavement and/or the embankment, and caused by creep, shear or
reduction in volume.
stabilised subgrade A subgrade that has been stabilised with chemical binders and site investigation
and laboratory testing has verified that the intended long-term properties of the
stabilised material will be achieved. The structural contribution of the layer may be
considered in the same manner as an un-stabilised select fill with a material CBR
determined by a CBR test, but not greater than 20% and subject to the maximum
modulus that can be developed when sub-layered as an unbound material.
staged construction Treatments to the pavement during its design period by programmed strengthening
that occur in a way that maintains the structural capacity of the original pavement
layers for the design period (eg. overlays).
subgrade level The level of the interface between the bottom of the pavement and the top of the
Subgrade.
subgrade material Subgrade material includes working platform, select fill, treated material, drainage
layer, capping, general fill and Untreated Subgrade to a minimum depth of 1.5 m
below the bottom of the pavement.
temporary pavement Any pavement constructed for the purpose of carrying traffic for short periods
(maximum 2 years) while the pavement for the road is under construction,
reconstruction and/or rehabilitation, designed in accordance with the Main Roads
Pavement Design System and the requirements for temporary pavements in this
manual. The design, material and construction requirements for temporary
pavements are the same as for permanent pavements, unless specifically stated
otherwise.
test method Unless otherwise noted a test method as specified in the relevant Main Roads
specification, technical standard, or supplementary specification.
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Term Description
treated material Material treated with lime and/or cement in accordance with the relevant Main Roads
specification, technical standard, or supplementary specification.
unbound granular A material complying with the relevant Main Roads specification, technical standard, or
pavement material supplementary specification that consists of graded aggregates and may include clay.
unbound granular - An unbound granular – acceptable environment generally includes, in addition to the
acceptable specification requirements:
environment a) Full width seal (an alternative for low traffic volumes is a low permeability select fill
unsealed shoulder where whole-of–life costing confirms it is economical for the
particular situation);
b) Adequately designed, constructed and maintained surface and subsurface
drainage;
c) Open table drains in cuttings;
d) No standing and / or ponded water within 5 m laterally of the trafficked lane(s);
e) No water within 2 m vertically unless there is a full width drainage / capillary break
layer;
f) Degree of saturation limits achieved and maintained for all layers;
h) All layers are tested with a 4 day soaked CBR (except that an unsoaked CBR can
be used for subbase in low pavement water content environements);
i) Pavement is not subject to water inundation or flooding that lasts for more than 1
day (protection such as fully enclosed low permeability verges, drainage / capillary
break layer, full width seal and pavement drains may be required).
untreated subgrade Natural unprocessed material, other than that moved from another location and/or
compacted at the location, where the characteristics of the subgrade are to be
determined to assess:
a) the need for one or more of the following elements: capping layer; cover over
reactive subgrade; drainage layer and/or combined capping/drainage layer
b) subgrade design CBR and swell.
water-induced Change in the volume of the subgrade material resulting from a change in water
volume change content usually on a reactive subgrade material.
weighted plasticity The product of the plasticity index and percentage passing the AS 0.425 mm sieve
index (WPI)
working platform A layer that is part of the subgrade and which provides:
• access for construction traffic
• a platform on which to construct the pavement layers
• protection to the underlying materials.
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2 PAVEMENT DESIGN
2.1 Overview of MR Pavement Design System
2.1.1 Design models and mechanical properties
Pavement design comprises empirical and mechanistic components.
The MR Pavement Design System utilises mathematical models to provide a logical framework
within which to apply existing knowledge to the structural design of pavements. The models utilise
mechanical properties such as modulus and Poisson’s Ratio. However, the direct measurement of
these mechanical properties and the mechanistic model are not as robust as in other disciplines.
Direct measurements must:
a) be statistically analysed to account for the considerable variation in pavement materials
b) have a 95% confidence level applied, unless stated otherwise
c) be considered as information additional to and integrated with values interpolated and/or
extrapolated from the total calibration of the model
d) be used only in the context of the overall design system.
Where provided, the values given in the MR Pavement Design Manual must be used.
2.1.2 Designers
Adequate design is possible only when carried out by professional, trained, experienced, and
knowledgeable personnel. It requires consideration and integration of all inputs including local
conditions, material characteristics, cross-sections, loading, design models, road user safety and
constructability.
2.1.3 Unbound granular design charts
The unbound granular design chart considers only rutting and shape loss.
2.1.4 Mechanistic design
Mechanistic pavement design, utilising layered linear elastic theory, considers only three distress types:
rutting and shape loss, fatigue of asphalt, and fatigue of cement stabilised materials.
For concrete pavements designed utilising this Manual, the design method for base thickness
considers two distress types: fatigue of the base and erosion of the subbase/subgrade.
Other types of distress, such as those caused by horizontal stresses on grades, at intersections
and on curves, or by environmental influences such as temperature and water, are not directly
assessed by these design methods. These forms of distress have to be constrained by other
means such as specification of appropriate materials or provision of relevant cross-sections,
pavement types and drainage. Consequently, this Manual cannot be used in isolation and must be
used in conjunction with all other components of the MR Pavement Design System.
2.1.5 Estimate of life
The MR Pavement Design System will provide an estimate of the life of various pavement
elements. To maintain the functionality of the pavement, including for the initial design period,
interventions are required to replace, overlay and/or rejuvenate elements of the pavement. Regular
pavement monitoring, with input from designs in accordance with this Manual, is essential to
determine when these interventions are to occur.
2.2 Reliability
The Austroads reliability guidelines (Part 2 of the Austroads guide, Section 2.2.1.2) consider only
the following structural distress modes:
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For asphalt over granular pavements, the lowest whole-of-life cost usually occurs when the
asphalt thickness is sufficient to enable the asphalt to achieve a fatigue life at least the same
as a reasonable pavement design life and the subgrade rutting life provided by the cover
over subgrade.
While relatively thin1 asphalt surfaced granular pavements usually do not provide the lowest
long-term whole-of-life solution, other factors may have a significant effect on selection of the
pavement type, such as
a) budget constraints for initial construction
b) the cost-effectiveness of constructing relatively short sections
c) the high cost of appropriate granular base materials
d) noise.
In addition, in areas with surfaces subject to significant horizontal shear (such as grades, curves
and intersections), the minimum thickness and type of asphalt should be determined so that it
also accommodates this horizontal shear. In such cases the minimum thickness should be 100
mm. Thicker and/or polymer modified asphalt should be used for more severe applications.
Models for determining the required thicknesses to resist shear forces are not currently available
and local performance history is to be applied.
2) modified granular pavements
Modified granular pavements are not listed in Table 2.3-1 to Table 2.3-5. Where their
performance has been established locally, they are to be specified and constructed in
accordance with local District requirements, but within the following requirements:
a) The pavement must comprise a full depth modified material.
b) The design modulus for the base must be determined from repeat load triaxial testing
and in situ deflection analysis of a similar existing pavement. When in situ analysis is
not available, the maximum design modulus for the base shall be 350 MPa. The
absolute maximum design modulus of the base shall be 600 MPa.
c) In all cases there must be a working platform and, where there is a reactive subgrade,
cover over reactive subgrade.
d) The pavement must have at least a two-coat bitumen seal.
e) The potential for and risk associated with cracking must be recognized and accepted
and appropriate interventions allowed for in the whole-of-life costing and maintenance
during service;
f) Modified granular pavements cannot be used where the average daily ESA in the
design lane in the year of opening is > 1000 or only a HILI pavement type is given in
Table 2.3-1.
Typical pavement cross-sections for various pavement categories are given in Chapter 11.
1
Relatively thin asphalt surfaced granular pavements are those where the fatigue life of the asphalt cannot
achieve a reasonable design life for the pavement. In these cases, the asphalt has to be regularly replaced,
rejuvenated and/or overlaid.
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< 10 10 to < 100 100 to < 1000 1000 to < 3000 ≥ 3000
ASt(A)
SG(D) 2,3 SG(C) 2,3 SG(B) 2,3 HILI HILI
Urban AG(C)3 AG(C) 2,3 AG(A-C)3
ASt(A)
SG(D) 2,3 SG(C) 2,3 SG(B) 2,3 ASt(B) ASt(B)
Temporary
pavement
Abbreviations
HILI High Load Intensity, Low Intervention pavement as defined in Table 2.3-2.
AG(A) Asphalt over granular pavement as defined in Table 2.3-3.
AG(B) AG(A-C) can be any standard that suits the circumstances, including budget and whole-
AG(C) of-life costing.
AG(A-C)
SG(A) Spray sealed granular pavement as defined in Table 2.3-4.
SG(B)
SG(C)
SG(D)
ASt(A) Asphalt over cement stabilised (Cat 1 or Cat 2) pavement as defined in Table 2.3-5.
ASt(B)
Notes:
1) The average daily ESA in the design lane in the year of opening used in this table and elsewhere in this manual are based
on a heavy vehicle growth rate not exceeding 10.0% per annum. If the heavy vehicle growth rate exceeds 10.0% per
annum in any of the first five years after opening, then the average daily ESA in the design lane for the first five years after
opening shall be used instead.
2) Asphalt over granular pavement or HILI pavement instead of spray sealed granular pavement is required in areas with high
horizontal shear stresses such as intersections, grades and curves.
3) Pavements incorporating unbound granular material must not be used where there is an in-service exposure of the
unbound material to water to the extent that the water content of the granular material is likely to rise above the specified
maximum degree of saturation.
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Table 2.3-2 – Pavement type details: high load intensity low intervention (HILI)
Type Surface1,2 Binder Base Subbase Subgrade
Jointed plain Jointed plain
(asphalt surface not
(unreinforced) – (unreinforced)
recommended)
concrete concrete
Jointed
Jointed
reinforced (asphalt surface not
– reinforced
concrete recommended)
concrete Lean mix
pavement
concrete
Continuously OG10 (min 30 mm); (150 mm)
reinforced or DG14HS3
concrete Continuously
DG14HS3
Deep strength OG10 (min 30 mm); Cat 16 or
asphalt or Cat 2
OG14 (min 40 mm) stabilised
DG14HS3 DG20HM4,5 granular7
DG14HS3 (150 to
200 mm)
Flexible OG10 (min 30 mm); Lean mix
composite or concrete8
OG14 (min 40 mm) (175 to
DG14HS3 250 mm)
Notes:
1) Surface must comply with the Main Roads pavement surface property standards given in the MR Pavement Surfacings
Manual. Asphalt over jointed plain concrete or jointed reinforced concrete not recommended because of reflective
cracking. Asphalt over continuously reinforced concrete used if required (usually to reduce noise). Special prime over
concrete required for any asphalt surface.
2) All surface asphalt must have an underlying S4.5S polymer modified seal (refer Section 3.5).
3) The minimum thickness of DG14HS for both surface and binder layers is 50 mm, except where the base layer is concrete
in which case the minimum thickness is 45 mm (surface layer) and 40 mm (binder layer).
4) The DG20HM base layer may be replaced with a different mix (DG14HS, DG14(320), DG20(320) or DG20(600)), subject
to the total thickness of binder layer plus surface layer being at least 100 mm where the base layer is not DG20HM or
DG14HS. DG28 cannot be used in HILI pavements.
5) The minimum thickness of the base layer in deep strength asphalt and flexible composite pavements must be such that
the total thickness of dense graded asphalt (base plus binder plus surface) is a minimum of 175 mm.
6) At this time, these material types are only available for project specific work with the MR project specific supplementary
specification for unbound granular materials. Contact Pavements & Materials branch for advice on their use.
7) A prime plus a SAMI (incorporating S4.5S polymer modified binder) must be included above the stabilised granular
subbase.
8) A 10 mm Class 170 bitumen seal protection layer must be included above the lean mix concrete.
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Cat 16 or Cat 2
DG145 stabilised granular7
(150 to 200 mm)
OG10
(min 30 mm)
DG14 Cat 16 or Cat 2
or DG20 5
stabilised granular7
(min 45 mm)
OG14 (150 to 200 mm)
(min 40 mm)
Cat 16 or Cat 2
DG28 5
stabilised granular7
(150 to 200 mm)
ASt(A)3
Cat 16 or Cat 2
DG14 5
stabilised granular7
– DG20
(min 45 mm)
(150 to 200 mm)
Cat 16 or Cat 2
DG28 5
stabilised granular7
(150 to 200 mm)
OG10
(min 30 mm) Cat 16 or Cat 2
DG14
or stabilised granular8
(min 50 mm)
OG14 (min 150 mm)
ASt(B)4 (min 40 mm) –
Cat 15 or Cat 2
DG14
– stabilised granular8
(min 50 mm)
(min 150 mm)
Notes:
1) Surface must comply with the Main Roads pavement surface property standards given in the MR Pavement Surfacings
Manual.
2) All surface asphalt must have an underlying S4.5S polymer modified seal (refer Section 3.5)
3) The minimum thickness of the base layer in ASt(A) pavements must be such that the total thickness of dense graded
asphalt (base plus binder plus surface) is a minimum of 175 mm.
4) Standard ASt(B) is only suitable for use as temporary pavement and not permanent pavement. Where the average daily
ESA in the design lane in the year of opening exceeds 1000, A5S binder shall be used in the surface and binder asphalt
layers.
5) DG14, DG20 or DG28 mix shall be selected to suit the situation.
6) At this time, these material types are only available for project specific work with the MR project specific supplementary
specification for unbound granular materials. Contact Pavements & Materials branch for advice on their use.
7) A prime plus a SAMI (incorporating S4.5S polymer modified binder) must be included above the stabilised granular
subbase.
8) A prime and seal (minimum 14 mm nominal size with C170 bitumen) must be included above the stabilised granular base.
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2.4 Shoulders
2.4.1 General
There are two broad design alternatives for shoulders. The preferred design alternative is to
continue all layers of the structural pavement for the full width of all trafficked lanes and shoulders.
This alternative is generally more practical to construct with a lower risk of construction variability
and/or moisture ingress.
The second, less preferred alternative is to design and construct the shoulder to a lower structural
standard than the trafficked lanes. Further details on this option are given in Section 2.4.2.
In both cases, the structural section of the pavement (the section beneath the trafficked lanes)
must extend at least 200 mm beyond the delineated edge of the trafficked lanes for HILI
pavements, and at least 100 mm for other pavements.
2.4.2 Shoulders with a lower structural standard
Where a shoulder of a structural standard lower than that of the trafficked lanes of the pavement is
provided, the following must be adopted:
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a) Total pavement thickness of the shoulder shall be the same as the adjacent through lane.
b) Where the adjacent structural section of the pavement is full depth asphalt, deep strength
asphalt or flexible composite, thick asphalt over granular or thick asphalt over stabilised
pavement, the shoulder shall have the same asphalt surface, seal and binder courses as the
structural section. Beneath this, the required thickness of asphalt base, or alternatively, a
Type B1 or B2 unbound granular base with a polymer-modified seal, shall be designed to
ensure that the asphalt does not fatigue. The balance of material down to the top of the
working platform shall be at least a Type SB2 material. A pavement drain shall be provided
at the interface of the two pavements.
c) Where the adjacent structural section of the pavement is asphalt surfaced granular or sealed
granular pavement, the shoulder shall have the same asphalt surface course(s) and/or seal
as the structural section. The shoulder shall also have the same granular base layer(s) and
materials as the structural section. Other layers required to make up the design thickness for
the shoulder are to be the same thickness and material type as used in the adjacent layers in
the structural pavement. The balance of the thickness of the shoulder to the level of the
lowest pavement layer is to be a select fill material. It must not be a general fill material.
d) Where the adjacent structural section of the pavement is concrete, the shoulder shall have
the same asphalt surface, seal and binder courses (where they exist) as the structural
section. The minimum total thickness of DG14HS shall be 100 mm. Beneath this, the
required thickness of asphalt base, or alternatively, a Type B1 or B2 unbound granular base
with a polymer-modified seal, shall be designed to ensure that the asphalt does not fatigue.
The balance of material down to the top of the working platform shall be at least a Type SB2
material. A concrete edge drain shall be provided at the interface of the two pavements.
e) In all cases sealing is to continue to the outside edge of any verge or outside edge of the
shoulder if a verge does not exist.
f) A lower standard shoulder is not permitted on the high side of one-way crossfalls as this
could result in moisture entering the pavement.
Where a lower structural standard shoulder is constructed as a widening to an existing pavement,
the effect of disturbing in situ subgrade materials should be considered in determining the
thickness of the shoulder.
There are some limitations to the use of lower structural standard shoulders that need to be
addressed when they are being considered for a particular project. These include the following:
● Construction may be more difficult because of increased complexity and narrow working
widths.
● Future widening may be more difficult.
● With concrete pavements, a thicker base layer is required.
● Temporary trafficking of the shoulder during construction and future maintenance of the
through lanes may be restricted by the lower structural capacity of the shoulder.
● Some shoulders may experience regular trafficking because of the nature of the road
alignment (e.g. curves, end of tapers, narrow through lanes, access points, intersections
and/or no edge lines).
2.4.3 Unsealed shoulders
Where an unsealed shoulder is to be considered, the following requirements apply:
a) It cannot be used on any pavement with average daily ESA > 1000 in the design lane in the
year of opening.
b) The seal must extend at least 200 mm beyond the delineated edge of the trafficked lane.
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c) The material in the shoulder must provide low permeability (max. 5 x 10-9 m/sec), low swell
(max 1.5% at maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) after ten
days soaking) as well as sufficient strength to support traffic (minimum soaked CBR 40).
Because of the additional cost of the above shoulder material and the additional risk of loss of
service life or failure caused by the infiltration of water, whole-of-life costing must be carefully
assessed when unsealed shoulders are being considered.
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3.7 Settlement
Neither this manual nor Part 2 of the Austroads guide include provisions to deal with settlement
below the pavement layers. Where required, additional geotechnical investigations and
assessments shall be carried out to determine if and how much settlement may occur. If settlement
is likely, pre-treatment (e.g. drainage and/or surcharge of the formation) is required to reduce the
extent of settlement after the pavement is constructed.
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4 ENVIRONMENT
4.1 General
Water and temperature have a major effect on pavement performance. Temperature directly
affects the performance of seals, asphalt and concrete, and water directly affects the performance
of unbound granular pavements and subgrades. Water can also affect asphalt. Knowledge of
environmental conditions is essential for the design, construction and maintenance of pavements.
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Equation 4-1
100 × ( s − d )
MI =
PET
It follows that when rainfalls are lower than PET, MI is negative and the climate is dry. When
rainfalls are higher than PET, the MI is positive and climate is wet. The climate classification based
on MI is given in Table 4.3-1.
Figure 4.3-3 shows the MI values for Queensland. A comparison between Figure 4.3-1 and
Figure 4.3-2 shows that regions with a rainfall below 600 mm have a negative MI and hence are
dry as the evapotranspiration exceeds the rainfall. Areas with an annual rainfall less than 500 mm
are semi-arid.
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Table 4.3-1 – Climatic types according to the total moisture index (MI)
B4 Humid 80 to100
B3 Humid 60 to 80
B2 Humid 40 to 60
B1 Humid 20 to 40
C2 Sub-humid 0 to 20
C1 Sub-dry -33 to -0
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The minimum embankment height where there is no inundation and/or standing water or
water table, measured to the bottom of the lowest pavement layer at the outside edge, above
the natural surface should be
i) in regions with Thornthwaite Index ≥ 0 and rainfall > 500 mm/year, above the influence
of any water, but not less than 200 mm from the natural ground to the underside of the
lowest pavement layer
ii) In regions with Thornthwaite Index < 0, in particular for reactive subgrades where there
is no cover to reactive subgrade provided, the thickness should be determined as a
balance between keeping the pavement above water and minimising the potential for
change in subgrade water content that could cause volume change. In such areas, the
minimum height should be 100 mm, unless some unusual condition, such as a perched
water table, irrigation, etc. is likely to exist. The slope of the edge of the pavement
should be 25%.
f) inundation
Where inundation of any part of a pavement is possible, an assessment of the amount of
water infiltration, either caused by positive head or capillary action, has to be carried out and
the effect on the pavement and subgrade determined. Where it is determined that a loss of
service life and/or pavement damage is likely, alternative designs have to be considered.
These could include re-alignment, higher embankments and/or use of a pavement type that
is less sensitive to water, such as a concrete pavement.
g) Asphalt surface layers are not impermeable and must have a polymer modified seal
immediately beneath them (refer Section 3.5).
h) Pavement must be properly compacted right to its edge, and any excess, poorly compacted
paving material beyond the seal edges is to be removed.
i) kerbed pavements
Subsoil drains must be provided at all times.
j) changes in pavement structure
Pavement drains, for the purpose of draining the pavement layers and working platform,
must be provided at all transverse and longitudinal interfaces between pavements with
different structures (i.e. layer types and/or layer thicknesses). For example, a longitudinal
pavement drain is typically required when widening an existing pavement.
The invert of a pavement drain must be lower than the underside of the lowest pavement
layer, and where there is a working platform, the invert must also be lower than the
underside of the working platform.
4.4.3 During construction
Good surface and subsurface drainage must be provided and maintained at all times. Surfaces
must be left free-draining and compacted following completion of work and before any rain.
A working platform provides protection to the subgrade. Where neither a working platform nor
some other form of positive protection is provided to the subgrade, reworking and/or delay must be
factored into the construction program to overcome the effects of rain and/or inundation during
construction.
Asphalt and unbound granular materials are extremely susceptible to damage resulting from
increased water content during construction.
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solution may be adopted with the approval of the General Manager (Engineering & Technology).
This involves monitoring the pavement after rain and/or inundation and/or when water has been
standing and, if necessary, restricting the movement of traffic. Restrictions could include traffic
limitations on the outside edge of the pavement, restricted loads and so on, until the pavement and
subgrade have dried. This relaxation in design must not be applied to roads with average daily
ESA > 100 in the design lane in the year of opening.
For all other cases, a concrete or asphalt surfaced concrete pavement must be provided with a
design subgrade strength that reflects the measures to control volume change as per Clause 5.3.
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5 SUBGRADE
5.1 General
The subgrade can comprise alternatives including one or a combination of the following:
a) working platform
b) capping layer
c) drainage layer
d) select fill
e) general fill
f) treated in situ material
g) natural unprocessed in situ material, other than that moved from another location and/or
compacted.
In pavement thickness design calculations, fill and/or in situ untreated subgrade materials to a
minimum depth of 1.5 metres below the underside of the lowest pavement layer must be included.
This manual describes soils according to the Unified Soil Classification System, which uses a two-
letter code to indicate soils classification (refer Appendix 1).
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f) california bearing ratio (CBR) and swell determined at the density and moisture content as
provided in Section 5.2.2.
The in situ untreated subgrade shall also be tested with a dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP).
Where there is to be any subgrade stabilisation, the subgrade shall be tested in accordance with
AS1289.4.2.1 Soil Chemical Tests – Determination of the sulphate content of a natural soil and the
sulphate content of the groundwater-Normal method. The soluble sulphate content shall not
exceed 0.2%.
Many extremely weathered and highly weathered rocks in Queensland (especially sedimentary
rocks such as siltstone, mudstone and shale) tend to break down during construction to form
moisture-sensitive silts and clays. For such subgrade materials, the effects of construction should
be simulated by either repeated cycles of compacting the material or other forms of pre-treatment,
prior to compacting the specimens for testing.
A typical pre-treatment is crushing to the size specified for selected material, then artificial
weathering by 10 cycles of soaking for 18–20 hours followed by drying on a hot plate but without
baking, and finally 3 cycles of standard proctor compaction at just under optimum moisture content.
5.2.2 Laboratory CBR test conditions
CBR testing of in situ untreated subgrade and fill material to determine the design CBR and swell
shall comprise single point CBR tests in accordance with Q113C. Testing shall target at most
95.0% maximum dry density (MDD) and 100% optimum moisture content (OMC) using standard
compactive effort. The target MDD for testing can be increased to 97.0% for Class A and Class B
fill materials.
Soaking periods for determining both CBR and swell shall be as follows:
a) testing under ten-day soaked CBR conditions must be undertaken in the following
circumstances
i) floodways, causeways and other pavements likely to be inundated
ii) cuttings at or below the water table level that existed prior to the cutting or where
seepage is likely
iii) locations where the water table is sufficiently close to the top of the subgrade to
influence the water content of the subgrade and/or pavement materials
iv) urban areas where infiltration from kerb and channel or unsealed medians is likely
v) areas with a Thornthwaite Index ≥ 0
vi) situations where factors such as high rainfall and high traffic volume and/or previous
experience indicate that soaked conditions should apply.
b) un-soaked for low pavement water-content environments
c) four-day soaked for locations with circumstances not described under points a) or b) above.
5.2.3 Statistical analysis of CBR data
When a statistical analysis of CBR data is used to determine the design CBR, this is to be
undertaken by calculating the lower 10th percentile of the laboratory CBR test results and the lower
10th percentile of the DCP test results. The design CBR is then the minimum of these two values.
Use of an average CBR value for design is not appropriate.
5.2.4 Adoption of presumptive CBR values
Several MR Regions have considerable experience and performance data on specific soil types in
local climatic and topographic conditions. Use of this information reduces the cost of subgrade
evaluation and also helps ensure a consistent approach to the determination of subgrade CBR
within the local area.
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Use of this approach involves the assessment of subgrades on the basis of geological, topographic
and drainage information, together with regular routine soil classification tests. Once these factors
are assessed, a presumptive design CBR is assigned on the basis of previous test data and
performance for similar soils in similar conditions.
5.2.5 Variation in subgrade support with moisture changes
There are numerous factors affecting the moisture content of the subgrade throughout the life of
the pavement. It is therefore often difficult to predict with certainty what the actual operating
moisture content will be. For example seepage from higher ground, either along the pavement or
within cuts, can cause fluctuations in subgrade moisture conditions. Thus, in determining the likely
in-service moisture content, some error is quite possible.
In order to determine the possible consequences of any error, the sensitivity of the subgrade
strength/stiffness to changes in moisture content should be considered. In general, the following
comments apply:
a) sandy (SW, SP) soils
Small fluctuations in water content produce little change in volume or strength/stiffness.
b) silty (SM, SC, ML) soils
Small fluctuations in water content produce little change in volume, but may produce large
changes in strength/stiffness. Typically these soils attract and retain water through capillary
action, and do not drain well.
c) CL or CH clay
Small fluctuations in water content may produce large variations in volume, and there may be
large changes in strength/stiffness, particularly if the moisture content is near or above
optimum. Typically these soils attract and retain water through matrix suction.
Moisture from seepage, infiltration through the surface, and water table fluctuations can be
controlled by installing properly designed pavement and subsoil drains. However, subsoil drains
are effective only when subgrade moisture is subject to hydrostatic head (positive pore pressures).
It is not uncommon in wet regions for fine grained subgrade materials (silts and clays) to have
equilibrium moisture content above optimum moisture content (standard compactive effort).
However, because pore pressures are not positive, they cannot be drained. While subsurface
drainage does play an important role in moisture control, care must be taken not to make
unrealistic assumptions about the effect of subsurface drains on subgrade moisture condition.
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Provision of minimum cover over reactive subgrade is mandatory for HILI pavements. For all other
pavements the minimum cover is recommended but may be reduced where this decision is
justifiable based on acceptance of reduced performance and whole-of-life cost considerations.
Table 5.3-1 – Cover over reactive subgrade
Untreated subgrade swell (%) Minimum cover over reactive subgrade (mm)
≥ 7.0 Geotechnical assessment required
≥ 5.0 to < 7.0 1000
≥ 2.5 to < 5.0 600
≥ 0.5 to < 2.5 150
A geotechnical assessment means assessment and advice from a geotechnical engineer. Their
assessment is likely to include shallow boreholes, with continuous undisturbed sampling, to allow
the extents of expansive material, shrink swell index testing, moisture content variations, suction
testing and x-ray diffraction testing to be determined. A review of the maintenance history and
condition of existing pavements and structures should also be undertaken.
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5.6 Capping
Capping shall be provided where the in situ untreated subgrade has a design CBR < 3.0%. The
required capping thickness is given in Table 5.6-1. For subgrade design CBR ≤ 1.0%, a specific
assessment is required.
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Materials that can be used to make up the required capping thickness include standard
specification unbound granular materials, select fill, treated material and drainage layer material.
Table 5.6-1 – Capping thickness
In situ subgrade design CBR Minimum capping layer thickness (mm)
≥ 2.5 % to < 3.0 %; 150
≥ 2.0 % to < 2.5 %; 200
≥ 1.5 % to < 2.0 %; 300
≥ 1.0 % to < 1.5 %; 400
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b) If the total thickness of the working platform plus drainage layer plus other capping material
is less than the required cover over reactive subgrade thickness, then additional thickness of
material is necessary to satisfy the cover over reactive subgrade requirement. The additional
material can be additional working platform, drainage layer, select fill and/or treated material.
Where capping is required (refer Section 5.6), any materials (e.g. drainage layer, select fill and/or
treated material where they form part of the capping) used to satisfy the required capping thickness
are not individually modelled in the pavement design. Instead, the pavement thickness design is
based on a design subgrade CBR of 3.0% at the top of the capping.
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6 PAVEMENT MATERIALS
6.1 Unbound granular
6.1.1 General
In unbound granular base layers covered by seals or thin asphalt, the pavement material is subject
to dynamic loading and stress reversals, and has less containment. Under these conditions some
tensile capacity is essential and this is supplied by appropriate grading, type and quantity of clay
and some water content. However, when the water content is too high, unbound granular base
materials will fail rapidly under dynamic loading. Consequently, it is essential that the base layer be
dried back to, and maintained at, less than the specified degree-of-saturation limits.
Lower unbound granular layers are subject to less dynamic loading and stress reversals and have
significant containment. Consequently, a larger range of grading and clay contents can be
accommodated. The following should be considered when choosing a material with the
specification requirements:
a) Coarse graded materials, particularly those with low clay contents, are permeable and prone
to segregation.
b) Gap graded materials are more permeable and prone to segregation than coarse graded
materials but can be used with additional care.
c) Well graded material with appropriate clay content provides the best overall service but may
be more expensive.
d) Fine graded materials and/or materials with excess fines have less permeability and are less
prone to segregation but may require additional attention to achieve their specified CBR
requirement.
As materials generally used for these layers have high fines and clay, and are more sensitive to
water, adherence to degree-of-saturation limits is necessary.
Where design, construction and maintenance factors such as sealing, embankment height,
drainage/capillary break layers and pavement and/or subsoil drains, and other drainage are
insufficient to maintain the pavement at less than the specified degree of saturation in service,
unbound granular pavements must not be used.
Construction of unbound granular layers is particularly difficult if rain occurs prior to sealing2.
Destructive testing will usually be required to determine if degree-of-saturation limits have been
exceeded, particularly in the lower covered layers. It is essential that adequate drainage, including
surface, side and subsurface drainage be established and maintained and an appropriate
construction program be adopted to minimise exposure to water and prevent inundation. In
particular:
a) The responsibility and liability for the testing and rework caused by water infiltration must be
clearly established in the contract.
b) The contract arrangement must be established to recognise the potential need for delay and
protection during rain and construction in the period where it is less likely to rain.
6.1.2 Determining modulus of unbound granular materials
The design moduli for unbound granular materials are determined using the procedures given in
the Austroads Guide. In addition to the requirements of Part 2 of the Austroads guide, the adopted
2
This may not only increase the water content potentially beyond the degree-of-saturation limits but may
also prevent the pavement drying back to the degree-of-saturation limits from the compaction moisture
content.
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design moduli for materials conforming to Main Roads standards must not exceed the presumptive
maximum values given in Table 6.1-1.
Tables 6.4 and 6.5 in Part 2 of the Austroads guide list maximum vertical moduli for the top
sublayer of unbound granular material under various thicknesses and stiffnesses of overlying
materials. Table 6.5 may be used for Main Roads base Type B1. The values in Table 6.4 may be
used for all other unbound granular materials complying with Main Roads standard specifications.
Table 6.1-1 – Maximum vertical design moduli for unbound granular materials
Maximum vertical
Material type
design modulus (MPa)
B1 500
B2, B3, B4 350
B5, SB1 300
SB2, SB3, SB4 250
SB5, LSB1 200
LSB2, LSB3, LSB4, LSB5 150
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In a post cracked phase, Cat 1 and Cat 2 stabilised materials are considered to be cross-
anisotropic (degree of anisotropy of 2) with a presumptive vertical modulus of 500 MPa, Poisson’s
ratio of 0.35 and no sublayering.
6.3.3 Cracking
Shrinkage cracking in materials with a cementitious additive is inevitable. Cracks that reflect to the
pavement surface allow the entry of water, which frequently accelerates distress through
weakening of pavement and subgrade layers, erosion of cemented material and/or pumping of
fines from below the cemented layers.
The width of shrinkage cracks is minimised by using low plasticity materials and low treatment
strengths.
Section 6.4.4.4 of Part 2 of the Austroads guide and Section 6.3.4 of this manual discuss cracking
reduction measures.
Pavements and/or pavement layers that have been treated with a cementitious agent crack at
intervals, dependent on the volume change, tensile strength, subgrade and loading. The rate of
crack propagation can be explained via fracture mechanics.
Cracking can occur:
a) where environmentally induced stress exceeds the tensile strength of the bound material.
This is most common where the binding agent is cementitious and can occur early in the life
of the pavement.
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b) at the end of the fatigue life as a result of applied load applications exceeding the fatigue
limit.
Environmentally induced stress can result from circumstances such as:
a) volume change in pavement layers resulting from moisture and/or temperature changes,
where constraint(s) exist (which is normally the case but can be partly reduced, such as
between the base and subbase in concrete pavements)
b) curling and warping caused by temperature and/or water content differentials
c) substrate movement (settlement and/or volume change).
If cracking occurs on, propagates to, and/or reflects through to the surface of the pavement
(described as surface cracking in the balance of this document), results may include:
a) detrimental materials such as water and incompressible material entering the pavement and
subgrade, causing damage and failure
b) abrasion or erosion of underlying pavement layers, leading to the formation of depressions
c) wearing or widening of cracks, leading to further loss of pavement functionality, protection
and surface characteristics.
6.3.4 Minimising cracks
Where surface cracking is likely to occur in the design period, the design process must provide a
means of minimising the cracking. There is no known mechanism that will guarantee that reflective
cracking will not occur. Examples of treatments that aim to minimise cracking include:
a) use of overlying layers of other materials in the original structure to minimise the extent
and/or size of cracks. For example, over a cementitiously stabilised layer, placing a polymer
modified seal and either a minimum thickness of 175 mm of dense graded asphalt, or a
combination of granular material and asphalt such that 0.75 x (thickness of granular material
cover in mm) + (thickness of asphalt cover in mm) ≥ 175 mm.
b) use of a slow-setting stabilising agent that results in low early strength to generate closer
spaced cracks, with consequent smaller crack widths. It is generally believed that an
increased number of narrower cracks will lead to less reflective cracking.
c) specifying within the maintenance requirements crack filling and/or crack sealing and/or
placing a polymer modified seal or geotextile seal and/or overlaying any cracks immediately.
In situations where surface cracking is likely to occur, design options involving cemented materials
should be avoided if:
a) cracks cannot be filled and/or covered immediately, to prevent damage to the pavement
b) maintenance is difficult because of constrained access (e.g. high traffic volumes, multi-lane
carriageways, lane closure constraints), or excessive travel time for maintenance resources
c) the structure is intended to have low risk and/or minimum intervention
d) exposure to contaminants is high (such as during high rainfall).
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6.5 Asphalt
6.5.1 Asphalt types
Asphalt types are to be selected in accordance with the minimum standards in Clause 2.3 and the
requirements to suit the situation, such as degree of horizontal shear.
6.5.2 Determining asphalt modulus and Poisson’s ratio
Section 6.5.3.3 of Part 2 of the Austroads guide provides guidance for estimating design moduli
based on the resilient modulus measured using the standard indirect tensile test (ITT) adjusted to
the in-service temperature (WMAPT), in-service air voids and the rate of traffic loading in the road-
bed. Applying this method to Main Roads ITT data resulted in the asphalt design moduli for a
WMAPT of 32°C (given in Table 6.5-1), which are to be adopted for Main Roads projects.
Adoption of moduli and/or binder volumes based on test results for specific individual mixes is not
permitted unless all of the following requirements are met:
a) specific arrangements are agreed at least 3 months prior to commencement of construction
b) adequate tests, including modulus and fatigue, are available to assess variability and select a
design modulus with 95% confidence
c) sufficient additional controls are established to ensure the properties are consistently
achieved.
The Poisson’s ratio used for design shall be 0.4.
Except for open graded asphalt, design moduli for locations with a WMAPT other than 32°C shall
be calculated using Equation 6-1 rounded to the nearest multiple of 50 MPa.
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Equation 6-1
(
EWMAPT = max 1000, E320 C × e( −0.08×[WMAPT −32]) )
where,
EWMAPT = asphalt modulus at the WMAPT (MPa)
E320C = asphalt modulus at 32ºC (MPa)
WMAPT = WMAPT in 0C
A modulus of 800 MPa shall be used for open graded asphalt for all WMAPTs and design speeds.
WMAPTs for Queensland are given in Appendix 2.
In the absence of more reliable information about the heavy vehicle operating speed, presumptive
operating speed values for various designated speed limits are given in Table 6.5-2.
Table 6.5-1 – Asphalt design moduli at WMAPT of 32oC
Asphalt modulus at heavy vehicle
Asphalt mix Binder Volume of operating speed (MPa)
type type binder (%)
10km/h 30km/h 50km/h 80km/h
OG10 A5S 11 800 800 800 800
OG14 A5S 11 800 800 800 800
DG10(320) C320 11 1000 1250 1500 1800
DG10(A5S) A5S 11 1000 1000 1150 1350
DG14(320) C320 10 1000 1550 1850 2200
DG14(600) C600 10 1250 1900 2250 2700
DG14(A5S) A5S 10 1000 1150 1400 1650
DG14HM C600 10 1250 1900 2250 2700
DG14HS A5S 10 1000 1150 1400 1650
DG20(320) C320 10 1100 1700 2000 2400
DG20(600) C600 10 1350 2050 2450 2900
DG20(A5S) A5S 10 1000 1250 1500 1800
DG20HM C600 10 1350 2050 2450 2900
DG28(320) C320 9 1200 1800 2200 2600
DG28(600) C600 9 1450 2150 2600 3100
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Asphalt is made from materials with highly variable properties. The economics of pavement
materials require the use of local aggregates, hence unique mix designs must be carried out to
achieve desirable characteristics for mixes from a variety of sources.
6.5.3 Recycled asphalt
Recycled asphalt shall not be used for the purposes of this manual.
6.5.4 Minimising water infiltration
Virtually all asphalt is permeable to some extent, particularly when first laid. Permeability of the
surfacing, if not tightly controlled, can lead to:
a) weakening of granular paving materials and subgrade, and subsequent rutting or shear
failure
b) saturation of paving material, build-up of positive pore pressure and rapid failure
c) erosion in cemented layers
d) pumping of cemented materials and subgrade fines
e) stripping of binder in asphalt.
Each of these usually leads to dramatically reduced pavement performance. Therefore, the
pavement design and construction should ensure that a surfacing with the lowest possible
permeability is provided.
A polymer modified sprayed seal must be placed under all asphalt surface layers.
The construction process must be such that no intermediate asphalt layer is left exposed where
rain is likely, or for longer than five working days where rain is not expected.
6.6 Concrete
6.6.1 Base concrete
The 28-day design flexural strength of the concrete shall be 4.5 MPa. This is the value for design
and is less than the specified value, as detailed in Austroads (2004). For steel fibre reinforced
concrete, the 28-day design flexural strength shall be 5.5 MPa.
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7 DESIGN TRAFFIC
7.1 Average daily ESA in design lane in year of opening
The average daily ESA in the design lane in the year of opening (ESA/day) is calculated using
Equation 7-2, where the parameters are as defined in Part 2 of the Austroads guide.
Equation 7-1
ESA / day = ( AADT * DF ) × % HV /100 × LDF × ESA / HV
For temporary pavements, the design period shall be selected based on the intended period of
use, with a maximum design period of 2 years. In addition, for temporary pavements where the
average daily ESA in the design lane in the year of opening is 1000 or more, the minimum design
period shall be 6 months.
Equation 7-2
g = (1 + 0.01 × r ) x
where,
g = growth factor
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7.7 Reduced design standard for sealed unbound granular pavements with
average daily ESA < 100 in design lane in year of opening
This section is only to be used for sealed unbound granular pavements that satisfy the following
conditions:
a) average daily ESA in design lane in year of opening is < 100
b) where there are justifiable reasons for allowing a higher level of performance risk
c) where allowance is made in the whole-of-life costing for additional maintenance treatments.
This procedure uses only roughness as an indicator of the effect of the reduced standard. It does
not include other elements such as rut depth, volume change, or durability, for example. These
must be independently addressed and assessed.
The empirical design procedure for granular pavements with thin bituminous surfacings (Section
8.3) is based on the premise that pavement roughness at the end of the design period (the terminal
roughness) will be approximately 150 NAASRA counts/km, assuming that the initial roughness is
approximately 50 NAASRA counts/km.
Where a reduced standard is adopted, the design traffic (DESA) can be modified so that the
pavement design allows for alternative variations in the initial pavement condition and choice of
terminal pavement condition. This is done by using the ratio of terminal roughness to initial
roughness. A suitable initial roughness value can be estimated from measurements of recently
constructed pavements under similar conditions.
The modified design traffic is determined from Figure 7.7-1 using the unmodified design traffic and
the desired ratio of terminal to initial roughness. For example, if the unmodified design traffic is 1 x
106 ESA and the designer seeks a pavement design that will result in terminal roughness being
four times the initial roughness, the value of the modified design traffic is 4 x 105 ESA.
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1.0E+08 3.0
3.5
log10 NM = [2/(R2/R1-1)]0.25 log10N + [1 - [2/(R2/R1-1)]0.25] * log10120 4.0
4.5
5.0
Modified Design Traffic (ESA)
1.0E+07
6.0
1.0E+06
1.0E+05
1.0E+04
1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+08
Design Traffic (ESA)
Figure 7.7-1 – Modified design traffic based on the ratio of terminal to initial roughness
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The thickness of any base, sub-base or lower sub-base layer shall not be less than 100 mm as
construction quality may be adversely affected for lesser thicknesses.
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10 COMPARISON OF DESIGNS
10.1 General
When comparing various alternative pavement types and configurations, cost is a prime
consideration. For most lightly trafficked roads, a granular pavement with a sprayed seal will
usually prove to be the most cost-effective pavement. However, for medium to heavy traffic loads,
particularly over weak subgrades, other pavement types may be more cost effective. To determine
the most cost-effective pavement, a whole-of-life cost comparison must be made.
Technical and financial considerations influence the types of pavement selected for consideration
on a project. An analysis of these factors is needed prior to undertaking an economic evaluation.
Financial considerations may limit the acceptable pavement options.
The various features of alternative designs need to be explored and agreed upon at this stage.
These include:
● purpose, scope and objective of the design comparison
● outputs of the analysis
● technical project constraints on pavement types to be considered, including the operating
environment such as traffic predictions and subgrade conditions
● maximum pavement capital cost limitations, if any
● feasible pavement alternatives to be analysed
● maintenance scenario(s)
● assessment period
● pavement design life
● other underlying assumptions
● an estimate of the resources required to complete the analysis.
In order to determine the acceptability of the proposed scope and parameters of the analysis, and
to minimise rework, these should be recorded, reviewed and accepted by the decision-maker who
is to consider the study results. If some of the above cannot be determined at this stage, an outline
of how these issues will be treated, whether by assumption or further investigation in the study,
should be documented. The parameters, once agreed, may be varied later during the study by
agreement with the decision-maker as further information becomes available.
For heavy-duty pavements, comparison of alternative pavement types and configurations shall be
undertaken in accordance with A Guide to the Whole-of-Life Costing of Heavy Duty Pavements
(QDMR 1998).
10.1.1 Assessment period
The assessment period for road pavements, usually expressed in calendar years, starts from the
initial trafficking of the original structure and has a duration that is the least of either:
a) the period for which the models for pavement design traffic determination and/or pavement
design are considered accurate (usually accepted as 40 years)
b) the period for which the use of the pavement and/or the road alignment can be assured.
Pavements consist of many elements, each of which has a different design life. Some of these
design lives are short and less than the expected service life of the overall pavement. To maintain
the functional requirements of the pavement, planned interventions that extend the life of particular
elements will usually be required. These interventions may include, but are not limited to:
● enrichments
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Queensland Department of Main Roads Pavement Design Manual
● reseals
● overlays
● removal and replacement of the surface layer and underlying seal
● retexturing
● maintenance.
There can also be interventions after the original design period to further extend the life of the
pavement if it is still required. These are usually categorised as rehabilitation (refer to MR
Pavement Rehabilitation Manual for further details).
In determining the design lives of individual elements, the design charts or mechanistic design are
only one indicator of possible life. Many other considerations, including other loads, such as
horizontal shear, could significantly influence the design life.
Pavement alternatives within the assessment period provide different options in respect of:
● risk
● cost (initial cost, total whole-of-life cost, intervention costs)
● interventions and consequent user disruption.
The alternative that satisfies the owner’s particular needs (including affordability) at the time is the
appropriate design.
The assessment period must not be selected on the basis of available budgets, present and/or
future. Budget influences, along with risk and intervention costs, are accommodated in the choice
of pavement alternatives, assisted by reference to the dominant criteria, as indicated below.
Design period or design life as used in this supplement is not the life of the whole pavement, but
the service life of a particular pavement element, for example: the fatigue life of a concrete or
asphalt layer, the terminal rut condition, the life before excessive oxidation of a surface bituminous
layer.
10.1.2 Design inclusions
A pavement design must include not only the original structure but also all those interventions in
the assessment period necessary for the pavement to maintain its function to the end of the
assessment period. These include:
a) initial structure
b) interventions, including, but not limited to
i) essential maintenance tasks
ii) staged construction activities (such as incremental overlays) if these have been part of
the design
iii) treatment of surface layers (such as reseal, recycle, remove and replace) on a regular
basis where surface layers cannot be designed to last the full assessment period.
A pavement design must include all activities considered necessary for the design to last for the
specified assessment period, and not just those activities required for the initial structure.
10.1.3 Determining the optimal solution
The optimal pavement design solution is that which best satisfies the design requirements for the
specified inputs at minimum cost for the whole life of the pavement, and allows for the following
constraints:
a) design considerations that cannot readily be quantified and taken into account by the design
procedures in this manual
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C
L
Surface Seal
Binder
Base
Working
platform
Subgrade Treatments
- cover over reactive subgrade
- capping layer
- drainage layer
Note:
1. These are minimums relating to structural requirements.
(2)
0.6 0.6
(1)
min. 1.0 (median side)
3.0 3.5 3.5 min 2.0 (other)
C
L
Surface (asphalt)
[continuously reinforced only]
Base
Lean mix subbase
Working platform
Drain
Subgrade Treatments
- cover over reactive subgrade
- capping layer
- drainage layer
Notes:
1. These are minimums relating to structural requirements.
2. Minimum width of base for designs with shoulders.
(1)
(1)
min. 2.0
min. 2.0 trafficked lane trafficked lane min. 1.0 (median)
C
L
Full width seal
Pavement structure
Working platform (if specified)
min 200 mm from
bottom of working
platform
Subgrade Treatments
- cover over reactive subgrade
- capping layer
- drainage layer
Note:
1. These are minimums relating to structural requirements.
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12 REFERENCES
Austroads 2003, AP-G63/03: Guide to the Selection of Road Surfacings, 2nd edn,
Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2004a, AP-G76/04: ‘Sprayed Sealing Guide’, Austroads Pavement Technology Series,
Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2004b, AP-T33/04: Technical Basis of the Austroads Pavement Design Guide,
Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2008, ‘Part 2: Pavement Structural Design’, Guide to Pavement Technology, Austroads,
Sydney.
DOTARS 2002, AusLink: Towards the National Land Transport Plan, Green paper, Department of
Transport and Regional Services, Canberra.
Powell, W.D., Potter, J.F., Mayhew, H.C. 1984, Laboratory Report 1132: The Structural Design of
Bituminous Roads, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berks, UK.
QDMR 1998, A Guide to the Whole-of-Life Costing of Heavy Duty Pavements. Queensland
Department of Main Roads, Pavements, Materials and Geotechnical Division, Brisbane.
RTA 1992, Concrete Pavement Manual: Design and Construction, 2nd edn, Roads and Traffic
Authority, Sydney.
RTA 2004, TP-GDL-012: Concrete Roundabout Pavements: A Guide to their Design and
Construction, Roads and Traffic Authority, Sydney.
RTA, Rigid Pavements: Standard Details for Design, Roads and Traffic Authority, Sydney.
Standards Australia 1997, AS 1289.4.2.1: ‘Method 4.2.1: Soil chemical tests—Determination of the
sulfate content of a natural soil and the sulfate content of the groundwater—Normal method’,
Methods of testing soil for engineering purposes, Standards Australia, Sydney.
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Appendix 1
Unified soil classification system (simplified and metricated)*
Group
Field identification Typical names
More than 50% by mass < 60 mm is > 0.06 mm symbol
Wide range in grain size and substantial GW Well graded
gravels
Clean
than 2 mm)
Predominantly one size or a range of sizes with GP Poorly graded
some intermediate sizes missing GRAVEL
Coarse grained soils
Gravels
fines
with Plastic fines (see CL below) CG CLAYEY GRAVEL
fines
with
< 50
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Appendix 2
Weighted mean annual pavement temperatures
Town WMAPT (oC) Town WMAPT (oC)
Ayr 35 Julia Creek 39
Baralaba 35 Kingaroy 29
Barcaldine 36 Longreach 37
Beaudesert 31 Mackay 34
Biloela 32 Maryborough 32
Birdsville 37 Miles 32
Blackall 36 Mitchell 32
Bollon 33 Monto 32
Boulia 38 Mt Isa 39
Bowen 36 Nambour 31
Brisbane Region 32 Normanton 40
Bundaberg 33 Palmerville 38
Cairns 37 Pittsworth 28
Caloundra 31 Quilpie 36
Camooweal 39 Richmond 38
Cardwell 36 Rockhampton 35
Charleville 34 Roma 33
Charters Towers 36 Southport 31
Clermont 35 St. George 33
Cloncurry 39 St. Lawrence 35
Cooktown 38 Stanthorpe 25
Cunnamulla 34 Surat 33
Dalby 30 Tambo 33
Emerald 35 Taroom 33
Gayndah 33 Thargomindah 35
Georgetown 38 Toowoomba 27
Gladstone 34 Townsville 37
Goondiwindi 32 Urandangie 38
Gympie 32 Warwick 28
Herberton 30 Weipa 39
Hughenden 37 Windorah 37
Ipswich 32 Winton 38
Isisford 36
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