Excel 2007 Guide: Calculus Concepts: An Informal Approach To The Mathematics of Change 5e

Excel 2007 Guide designed to accompany
Calculus Concepts: An Informal Approach to the Mathematics of Change 5e

Preliminaries 1
0.1 Vocabulary and Calculations 1
0.1.1 Vocabulary 1
0.1.2 Calculations 2
0.2 Cell References and Copying 5
0.2.1 Cell References 5
0.2.2 Using Cell References with the Copy Feature 5
0.2.3 Relative vs. Absolute References 7
0.2.4 Other Methods of Copying 8
0.3 Formatting Cells and Other Excel Options 12
0.3.1 Formatting Cells 12
0.3.2 Other Excel Options 13
0.4 Adding Solver to Your Computer 15
Chapter 1 Ingredients of Change: Functions and Limits 17
1.1 FunctionsFour Representations 17
1.1.1 Entering a Function 17
1.1.2 Evaluating a Function 17
1.1.3 Using Equation Solver 17
1.1.4 Graphing a Function 18
1.2 Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits 23
1.2.1 Numerically Investigating End Behavior 23
1.3 Limits and Continuity 24
1.3.1 Numerically Investigating Function Behavior 24
1.3.2 Graphing a Piecewise Defined Function 25
1.4 Linear Functions and Models 26
1.4.1 Entering Data 26
1.4.2 Graphing a Scatter Plot 26
1.4.3 Calculating First Differences 27
1.4.4 Fitting a Linear Model to Data 28
1.4.5 Aligning Data 30
1.4.6 Using Unrounded Models in Y1 31
1.5 Exponential Functions and Models 34
1.5.1 Calculating Percentage Changes 34
1.5.2 Calculating Percentage Changes for Data 35
1.5.3 Fitting an Exponential Model to Data 35
1.6 Models in Finance 37
1.6.1 Evaluating a Loan with Simple Interest 37
1.6.2 Evaluating a Loan with Compound Interest 37
1.6.3 Calculating Doubling Time 39
1.7 Constructed Functions 40
1.7.2 Constructing a Function Using Composition 40
1.7.3 Approximating the Model of an Inverse Function 41
1.8 Logarithmic Functions and Models 42
1.8.1 Fitting a Logarithmic Model 42
1.8.2 Fitting the Inverse of a Log Model 43
1.9 Quadratic Functions and Models 44
1.9.1 Fitting a Quadratic Model 44
1.9.2 Calculating Second Differences 45
1.10 Logistic Functions and Models 46
1.10.1 Fitting a Logistic Model 46
1.11 Cubic Functions and Models 51
1.11.1 Fitting a Cubic Model 51
1.11.2 Using the Model Equation to Answer Questions 52
1.12 Cyclic Functions and Models 55
1.12.2 Fitting a Sine Model 55
Chapter 2 Describing Change: Rates 58
2.1 Measures of Change over an Interval 55
2.1.1 Calculating Change 55
2.1.2 Calculating Average Change 55
2.1.3 Calculating Percentage Change 55
2.4 Rates of Change Numerical Limits and Nonexistence 61
2.4.1 Numerically Estimating Rate of Change 61
2.4.1a Estimating the Slope of a Regression Equation 62
2.4.4 Graphing the Tangent Line 62
Chapter 3 Determining Change: Derivatives 65
3.1 Simple Rate-of-Change Formulas 65
3.1.1 Applying Derivative Rules to a Model 65
3.1.3 Graphing the Tangent Line 66
3.2 Exponential, Logarithmic, and Cyclic Rate-of-Change Formulas 68
3.2.1 Numerically Estimating the Derivative of an Exponential Function 68
3.4 Rates of Change for Composite Functions 69
3.4.1 Calculations involving the Chain Rule 69
3.7 Limits of Quotients and Hpitals Rule 70
3.7.1 Graphically Checking the Limit of a Quotient 70
Chapter 4 Analyzing Change: Applications of Derivatives 72
4.1 Linearization and Estimates 72
4.1.1 Graphing and Calculating with Linearizations 72
4.2 Relative Extreme Points 73
4.2.1 Solving for Zeros of the Derivative 73
4.2.2 Relating Derivative Intercepts to Relative Extrema 75
4.4 Inflection Points and Second Derivatives 77
4.4.1 Locating an Inflection Point 77
4.6 Optimization of Constructed Functions 80
4.6.1 Optimization of a Function Given Verbally 80
Chapter 5 Accumulating Change: Limits of Sums and the Definite Integral 83
5.2 Limits of Sums and the Definite Integral 83
5.2.1 Left- and Right-Rectangle Approximations 83
5.2.2 Midpoint-Rectangle Approximation 85
5.2.3 Area as a Limit of Sums 86
5.5 Antiderivative Formulas for Exp, Log, and Sine Functions 92
5.5.1 Recovering a Model for Revenue 92
5.7 Differences of Accumulated Change 94
5.7.1 Calculating Area Between Two Intersecting Curves 94
Chapter 6 Analyzing Accumulated Change: Integrals in Action 96
6.1 Perpetual Accumulation and Improper Integrals 96
6.1.1 Numerically Evaluating an Improper Integral 96
6.3 Calculus in Economics: Demand and Elasticity 97
6.3.1 Calculating Consumer Willingness and Ability to Spend 97
6.4 Calculus in Economics: Supply and Equilibrium 99
6.4.1 Calculating Market Equilibrium 99
6.6 Calculus in Probability (Part II) 103
6.6.1 Normal Density Function 103
6.7 Differential Equations: Slope Fields and Solutions 105
6.7.1 Eulers Method 105
Chapter 7 Ingredients of Multivariable Change: Models, Graphs, Rates 107
7.1 Multivariable Functions and Contour Graphs 107
7.1.1 Plotting Contour Graphs from Equations 107
7.1.2 Plotting Three-Dimensional Graphs from Equations 111
7.2 Cross-Sectional Models and Rates of Change 113
7.2.1 Cross-Sectional Models from Data 113
7.2.2 Rates of Change of Cross-Sectional Models 115
7.3 Partial Rates of Change 117
7.3.1 Partial Derivatives 117
7.3.2 Numerical Estimates of Partial Derivatives 118
7.4 Compensating for Change 121
7.4.1 Finding the Slope of a Line Tangent to a Contour Curve 121
7.4.2 Compensating for Change 124
Chapter 8 Analyzing Multivariable Change: Optimization 125
8.2 Multivariable Optimization 125
8.2.1 Using Partial Derivatives to Locate Extrema 125
8.2.2 Classifying Critical Points Using the Determinant Test 127
8.2.3 Finding Critical Points Using Matrices 128
8.3 Optimization under Constraints 134
8.3.1 Finding and Classifying Critical Points with Constraints 134
Preliminaries
0.1 Vocabulary and Calculations
0.1.1 Vocabulary
In order to understand the writing in this Guide, it is necessary to become familiar with the
language of Microsoft Excel. Files in Excel are called workbooks. Each workbook initially
contains three worksheets which can be accessed via the worksheet tabs at the bottom of the
workbook. Note that worksheets can be moved, deleted, renamed, copied, etc. by pointing to a
tab and right clicking. New worksheets can be added by clicking on the icon to the right of the
last tab. A worksheet is made up of regions called cells. The worksheet cell that is currently
selected is outlined in black and is called the active cell. The address of the active cell (denoted
by its column letter and row number) can be seen in the name box. In the screen shot below, the
address of the active cell is C5. The contents of the active cell will be displayed in the formula
bar. As you use this Guide, pay careful attention to the active cell, the name box, and the
formula bar in each screen shot. These will help you understand what should be entered in your
own workbook in order to obtain the correct results.
2012 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2 5e Calculus Concepts; LaTorre, et al.
Excel 2007 Guide
The commands and features of Excel can be accessed via tabs and groups. In the screen shot on
page 1 the tabs are Home, Insert, Page Layout, etc. Within the Home tab the groups are
Clipboard, Font, Alignment, etc. If there is an arrow icon to the right of the group name,
additional options for that group may be accessed by clicking on the icon.
0.1.2 Calculations
Excel can make calculations just like a calculator. An equal sign must be typed into the formula
bar before entering an expression to be calculated. If the equal sign is not there, Excel will treat
the expression as if it is text (as in cell M2 below). When entering a formula into Excel (any
expression preceded by an equal sign), press Enter to complete the calculation. Clicking out of
the cell instead of pressing Enter may cause unintended problems.
Keep in mind that Excel knows the order of operations. Thus it is important for you to use
parentheses as necessary when entering expressions to be calculated. However, it is a good idea
not to overuse parentheses. In later chapters you will be entering expressions that are quite
complicated. Excess parentheses will make it difficult to troubleshoot errors and to understand
what is being calculated. Your goal should always be to enter expressions with the minimal
number of parentheses necessary for the calculation.
Try evaluating the expressions on page 3 with as few parentheses as possible. Note that there
may be parentheses in the paper version of the expression that are not necessary in Excel.
Additionally, it may be necessary to use parentheses in Excel that are not included in the paper
version. It is important to note that multiplication in Excel always requires the * symbol. Excel
does not recognize parentheses to mean that multiplication is the desired operation.
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Practice Expressions:
7 3 108 768 102 52

1. 3. 5.
2( 5) 9 24 82 + 32 (2)
4 15 2 (2 + 4) 2 21(106) 35(40)
2. 4. 6.
1 4 (5 3) 2 2(51 58)
The answers to these questions can be found on the next page.
Excel 2007 Guide
Answers to Practice Expressions page 3
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0.2 Cell References and Copying
0.2.1 Cell References
When performing calculations in Excel, you can refer to the contents of other cells through
cell references. In the example below it may seem just as easy to type in the values of x and
y as it is to use cell references. However, in the next example it will become clear how cell
references, along with the copy feature, can make calculations simpler and less time
consuming than typing values in directly. Note that cell references can be typed in by hand
or obtained by clicking on the cell you want to reference.
0.2.2 Using Cell References with the Copy Feature
Suppose we want to create a table of values for an equation y = 3 x . Create a column of x

values from 3 to 3 with a scale of 1. Next, label a column for the associated y values and
enter the formula for f ( x) into the first y cell using a cell reference to call up the value of x.
Excel 2007 Guide
Now the equation can be copied to cells F2 through F8. To do this, place the mouse pointer
over the little black square at the bottom of the active cell border until it looks like a black
plus sign (called the fill handle). When the fill handle appears, click and drag the box over
the cells where you want to copy the formula. Alternatively, when the fill handle appears
you can simply double click the left mouse button and Excel will copy the formula to the last
cell that has a reference in column E.
When you click on each cell in the y column, the cell reference for the x value has
automatically been updated. This is the beauty of using cell references!
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0.2.3 Relative vs. Absolute References
The cell references used in the above examples are called relative cell references. Excel also
uses an absolute cell reference. When a cell reference is absolute, the reference will not
change when the formula is copied to other cells. Suppose we want to create a column of
values for the linear equation z =1.7 x + 2.2 (using the same x values as in the previous
example). Label a column for the z values, and also create cells for the values of m = 1.7
and b = 2.2 in the linear equation.
To make a cell reference absolute, a dollar sign ($) is added in front of both the column letter
and row number in the cell address. The dollar sign can be typed directly, or the F4 key can
be pressed after the relative reference is entered (or you have clicked on the desired cell to
reference it). For the above example, type the formula =$J$2*E2+$J$3 into the first z cell.
Then copy the formula to the rest of the z column using one of the methods described above.
Excel 2007 Guide
This time, when the formula was copied, the cell references for the values of m and b did not
change, while the reference for the value of x did. This illustrates the difference between
absolute and relative cell references.
It is also possible to make only the column letter or row number reference absolute, while
leaving the other reference relative. This can be accomplished by putting the dollar sign in
front of only the column letter or only the row number.
0.2.4 Other Methods of Copying
There are different methods for copying the contents of cells in Excel. So far, we have seen
the click and drag (or double click) method. This is most useful when you wish to copy
a formula to a range of cells. To copy a formula to an individual cell, you can select
(activate) the cell you want to copy and then use your favorite copy and paste technique:
CTRL C/CTRL V, right click and choose copy/paste, or click on the copy/paste icon in the
Clipboard group of the Home tab. Suppose you wanted to use the formula for the linear
equation z above on a different set of x values (say for x from 0 to 10). You could create the
new column of x values, and then copy the formula from the original z column to the new z
column.
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In the example above, the formula in cell G2 was selected and copied using CTRL C. Then
cell M2 was selected and the formula was pasted using CTRL V. Now the formula can be
copied to the rest of the column as before.
Excel 2007 Guide
Look at the values in the z column. Something has gone wrong, but what? When a formula
doesnt result in the expected values, the first thing that should be checked is cell references.
Since the absolute cell references for the m and b values remained fixed, the problem must lie
with the relative reference. Notice that the cell reference for the x value is in column K
instead of column L. Since column K is blank, Excel is using a 0 for every value of x. Why
did this happen? When the original formula for z was copied, the cell reference for x was
two columns to the left (z values in column G, x values in column E). Thus, when the
formula for z was pasted, the relative cell reference was updated to be two columns to the
left. In other words, Excel assumed the x values could be found in column K. The good
news is, this is easily fixed. Simply replace the K in cell M2 with an L and recopy the
formula to the rest of column M.
This example highlights the importance of checking cell references whenever a formula is
copied. Always be sure that all cell references have updated correctly. In addition, incorrect
cell references can be the source of many error messages. If you get a #VALUE! or #REF!
error message, chances are good that the problem is with a cell reference.
A third method of copying allows you to copy a formula in such a way that no cell references
will be updated when the formula is pasted, even those that are relative. To illustrate this
method, we will copy the formula in cell M2 to cell N2. First, click and drag to highlight the
formula in the formula bar and copy the formula (using CTRL C, for example). Use the ESC
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key. This is the most important step! After hitting the ESC key, select cell N2 and paste
the formula (using CTRL V, for example).
You may want to try the above steps without hitting the ESC key, just to see what happens.
When cell N2 is selected, the highlighted formula in cell M2 is replaced with cell N2. You
can undo this mistake by hitting the ESC key. In general, its good to remember that if you
are in danger of erasing a formula that you want to keep, use the ESC key to restore it.
These are not the only ways to copy and paste information in Excel. For example, it is
possible to select a range of cells to be copied, and then paste the entire range of cells to a
new part of a worksheet. The three methods described above will be used most often and it
is important to understand the differences between them.
Excel 2007 Guide
0.3 Formatting Cells and Other Excel Options
0.3.1 Formatting Cells
Excel offers numerous options for formatting cells. For example, the number in a cell can be
formatted as currency, as a percent, to a certain number of decimal places, with scientific
notation, etc. To access the cell format options, select the cell you want to format, right
click, and then choose Format Cells. Alternatively, you can choose Format Cells from
the Format drop-down box in the Cells group of the Home tab. The options mentioned above
(and pictured below) can be found in the Number tab of the Format Cells dialog box.
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Notice that in addition to formatting the number in a cell, you can also format the alignment
of text in a cell, the font type and size, create a border around a cell, and fill a cell with color.
You can format a group of cells by selecting the range of cells and then opening the Format
Cells dialog box. In this case, all cells selected will be formatted the same way. Spend some
time exploring and practicing with the different formatting options.
0.3.2 Other Excel Options
Excel has several default settings that can easily be changed. To access these settings, click
the Office button in the top left corner and choose Excel Options at the bottom of the drop-
down box.
Excel 2007 Guide
When the Excel Options dialog box opens, you can select from several categories along the
left side, such as Popular, Formulas, Proofing, etc.
From this dialog box, you can change the font type and size that are used in all new Excel
workbooks and worksheets that are created. You can also change the number of sheets that a
new workbook will have. In the Save category, you can choose the default format for saved
files (.xls vs. .xlsx, for example), as well as the location where Excel will look when you first
open a file or when you save a file.
These are just a few of the many options available in the Excel Options dialog box. Spend
some time looking at each category and consider which options might make the most sense
for the work you do in Excel. Note that when any of the settings are changed, they will
remain changed each time you open Excel on that computer.
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0.4 Adding Solver to Your Computer
One of the features of Excel that will be used frequently throughout this Guide is Solver.
Solver can be found in the Analysis group of the Data tab. If Solver is not listed there,
follow the steps below to add it to your computer.
Solver can be found in the Add-Ins category of the Excel Options dialog box (discussed in
the previous section). To access the dialog box, click the Office button in the top left corner
and choose Excel Options. Click on the Add-Ins category on the left side. At the bottom of
the dialog box, be sure Excel Add-ins is listed in the Manage: box and click Go.
Excel 2007 Guide
In the Add-Ins dialog box that opens, check the Solver Add-in box and click OK.
Solver should now appear in the Analysis group of the Data tab.
You should only have to run through this process once. After Solver has been added it
should appear each time Excel is opened. However, if you are working a different computer
and Solver is not loaded, you will have to add it by following the steps above.
Chapter 1 Ingredients of Change: Functions and Limits
1.1 FunctionsFour Representations
1.1.1-1.1.2 Entering and evaluating a function (CC5e p. 4)

Given g (=t ) 3et 2t , evaluate g (4) .
To determine the output corresponding to a given input in Excel, we can use relative cell
references. To find g (4) , the output of g corresponding to an input of 4, we type the formula
for g (t ) into the formula bar with the relative cell reference A2 in the place where the
variable is in the function formula.
1.1.3 Using Equation Solver (CC5e p.6)

t ) 3et 2t , solve g (t ) = 300 .
For g (=
To determine the input corresponding to a given output in Excel, we use the Solver feature.
Solver is found in the Analysis group of the Data tab. If Solver does not appear, please see
the instructions in Section 0.4 of this Guide. Consider the example of g (=
t ) 3et 2t on page
6. In order to find the input that corresponds to an output of 300, we first copy the formula
for g (t ) into cell B4. Notice that the input cell reference is automatically updated to be cell
A4. Then we highlight cell B4 and open the Solver dialog box.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.1.4 Graphing a function (CC5e p. 5, Example 1)

Graph p (t ) = 80(1.013t ) million people where t is the number of years since the end of 1900,
0 t 100 .
To graph a function in Excel, we first have to create a table of values. The Fill, Series option
in the Editing group of the Home tab will automatically fill in a column (or row) of input
values once you have chosen the first input value. Consider the function p (t ) in Example 1
on page 5. Since the function is defined for input values from 0 to 100, we use those
numbers for our table of values. The first input value of 0 must be entered and selected
before we use the Fill, Series feature. Once the input values are in place we can enter the
function formula into the first output cell using a relative cell reference for the input. Then
we can copy the formula down to the rest of the table.
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Once we have created the table of values, we are ready to make the graph. In the Insert tab,
Charts group, we choose Scatter with Smooth Lines from the chart type Scatter. You
may find it helpful to have the table of values selected before you insert the chart.
Excel 2007 Guide
Once the graph has been created, we can make adjustments by using Chart Tools. When the
graph is selected, three new tabs appear under the heading Chart Tools. The tabs are called
Design, Layout, and Format.
In the Design tab, the color and thickness of the curve can be changed in the Chart Styles
group. In the Layout tab, a title and axis labels can be added through the Labels group. In
addition, the axes can be adjusted through the Axes group by selecting More Primary
Horizontal Axis Options or More Primary Vertical Axis Options from the drop-down
menus under Axes.
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Note that these dialog boxes can also be accessed by pointing the cursor at an axis, right-
clicking, and choosing Format Axis from the drop-down menu. The Format Axis
feature allows you to change the interval and scale, adjust the size and font of the numbers,
as well as the number of decimal places shown on the axis values.
The default setting in Excel is for horizontal gridlines to be included on the graph. These can
be removed by pointing the cursor at one gridline so that they are all highlighted and then
pressing the delete key. Formatting options for gridlines are also available in the Axes
group.
The Series 1 label to the right of the graph is called a Legend. Options for formatting the
legend are available in the Labels group. To eliminate the legend, simply point at Series 1
to select it and then hit the delete key.
Excel 2007 Guide
There are many other formatting options available for charts. Spend some time exploring the
Chart Tools and experimenting with the different possibilities. An example of a formatted
graph is given below.
U.S. Population
300
250
200
Millions
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Years since 1900
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1.2 Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits
1.2.1 Numerically Investigating End Behavior (CC5e p. 16)

x
Given f ( x ) = , numerically estimate lim f ( x) .
x +1 x
In order to numerically estimate the end behavior of a function we create a table of values.
To estimate the behavior in the long run to the right, we let the inputs get larger and larger
and see what happens to the outputs. To estimate the behavior in the long run to the left, we
let the inputs get smaller and smaller, or more and more negative, and see what happens to
the outputs. For example, consider the function given in Example 2 on page 18. In order to
predict what will happen to the number of credit card holders in the United States in the
future, we numerically investigate the end behavior of C (t ) as t gets larger and larger.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.3 Limits and Continuity
1.3.1 Numerically investigating function behavior (CC5e p. 24)

t 2 16
Investigate the behavior of r (t ) = as t 4 .
t 4
We now use a similar process to that from Section 1.2 to numerically estimate the behavior
of a function near a particular input value. We still use a table of values, as well as some
conventions about how we let the input approach a particular value (called the limiting
value). First, we use input values that approach the limiting value from both the left and the
right. Second, we start one tenth away from the limiting value and get closer by factors of
ten. Finally, we generally use four approaching inputs from the left and four from the right.
t 2 16
Consider the function r (t ) = given on page 24.
t 4
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1.3.2 Graphing a piecewise defined function (CC5e p. 29)

x2 + 2 when x < 4
Graph d ( x ) =
3x + 2 when x 4
In order to determine whether a given function is continuous at a particular input value, we

check that the three conditions for continuity given on page 25 are met. Consider the
function d ( x) given in Example 3 on page 29. Note that in order to graph the piece-wise
defined function d ( x) , we have to create two tables of values, one for inputs less than four
and one for inputs greater than or equal to four. We include 4 in both tables of values to be
able to see the complete picture, but Excel doesnt have an option to put an open circle on the
parabolic portion of the graph. Its up to us to understand that there is an open circle at
(4,18) and a closed circle at (4, 10) .
Excel 2007 Guide
1.4 Linear Functions and Models
1.4.1 Entering data (CC5e p. 37)

Enter the data given in the table into lists L1 and L2.
Years 5 6 7 8 9 10
Companies (%) 50 47 44 41 38 35
When entering data into cells on a worksheet, create a vertical table with the input values in
the column on the left and the output values in the column on the right.
1.4.2 Graphing a scatter plot of the data (CC5e p.37)

Graph a scatter plot of the data entered into columns A and B in 1.4.1
We use the Chart feature of Excel to create a scatter plot of a given data set. The process is
very similar to creating a graph based on an equation as we did in Section 1.1. Consider the
data given in Example 2 on page 39. We create a table of values with the given data, and
then in the Insert tab, Charts group, we choose Scatter with Only Markers from the chart
type Scatter. As before, once the scatter plot has been created, we can adjust the settings
and include a title and axis labels.
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1.4.3 Calculating first differences (CC5e p. 37)

Calculate the first differences of the data entered in 1.4.1
First differences are the incremental changes in successive output values.
If first differences are close, a linear function should be considered as a model for
the data.
First differences can be used to determine whether a linear model is a good choice to fit to a
set of data. Consider the data given in Table 1.13 on page 37. In order to find the first
differences, we create a column in which we subtract successive output values. Once the
initial formula is entered in cell C3, we can copy the formula down to the rest of the cells in
column C.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.4.4 Fitting a linear model to data (CC5e p. 39)

The table shows the retail sales of electricity for years between 2003 and 2008.
Retail Sales
Year
quadrillion kWh
2003 1.20
2004 1.23
2005 1.27
2006 1.30
2007 1.33
2008 1.35
Find a linear model for the data.
Because the first differences are not exactly constant, we cannot find a slope that will fit the
data perfectly. Instead, we use Excels trendline feature to find the equation of a line that
will fit as closely as possible to as many of the data points as possible. This is called the
regression line, or the line of best fit.
We start with the scatter plot created earlier. Practice using the chart formatting features to
make the graph look like the one below.
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Retail Sales of Electricity

1.35
quadrillion kWh
1.30
1.25
1.20
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
With the graph selected, point to one of the scatter plot points, right click, and choose Add
Trendline.
In the Format Trendline dialog box, choose Trend/Regression Type Linear and check the box
near the bottom that says Display Equation on chart. Once the regression equation is on
the chart, it can be moved by clicking and dragging.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.4.5 Aligning data (CC5e p. 40)

Input data is often aligned (renumbered) to reduce the magnitude of the coefficients.
In this example, the data used in 1.4.4 is aligned and remodeled.
As discussed on page 40, when the data inputs are years, its a good idea to align the data.
Using the year 2000 to correspond to an input of 0 and making a new table of values, we can
find a second regression equation.
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1.4.6 Reporting and Calculating Answers

Although models are generally reported to three decimal places, it important to use all
of the digits found by the calculator when working with the model to reduce the
possibility of round-off error.
Since the equation (not the data) will be used to answer questions, its important to paste the
model parameters into the worksheet so they can be used to make calculations. It is
recommended to paste the parameters with at least 16 decimal places to avoid rounding error.
To see more decimal places, point to the equation, right click, and choose Format Trendline
Label.
Excel 2007 Guide
In the Format Trendline Label dialog box, choose Number in the left-hand column, choose
Category: Number, type 16 into the Decimal Places: box, uncheck the Use 1000
Separator box, then click Close.
Copy and paste the longer parameters into the worksheet and reference those cells to answer
questions about the model. For example, part d. in Example 2 on page 39 asks in what year
retail sales first exceeded 1.4 quadrillion kWh. Practice using Solver to find the input
corresponding to an output of 1.4 (finding an input corresponding to a particular output was
covered in Section 1.1). Note that since the model based on the aligned inputs was used,
Excel gives the answer as 9.4 instead of 2009.4 as in the text.
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1.5 Exponential Functions and Models
1.5.1 Calculating percentage changes (CC5e, p. 48)
Percentage change can be used to determine whether an exponential model is a good choice
to fit to a set of data. Consider the data given in Table 1.21 on page 48. In order to find the
percentage changes, we create a column in which we enter the formula for percentage change
from the top of page 48. Once the initial formula is entered in cell C3, we can copy the
formula to cells C5 and C7. Note that cells C3, C5, and C7 have been formatted to one
decimal place.
1.5.2-1.5.3 Exponential data (CC5e, p. 50)

The table shows northern cod population by decade.
Decade Population
(since 1963) (billion)
0 1.72
1 0.63
2 0.24
3 0.085
4 0.032
Find an exponential model for the data.
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1.5.2 Calculating percentage changes for data

Calculate the percentage differences of the data from CC5e p. 50.
Because the percentage changes are not exactly constant, we cannot find the base for an
exponential function that will fit the data perfectly.
1.5.3 Fitting an exponential model to data

Fit an exponential model to the data from CC5e p. 50.
We use the Add Trendline feature to find the equation of a curve that will fit as closely as
possible to as many of the data points as possible (the regression equation). As in Section
1.4, we start with a scatter plot, point to one of the scatter plot points, right click, and choose
Add Trendline. In the Format Trendline dialog box, choose Trend/Regression Type
Exponential and check the box near the bottom that says Display Equation on chart. Once
the regression equation is on the chart, it can be moved by clicking and dragging.
Excel 2007 Guide
Notice that in this case, Excel has given us the regression equation y = 1.722e 0.997 x , but the
text gives the equation P( x) = 1.722(0.369 x ) . Exponential equations can be written in one of
two forms: ab x or ae kx . We tend to use the ab x form, while Excel always gives exponential
equations in the ae kx form. This is not a problem, however. When we paste the model
parameters with 16 decimal places (as we should do whenever we use Excel to find a
regression equation), we need to make a cell for model parameter b, which is equal to e k .
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1.6 Models in Finance
1.6.1 Evaluating a loan with simple interest (CC5e pp. 57- 58)
In the example on page 57, a college student is given a loan of $1000 with 4% interest per
year on the face value of the loan. To calculate the amount of interest owed each year, the
formula =1000*0.04 is entered in cell D2. Then the number 1000 is typed in cell B2. Next,
type the formula =B2+$D$2 in cell B3 (remember that the F4 key can be used to make a
locked cell reference). Finally, the formula in cell B3 is copied down to the rest of the cells
in column B.
1.6.2 Evaluating a loan with compound interest (CC5e, p. 59)
When interest is compounded, the amount of interest from one year to the next is not
constant. This means that we cannot calculate the interest as we did in cell D2 in the
example above. Instead, we create a table of values using the future value formula given on
page 59. The number 1000 is typed in cell I2; then the compound interest formula is entered
in cell I3 and copied to the rest of the cells in column I. Notice that the formula uses a locked
cell reference ($I$2) for the initial amount of the loan instead of adding the interest to the
value in the previous cell as in the example above.
Excel 2007 Guide
To answer a question like that given in Example 1 on page 60, we must use Solver. In the
formula for future value, the unknown is the present value or initial investment. This is the
input in the future value formula, and we are trying to find the value of the input when the
output (future value) is 5000.
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1.6.3 Calculating doubling time (CC5e, p. 63)

Calculate the doubling time for an investment with an APR of 6.9% compounded
quarterly
4x 4x
0.069 0.069
=
2 P P 1 + can be rewritten as =
2 1 1 +
4 4
We can use a similar process to answer part b. of Example 5 on page 63. In this case,
however, the input variable we are solving for is time and no initial investment amount is
given. Since we are looking for doubling time, we can set the output equal to 2 using an
initial investment of 1.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.7 Constructed Functions
1.7.2 Evaluating a function constructed using function composition (CC5e, p. 69)

The level of contamination in a certain lake is modeled as f ( p) = p parts per million when
the population of the surrounding community is p people.
The population of the surrounding community is modeled as=
p(t ) 400t 2 + 2500 people
where t is the number of years since 2000.
We are asked to find a function for the level of contamination. This can be done in two
ways. First, we can find the level of contamination as a function of population, f ( p ) . This
is the formula entered in column C. Alternatively, we can find the level of contamination as
a function of years since 2000, f (t ) = f ( p (t )) . This is the formula entered in column D.
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1.7.3 Approximating the model of an inverse function (CC5e, p. 70)

1
Given a function p=
(d ) d + 1 , find a model that approximates an inverse of the
33
function.
We can use tables of values to see the relationship between a function and its inverse.
Consider the water pressure example on page 70. Using the formulas for p (d ) and d ( p ) , we
can create Table 1.31 and Table 1.32.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.8 Logarithmic Functions and Models
1.8.1 Fitting a logarithmic model (CC5e, p. 78)

The table shows altitude given air pressure.
Pressure Altitude
(Hg) (thousand feet)
0.33 100
0.82 80
2.14 60
5.56 40
13.76 20
Find a logarithmic model for the data.
We will now use Excel to find a model equation for the data given in Table 1.34 on page 77.
As in Sections 1.4 and 1.5, we find the equation of a curve that will fit as closely as possible
to as many of the data points as possible (the regression equation). Once again, we start with
a scatter plot, point to one of the scatter plot points, right click, and choose Add Trendline.
In the Format Trendline dialog box, choose Trend/Regression Type Logarithmic and check
the box near the bottom that says Display Equation on chart. Once the regression equation
is on the chart, it can be moved by clicking and dragging. Notice that Excel has displayed
the equation in the form b ln x + a , but we usually write the equation in the form a + b ln x .
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Keep in mind that logarithmic functions cannot have 0 or any negative values as inputs.
Therefore, if aligning inputs that are given as years, be sure that none of the aligned values is
0. Also, it may be necessary to align input values that are not years in order to avoid having
an input value of 0 (as in Example 2 on page 78).
1.8.2 Fitting the inverse of a log model (CC5e, p. 80)

Find a model to approximate the inverse of the log model found in 1.8.1.
Following Example 3 on page 79, use the data in Table 1.38 to find an exponential equation
modeling air pressure as a function of altitude. Then use the regression equations for A( p )
and p ( A) to create tables of values showing the inverse relationship between the logarithmic
and exponential functions.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.9 Quadratic Functions and Models
1.9.1 Fitting a quadratic model (CC5e, p. 88)

The table shows the occurrence of premature, under-5.5 lb babies as a percentage of births to
mothers classified by prenatal weight gain.
Weight Low birth-weigth,
Gain premature babies
(pounds) (percent)
18 48.2
23 42.5
28 38.6
33 36.5
38 35.4
43 35.7
Find an exponential model for the data.
As in previous examples, we find the equation of a curve that will fit as closely as possible to
as many of the data points as possible (the regression equation). Once again, we start with a
scatter plot, point to one of the scatter plot points, right click, and choose Add Trendline. In
the Format Trendline dialog box, choose Trend/Regression Type Polynomial, select 2 in the
Order: box, and check the box near the bottom that says Display Equation on chart.
Once the regression equation is on the chart, it can be moved by clicking and dragging.
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1.9.2 Calculating second differences (CC5e, p. 91)

Calculate second difference for the percentage of U.S. Internet users who shop online.
Online Shopper
Year
(percent)
2008 84.2
2009 86.0
2010 87.5
2011 88.7
2012 89.7
2013 90.5
As discussed on the bottom of page 90, finding second differences can be used to determine
whether a quadratic model is a good choice to fit to a set of data. However, keep in mind that
even when second differences are constant or nearly constant, an exponential or logarithmic
function may be a better choice to model the data based on end behavior in context. The first
differences in Table 1.42 on page 91 are recreated below.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.10 Logistic Functions and Models
1.10.1 Fitting a logistic model (CC5e, p. 96)

Find a logistic model for the number of NBA basketball players who are taller than a
given height as presented in Table 1.44 on page 96 of CC5e.
Since Excel does not have Logistic as an option under Trend/Regression Type, logistic
regression has to be handled differently than in previous examples. Essentially, we will use
Solver to find the regression equation by hand. First, enter the given data and look at the
scatter plot, which suggests that a logistic function would be a good choice to model this
data. Note that the height values have been aligned so that the first input is 0.
NBA Heights
500
400
Players
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
Height over 68 inches
Create columns for the model output and squared errors, as shown below. Next, create cells
for model parameters L, A, and B, as well as a cell for the sum of squared errors.
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We next use Solver to find the values of the model parameters that minimize the sum of
squared errors. On the Data tab, in the Analysis group, choose Solver. In the Set Target
Cell: box, enter H2, the cell that contains the Sum of Squared Errors. Select Min to tell
Excel to make the sum of squared errors as small as possible. When Min is selected, Excel
ignores the number in the Value of: box. In the By Changing Cells: box, enter cells D2
through F2. Finally, click on the Solve button.
Excel 2007 Guide
After Excel finds the appropriate values of L, A, and B, compare the data outputs to the
model outputs to make sure they are reasonably close to one another (numerical viewpoint).
In this example, the sum of squared errors is about 2300. In other examples, this value may
be much smaller, such as 0.05. Therefore, it is best to look at the outputs themselves, rather
than set an arbitrary cutoff for how small the sum of squared errors should be.
Its also a good idea to graph the model equation with the scatter plot to check that the curve
fits the data reasonably well (graphical viewpoint). This can be done by adding a series to
the scatter plot created earlier and selecting the model outputs instead of the data outputs.
Right click on the graph and choose Select Data. Then click on the Add button under
Legend Entries.
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Choose the data input values as the Series X values: and the model output values as the
Series Y values:.
Because the series is being added to a scatter plot, the next series will automatically be added
as a scatter plot. However, you can change the chart type. Point the mouse at one of the
Series 2 points until the box appears to confirm it is Series 2. Right click and choose
Change Series Chart Type and select type Scatter with Smooth Lines. You can also
change the color and thickness of the curve by right clicking and choosing Format Data
Series.
Excel 2007 Guide
NBA Heights
500
400
Players 300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
Height over 68 inches
Because logistic regression is more complicated than other types of regression in Excel, you
may want to practice the entire process again with the data in Example 2 on page 97. Note
that you can copy and paste the cell headings and formulas that were used in the previous
example whenever you want to find a logistic regression equation. However, this must be
done with caution. If you copy and paste cells, it is extremely important to make sure all cell
references and formulas have been properly updated.
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1.11 Cubic Functions and Models
1.11.1 Fitting a cubic model to data (CC5e 105)

Find a cubic model for the data. (This data is from Table 1.47 on page 105 of CC5e with
input data aligned to minimize magnitude of coefficients.)
Years Employees
since 2000 (thousand people)
1 9473
2 9233
3 9187
4 9226
5 9409
6 9580
7 9577
As in previous examples, Excel will find the equation of a curve that will fit as closely as
possible to as many of the data points as possible (the regression equation). Once again, we
start with a scatter plot, point to one of the scatter plot points, right click, and choose Add
Trendline. In the Format Trendline dialog box, choose Trend/Regression Type Polynomial,
select 3 in the Order box, and check the box near the bottom that says Display Equation
on chart. Once the regression equation is on the chart, it can be moved by clicking and
dragging.
Excel 2007 Guide
1.11.2 Using the Model Equation to Answer Questions
Once the model parameters have been pasted with at least 16 decimal places, we can create a
column for the number of employees based on the model parameters and compare the results
to the given data. This gives us a numerical viewpoint of the visual picture we have of how
close the regression curve comes to the scatter plot. The equation based on the model
parameters can also be used to make calculations. For example, part c. of Example 1 on page
105 asks for an estimate of the employment in July 2005. Using the model equation, we find
the estimate to be about 9.3 million employees.
We can also use the model equation to answer question d. Since the question is asking for an
input corresponding to the output 9400, we should use Solver. This gives a solution of about
1.2, which is the beginning of 2002 (remember that whole numbers correspond to ends of
years).
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However, we can tell by looking at the graph that there are two other solutions to the
equation p (t ) = 9400 . How do we get Solver to find them? In this case, we need to provide
Solver with a place to look. In the previous example, since the input reference cell (A13)
was blank when we ran the Solver routine, Excel looked for the solution closest to 0. By
looking at the graph, we can see there is another solution near t = 5 . Copy the model
equation into a new cell, and enter 5 into the input reference cell before running Solver. Now
Excel will find the solution closest to 5, which is about 4.9, or the end of 2005.
Excel 2007 Guide
The graph indicates that a third solution is near t = 8 . Copy the model equation into a new
cell, and enter 8 into the input reference cell before running Solver. Now Excel will find the
solution closest to 8, which is about 8.2, or the beginning of 2009.
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1.12 Cyclic Functions and Models
1.12.2 Fitting a sine model to data (CC5e p115)

Find a sine model to fit the data in Table 1.49 on page 114 of CC5e with the input data
aligned so that Dec 08 is 1, Jan 09 is 2, etc.
Because Excel does not have Sine as an option under Trend/Regression Type, sinusoidal
regression has to be handled in the same way that logistic regression was in Section 1.10.
Essentially, we will use Solver to find the regression equation by hand. First, enter the
given data and look at the scatter plot, which suggests that a sine function would be a good
choice to model this data. Note that the month values have been aligned so that the first
input is 1.
Electricity Prices
11.0
cents/kWh
10.0
9.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Months since November 2008
Create columns for the model output and squared errors, as shown below. Next, create cells
for model parameters a, b, c, and d, as well as a cell for the sum of squared errors. As with
logistic regression, notice that the cell references for the model parameters are absolute,
while the cell reference for the input value is relative.
Excel 2007 Guide
We next use Solver to find the values of the model parameters that minimize the sum of
squared errors. On the Data tab, in the Analysis group, choose Solver. In the Set Target
Cell: box, enter I2, the cell that contains the Sum of Squared Errors. Select Min to tell
Excel to make the sum of squared errors as small as possible. When Min is selected, Excel
ignores the number in the Value of: box. In the By Changing Cells: box, enter cells D2
through G2. Finally, click on the Solve button.
After Excel finds the appropriate values of a, b, c, and d, compare the data outputs to the
model outputs to make sure they are reasonably close to one another (numerical viewpoint).
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Its also a good idea to graph the model equation with the scatter plot to check that the curve
fits the data reasonably well (graphical viewpoint).
Electricity Prices
11.0
cents/kWh
10.0
9.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Months since November 2008
Chapter 2 Describing Change: Rates
2.1 Measures of Change over an Interval
2.1.1 - 2.1.3 Calculating change and average rate of change (CC5e, p. 134)
0.8t 2 + 10t + 49 F where t is the number of hours since 7 A.M .
A model for temperature is f (t ) =
Calculating change, percentage change (discussed in Section 1.5 with exponential functions),
and average rate of change can be done using discrete data points or points from a continuous
function. Well use the data given in Table 2.1 on page 131 to create a model equation.
Then well use the model equation to calculate the measures of change requested in Example
3 on page 133.
Use the data to create a scatter plot and find a regression equation to model the data. Paste
the model parameters (with at least 16 decimal places) into the worksheet and create a
column of outputs based on the model equation. Next, create cells for calculating the change,
percentage change, and average rate of change between 11 a.m. and 4:30 p.m. Note that the
input t = 9.5 corresponding to 4:30 p.m. was not in the original table of values, so this input
will have to be added. Remember that you can format the calculation cells to show only one
or two decimal places this is usually preferable to seeing lots of digits in the answers.
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2.1.4 Graphing the Secant Line (CC5e p. 134)

We can use Excel to graph the secant line connecting the two points used to calculate the
measures of change in the previous example. Since we know the slope of the line (average
rate of change) and two points on the line (the point at t = 4 and the point at t = 9.5 ), it
makes sense to use the point slope form of the line equation. Recall that this form is
y = m( x x1 ) + y1 , where number values for m , x1 , and y1 are entered into the equation.
Since we only need one point to substitute into the equation, we can pick either (4, 76.2) or
(9.5, 71.7) . Lets start by using the point (4, 76.2) .
Create a column for the outputs of the secant line. The formula for the equation of the secant
line should be entered using absolute cell references in place of m , x1 , and y1 . Remember:
the slope m was calculated earlier its the average rate of change between the points
(4, 76.2) and (9.5, 71.7) .
Next, create a graph (smooth curve) of the model equation f (t ) using a table of values based
on the model parameters. Add the secant line to the graph by adding a series to the chart
(covered in Section 1.10).
Excel 2007 Guide
May Temperature
80.0
Degrees Fahrenheit
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Hours since 7 am
Now lets verify that using the point (9.5, 71.7) in our secant line equation results in the same
output values as before. Create another column for the outputs of the secant line. Once
again, the formula for the equation of the secant line should be entered using absolute cell
references in place of m , x1 , and y1 . However, this time use the point (9.5, 71.7) for the
values of x1 and y1 . Notice that the values in columns D and E are identical. When
graphing the secant line, it doesnt matter which of the two points on the curve we use in the
line equation.
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2.4 Rates of Change Numerical Limits and Nonexistence
2.4.1 Numerically estimating a rate of change (CC5e p. 160)

Given F (t ) = 32(1.12t ) , numerically estimate F '(3.5) correct to three decimal places.
Recall that in Section 1.3 we used Excel to numerically estimate the limit of a function as the
input approached a particular value. Since the slope of the tangent line to a function at a
point is a limit of slopes of secant lines, we can numerically estimate the slope of the tangent
line. Put another way, since the instantaneous rate of change of a function at a point is a
limit of average rates of change, we can numerically estimate the instantaneous rate of
change. In other words, we can numerically estimate a derivative by numerically estimating
a limit.
Recall the conventions we use to numerically estimate a limit:
Use input values that approach the limiting value from both the left and the right
Start one tenth away from the limiting value and get closer by factors of ten
Use at least four approaching inputs from the left and at least four from the right.
Consider the example on page 160 of numerically estimating f (4) when f ( x) = 2 x . In

f ( x) f (a)
the limit definition of the derivative, f (a ) = lim , the point (a, f (a )) is the
xa xa
tangent point and remains fixed throughout the estimation process. In this example, we find
the slope of the secant line between (4, 4) and ( x, f ( x)) for values of x approaching 4
according to the conventions above. We find eight average rates of change, four using input
values to the left of 4, and four using input values to the right of 4, as shown below.
Excel 2007 Guide
Now lets look at Example 1 on page 161. In this case, we will use absolute cell references
for the tangent point in the average rate of change calculation.
2.4.1a Estimating the Slope of a Regression Equation
If you are using a regression equation to numerically estimate a slope, be sure to use absolute
cell references to call up model parameters when calculating function values. In addition,
absolute cell references should be used to call up the tangent point in the secant slope
calculation, as in the above example.
2.4.2-2.4.3 refers to sections in the TI-84 Guide
2.4.4 Graphing the Tangent Line (CC5e p. 161)
We can graph the line tangent to a curve at a point in the same way we graphed the secant
line connecting two points on a curve in Section 2.1 We will again use the point slope form
of the line equation, y = m( x x1 ) + y1 . Since the derivative of a function at a point is the
slope of the tangent line to the curve at that point, we can use the derivative value for m in
the equation. The only point we know for sure is on the tangent line is the tangent point, so
we will use those values for x1 and y1 in the equation.
Using Example 1 on page 161, create a graph (smooth curve) for the future value of the
investment over a period of 8 years.
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Create a column for the outputs of the tangent line. The formula for the equation of the
tangent line should be entered using absolute cell references in place of m , x1 , and y1 .
Remember: the slope m was calculated earlier its the instantaneous rate of change at
t = 3.5 . The point ( x1 , y1 ) is the tangent point, (3.5, 47.6) .
Excel 2007 Guide
Finally, add the tangent line to the Asset Investment graph.
Asset Investment
75
Billion dollars
65
55
45
35
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Years since investment
Chapter 3 Determining Change: Derivatives
3.1 Simple Rate-of-Change Formulas
3.1.1 Applying Derivative Rules to a Model (CC5e p. 197)

Write a model g and the rate-of-change model g ' for the data in Table 3.1 on page 197 of
CC5e.
When applying derivative rules to regression equations, its important to reference the cells
containing the model parameters (to at least 16 decimal places).
Consider the data given in Table 3.1 on page 197. Create a scatter plot for the data, letting
the year 1993 correspond to an input of 0. Find a regression equation to model the data and
create a column of outputs based on the model parameters.
Now create a column for the rate-of-change of cost outputs. For the general function
f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c , the rate-of-change function is f (=
x) 2ax + b (using the simple power
rule, the constant multiplier rule, and the sum and difference rules). There are two ways we
can enter the derivative function in Excel. We could type the formula 2ax + b directly, or we
can calculate the value of 2a in a separate cell and reference that cell in the derivative
formula. Both methods yield the same results, as shown in the screen shot below.
Excel 2007 Guide
Although we reference cells with many decimal places to make calculations, when writing a
model equation on paper, we used rounded coefficients. Thus we would write the rate-of-
change function as =g (t ) 9.107t 0.625 . To answer the question in part b. of Example 1,
we use the calculation in cell D7 above, which references the model parameters with up to 16
decimal places.
3.1.2 refers to a section in the TI-84 Calculator Guide
3.1.3 Graphing the Tangent Line (CC5e p. 197)

Now that we have an exact value for the derivative (as opposed to the numerical estimates we
made in Chapter 2), lets graph the tangent line to the maintenance cost curve at t = 3 .
Create a column for the outputs of the tangent line. Recall that the formula for the equation
of the tangent line, y = m( x x1 ) + y1 , should be entered using absolute cell references in
place of m , x1 , and y1 . Remember: the slope m is the derivative value, g (3) , and the point
( x1 , y1 ) is the tangent point, (3, 26.7) .
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Next, create a graph (smooth curve) of the model equation g (t ) using the table of values
based on the model parameters. Add the tangent line to the graph by adding a series to the
chart.
Maintenance Costs
600
550
500
Dollars
450
400
350
300
-1 1 3 5 7
Years since 1993
Excel 2007 Guide
3.2 Exponential, Logarithmic, and Cyclic Rate-of-Change Formulas
3.2.1 Numerically Estimating the Derivative of an Exponential Function (CC5e p. 201)

Now that you are learning short-cut rules for taking derivatives, its important to remember
that you can always check an answer by using a numerical estimation. Since Excel does not
have built-in derivative operators, numerical estimation gives a quick easy way to verify the
result using a short-cut rule. Of course, numerical estimation is always a good option for a
function whose formula doesnt apply to the short-cut rules.
Consider the example given in Table 3.2 on page 201. We will create the table in Excel
using a numerical snapshot to calculate f ( x) . With an h value of 0.00001, use the
average rate of change formula to calculate the values in the third column of the table.
A similar technique can be applied to create the derivative estimates in Tables 3.4 and 3.5 on
pages 204 and 205. In general, a smaller (closer to zero) h value must be used for greater
accuracy in the derivative. You may find this method especially helpful in later sections,
when more complicated derivative rules are being used. Remember that the short-cut rule
gives the most accurate result, but that the numerical estimate provides a way of checking
whether that result is correct.
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3.4 Rates of Change of Composite Functions
3.4.1 Calculations Involving the Chain Rule (CC5e p. 223)
Lets use the numerical estimation method learned in Section 3.2 to check the derivative of
t (h) from Example 2 on page 222. Create columns for h, t (h) , t (h) using the chain rule,
and t (h) using a numerical estimate. The formula for t (h) using the chain rule is explained
in the solution to part b. on page 223.
Be sure to enter the formulas for t (h) and t (h) very carefully into Excel. It is recommended
to write the formulas out on paper before trying to enter them into the computer. It is easy to
make a mistake, especially when using multiple sets of parentheses. Using only as many
parentheses as necessary will make it easier to keep track of the formula and spot any errors.
In addition, using copy and paste to create the formulas can be very helpful and less time-
consuming than rewriting the logistic equation multiple times.
Excel 2007 Guide
3.7 Limits of Quotients and LHpitals Rule
3.7. 1 Graphically Checking the Limit of a Quotient (CC5e p. 240)

This section introduces a way of evaluating limits when substitution yields a particular form,
0
such as , , or 0 . Remember that you can always use a graph or a numerical estimate
0
to check a result that you get using another method.
ex 1
Consider the function h( x) = , which is discussed on page 239. To find lim h( x) , we
0.5 x x 0
first look at a graph of h( x) . Create a table of values for x from 2 to 2 . Let the inputs be
spaced by 0.25. Notice that there is an error message in the output cell corresponding to an
input of 0. This is because h( x) is undefined when x = 0 and there is a hole in the graph
there. If you include that point in your graph, Excel automatically makes the output 0 and
tries to connect the rest of the graph to the point at (0, 0) .
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If you delete the formula from the cell with the error, the graph will automatically update,
and there will be a gap on the interval [ 0.25, 0.25] .
To fill in the gap, create another table of values, letting the inputs go from 0.25 to 0.25
using a scale of 0.05. Add this series to the graph above. Note that you will once again have
to delete the output cell that has an error message. In general, the size of the gap in the graph
will depend on the scale used for the inputs. A smaller scale results in a smaller gap.
Chapter 4 Analyzing Change: Applications of Derivatives
4.1 Linearization and Estimates
4.1.1 Graphing Linearizations (CC5e p. 252)

Graph the tangent line that represents the linearization of
f (t ) =
12.92t 3 + 185.45t 2 729.35t + 10,038.57 at t = 7 .
The tangent line can be used to approximate a function near the tangent point. Consider the
function f (t ) given in Example 1 on page 253. Graph the function and its linearization
(tangent line) at t = 7 using a window like the one given in Figure 4.8 on page 254.
Notice that the linear approximations in part b. of the solution in the text match our results in
cells C9 and C10 above. Also note that as the inputs increase beyond 7, the graph of f (t ) is
getting further and further away from the tangent line. This is verified numerically by the
table of values: as the inputs increase beyond 7, the outputs in column B are much lower than
those in column C.
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4.2 Relative Extreme Points
4.2.1 Solving for zeros of the derivative (CC5e p. 259)

Given p( x )= 0.395 x 3 6.67 x 2 + 30.3 x + 3661 , solve p '( x) = 0 .
Recall that in order to find where a function equals zero, we use Solver. Its always a good
idea to look at a graph before using Solver to get an idea of how the function behaves. Since
a function may have more than one root, it may be necessary to run Solver more than once,
or to give Solver a place to begin looking if the root you are trying to find is not closest to
zero.
Consider Example 1 on page 259. In order to find the extreme points of p ( x) , we find the
points where p( x) = 0 . If we graph p ( x) , we see that there are extreme points near x = 3
and x = 8 .
Next, use Solver to find where the derivative equals zero.
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Excel finds the second root to be at about x = 8.10 .
In order to answer question c. in the text, we must ask Excel to evaluate the function p ( x) at
each of the inputs found using Solver.
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4.2. 2 Relating Derivative Intercepts to Relative Extrema (CC5e p. 262)

Not all roots of the derivative correspond to extrema of the original function. Once again, it
is important to graph the original function to see its behavior. Its also a good idea to graph
the derivative to get a better sense of whats going on.
Consider Example 3 on page 262. Using regression type polynomial with order 4, find the
model equation for the data given in Table 4.1. Paste the model parameters with at least 16
decimal places. Then graph the model equation using a smooth curve (and no scatter plot).
In order to avoid the graph looking lumpy, you may want to create a separate table of
values where the inputs are spaced a little closer together.
From this graph, its a little difficult to determine extreme points, particularly on the interval
[5,13] . There does appear to be a relative maximum at about x = 20.
Lets graph the derivative function to get additional information. Since the model equation
was of the form R( x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e , the derivative function will be of the form
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= 4ax 3 + 3bx 2 + 2cx + d . This equation can be entered directly into Excel, or new reference
cells can be created for the derivative parameters.
The derivative graph has a root at about x = 10 and a root at about x = 20. The root at x = 20
does correspond to a maximum on the relative curve since the derivative changes from
positive to negative through the root. However, it appears that the derivative does not cross
the input axis at x = 10, which means there is not an extreme point on R ( x) there. Instead,
the revenue function has a horizontal tangent line but does not change direction.
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4.4 Inflection Points and Second Derivatives
4.4.1 Locating an inflection point (CC5e p. 276)

83
Given p(t ) = , find the location of the inflection point.
1 + 5.94e 0.969t
In order to find where a function has an inflection point, we can find where the second
derivative crosses the input axis. Consider the function f ( x) = x 3 + 15 x 2 40 x + 5 given in
the example on page 274. Graph f , f , and f together on the same set of axes.
Sometimes the second derivative equation is very complicated and it may not be practical to
find an inflection point using the second derivative. In this case, we use the fact that an
inflection point is a point of greatest or least slope, and therefore corresponds to a maximum
or minimum on the first derivative function. In addition to finding input values
corresponding to particular outputs, we can also use Solver to find where a function has a
maximum or a minimum.
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Consider Example 2 on page 276. Graph both p ( x) and p( x) on the interval [ 0,8] .
Graphically, we can estimate that the inflection point on p ( x) occurs at about t = 2 .
In order to find the location of the inflection point more exactly, we could find the equation
of the second derivative, p( x) , and ask Solver to find where that equation equals zero.
However, finding the second derivative of a logistic function would be very time-consuming,
and entering that equation into Excel would be tricky. Instead, we can use Solver to calculate
where the maximum occurs on p( x) . Solver finds the solution to be about t = 1.84.
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4.6 Optimization of Constructed Functions
4.6. 1 Optimization of a Function Given Verbally (CC5e p. 290)

We can use Solver to find an extreme point either by finding where the derivative crosses the
horizontal axis, or by asking Solver to find a maximum or minimum of a given function
directly. It is important to make sure you are asking Excel to solve the correct problem using
the correct function.
Consider the carry-on luggage scenario on page 290. Graph the volume function and the
rate-of-change of volume function.
First, use Solver to find where the volume is maximized.
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Next, ask Solver to find where the derivative of volume is equal to zero.
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In both cases, Excel finds the solution to be 17.5 inches.
Your instructor may prefer that you use one of these methods instead of the other. The
important thing is to make sure youre using Solver correctly; that is, that you have selected
the correct target cell, the correct Equal To: button, and the correct By Changing Cells:
cell. Also, if youre using the derivative to locate extreme points, you must make sure the
derivative not only equals zero, but that it crosses the horizontal axis. Knowing the behavior
of the derivative function and/or graphing the derivative function can help with this. Finally,
if a function has more than one extreme point, you may need to enter an initial guess into the
input cell before using Solver. Look at a graph of the original function and/or the derivative
function before using Solver to get an idea of whats going on.
Chapter 5 Accumulating Change: Limits of Sums and the
Definite Integral
5.2 Limits of Sums and the Definite Integral
5.2.1 and 5.2.2 Left- and Right-Rectangle Approximations (CC5e p. 331)

1.7(0.8t ) when 0 t 20
Given m(t ) = Estimate signed areas using rectangles.
10.21 + 3ln t when 20 < t 30
We can estimate the area under a curve using rectangles. Well use the function in Example
1 on page 331 to make both a left-rectangle approximation and a right-rectangle
approximation.
As always, its a good idea to graph the function so you have a visual representation to
compare to your numerical calculation. Graph m(t ) on the interval [ 0,30 ] .
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Now lets answer part a. and use ten right rectangles to estimate the change in the drug
concentration in the bloodstream while the patient is taking the drug. We create columns as
in Table 5.5 on page 331. Note that we could also include a column for the width (every
number in the column would be 2), or simply include the width in each area calculation. As
we work through more examples we will see different methods for making area calculations
in Excel.
Next we will answer part b. using a left-rectangle approximation. This means that the
endpoints in the first column will be slightly different. The first left endpoint is 20 and the
last left endpoint is 28.
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5.2.2 Midpoint-Rectangle Approximation (CC5e p. 331)

Now well use midpoint rectangles to estimate area under a curve. Lets return to the drug
concentration function used in the previous examples. Well use 10 midpoint rectangles to
estimate the change in the drug concentration in the bloodstream over the 30-day time period.
Since were dividing an interval of size 30 into 10 equal pieces, each rectangle will have
width 30/10 = 3. There are a couple of ways to find the value of the first midpoint. We
could find the midpoint of the first two inputs (0 and 3) by calculating (0+3)/2 = 1.5. Or, we
could start at the first input (0) and add half of the width, 0 + width/2 = 0 + 3/2 = 1.5.
Note that the function formula must be changed at the appropriate input, the first midpoint
greater than 20.
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The area estimate 2.84 g/mL is more accurate than the estimate from part c. on page 332,
1.44 g/mL. This is because for the same number of rectangles, estimates using midpoint
rectangles are generally more accurate than estimates using either right or left rectangles.
5.2.3 Area as a Limit of Sums (CC5e p. 335)
So far we have used rectangles to estimate the area under a rate-of-change curve. The exact
area under a curve is a limit of sums of rectangle areas as the number of rectangles increases
without bound. We can get a sense of this limit by calculating error estimates for larger and
larger numbers of rectangles. We will now introduce the SUMIF function in Excel, which
will allow you to easily and quickly calculate several area estimates for large numbers of
rectangles.
Consider Example 2 on page 335. Once again, start by graphing the function w( x) on the
interval [ 0,38] . Find the inputs where w crosses the horizontal axis.
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Now lets find the area of the region labeled R1 in the text. Well use 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
midpoint rectangles. For 5 rectangles, use the method described in the previous example.
If youve merged cells H64 and I64 to create the label Area Estimate, remove the label and
unmerge the cells. Create a table like the one shown below (like Table 5.9 on page 335).
Copy and paste the area estimate found in the previous example. Use Paste Special,
Values to paste the number itself instead of the formula.
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Now we use 10 midpoint rectangles to estimate the area in question. Update cell J56 to be
10. Notice that the width, midpoints, heights, and areas automatically update as well. Copy
the midpoint, height, and area formulas down to at least row 158. We choose row 158
because we will eventually use 100 rectangles and the calculations start in row 59. However,
as you will see, you can copy the formula down much further, to row 200, 500, 1000, etc. In
cell M64, bring up the SUMIF function and fill in the boxes as shown below.
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The estimate returned by Excel should be pasted special as a value into the Area Estimate
table.
Once the estimate using 10 rectangles has been updated, repeat the previous procedure to
estimate the area using 20 rectangles. Only the cell containing n (cell J56) needs to be
updated. The other cells will update automatically, and the SUMIF function in cell M64 will
reflect those updates. Paste the value returned by the SUMIF function into the table before
changing the value of n each time.
As the number of rectangles gets larger, the area estimate seems to be approaching 1.67. We
estimate that the area of region R1 is about 1.67.
Now you can practice using the SUMIF function to recreate Tables 5.10 and 5.11 on page
335. You can either overwrite the work done above, or you can copy the previous work to a
new area of the worksheet. Remember to use the unrounded roots found by Solver for the
values of a and b. In addition, the Criteria: box of the SUMIF function has to be updated
since we only want to include midpoints less than the right endpoint. Finally, whenever a
formula is copied and pasted, its a good idea to check all cell references and make sure they
are accurate. For example, the absolute cell references for the width will have to be updated
since the width will now be in a new cell.
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The estimates for the areas of regions R2 and R3 are 0.880 and 0.650 , respectively. As
the number of rectangles increases, the area estimate becomes closer and closer to the actual
area under the curve. The exact area under the curve is a limit of sums of areas of rectangles.
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The SUMIF function allows you to easily estimate the area under a curve. You can use a
large number of rectangles, such as 250 or 500, to get an accurate estimate. You can use left,
right, or midpoint rectangles. This is the method we will use until we have short-cut rules for
finding the exact area under a curve.
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5.5 Antiderivative Formulas for Exponential, Natural Log, and Sine

Functions
There are no new Excel techniques to learn in this section. However, it is important to
remember that when you are working with a regression equation be sure to copy and paste
the model parameters (with at least 16 digits) and reference the cells containing those
parameters to create the antiderivative and to make calculations. When we write an equation
on paper we use rounded coefficients, but when we use an equation for calculation we use
unrounded coefficients (or coefficients rounded to at least 16 decimal places). This helps to
eliminate or minimize rounding error.
5.5.1 Recovering a Model for Revenue (CC5e p. 368)

Consider the data given in Example 2 on page 368. Find a model equation for marginal
revenue based on quantity of ponies. Graph the model equation on the interval [ 0, 70 ] .
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A model equation for marginal revenue can be written as R(q ) = 23.999(0.960) q dollars per
pony when q thousand ponies are produced and sold. Note that in order to graph the
marginal revenue function, we referenced the cells containing the model parameters (with
absolute cell references).
To find the revenue (antiderivative) equation, we can use the short-cut rule to get
23.999(0.960) q
=R(q) + C thousand dollars when q thousand ponies are produced and sold.
ln(0.960)
In order to solve for C and graph the revenue function, we once again use the model
parameters with all of their decimal places. Once we have found C, we call up its cell in the
revenue formula with an absolute reference as well.
In summary, if you are given an equation with rounded coefficients, you have no choice but
to use those rounded coefficients in your calculations. However, if you are given raw data
and you find a regression equation to fit that data, you must use unrounded coefficients in
calculations (even though you write the equation on paper with rounded coefficients). The
easiest way to do this is with absolute cell references.
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5.7 Differences of Accumulated Change

In order to find the total area between two functions, it may be necessary to find where the
functions intersect. This can be done by using Solver to find where the difference between
the two functions is zero.
5.7.1 Calculating Area of Between two intersecting curves (CC5e p. 388)

Consider the Quick Example in the middle of page 388. First, graph f ( x) and g ( x)
together on the same set of axes on the interval [ 0,10 ] . Create a cell for the difference
between f and g, and then use Solver to find where that cell equals zero. Keep in mind that if
there is more than one intersection point, you may have to give Excel a place to start looking
in order to make sure the correct intersection point is found. In this case, we enter 4 in the
changing cell before running Solver.
From x = 0 to x = 4.651 (the intersection point), g ( x) is above f ( x) . The opposite is true

from x = 4.651 to x = 10 . In order the find the total area between the two curves we have to
4.651 10
calculate [ g ( x) f ( x)] dx + [ f ( x) g ( x)] dx .
0 4.651
We first use antiderivative rules to find
the area under f ( x) on [ 0, 4.651] and on [ 4.651,10] . Then we find the area under g ( x) on
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[0, 4.651] and on [ 4.651,10] . Note that we call F ( x) the antiderivative of f ( x) and G ( x)
the antiderivative of g ( x) . Also, the entire x-value from cell A15 above has been pasted into
cells A19 and D19. Even though the number appears to have only three decimal places,
Excel is carrying many more decimal places internally.
Now were ready to find the total area between the two curves. Lets call
4.651 10
[ g ( x) f ( x)] dx area
0
A1 and [ f ( x) g ( x)] dx area
4.651
A2 .
Chapter 6 Analyzing Accumulated Change: Integrals in Action
6.1 Perpetual Accumulation and Improper Integrals
An improper integral is an integral in which one or both of the limits of integration are
infinite. In order to evaluate an improper integral we can find the limit of the area under the
curve as the upper limit of integration increases without bound.
6.1.1 Numerically evaluating an improper integral with no upper bound numerically

(CC5e pp. 418)

4.3e dx . First, graph f ( x) = 4.3e 0.06 x dx on the

0.06 x
Consider the example on page 418,
2
interval [ 0, 50 ] . Your graph should look similar to the graph in Figure 6.1 in the text. Next,
we recreate Table 6.1. Use antiderivative rules to fill in the values in the right-hand column
of the table.
It may seem strange at first that a function that remains positive (above the horizontal axis) as
x could have a finite amount of area underneath it. As f ( x) gets closer and closer to
the horizontal axis, the amount of additional area added is very small, and so the total area
under the curve approaches a finite number (63.563).
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6.3 Calculus in Economics: Demand and Elasticity
Although there are no new Excel techniques to learn in this section, we illustrate the methods
used to solve the questions posed in Example 2 on page 445.
6.3.1 Calculating Consumer Willingness and Ability to Spend (CC5e p. 445)

Graph D( p ) 14.12(0.933 p ) 0.25 on the interval [ 0, 70 ] . To answer part a., we use Solver
=
to find the value of the input (price in thousands of dollars) when the output is 2.5 (quantity
in millions of minivans).
Next, we multiply the solution found above (by referencing the cell containing the unrounded
answer) by 2.5 to answer the question in part b. As stated in the text, it is important to keep
track of units when performing calculations. The answer to part b. is about $59 billion.
To answer part c., we use Solver to find where the demand function equals zero. The result
is about $58,200.
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To answer part d., we integrate the demand function from the solution found in part a. (in cell
A19) to the root found in part d. (in cell A20). It is important to reference the cells
containing those values in order to avoid rounding error. Then we can answer part e. by
adding the solutions to parts b. and d.
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6.4 Calculus in Economics: Supply and Equilibrium
Although there are no new Excel techniques to learn in this section, we illustrate the methods
used to solve the questions posed in Example 2 on page 459.
6.4.1 Calculating Market Equilibrium (CC5e p. 459)

We start by graphing the demand and supply functions on the interval [ 0,10 ] . Graphing
these two functions requires four different series, with four different sets of input values.
Notice that the demand values at the break points of the input intervals (1.5 and 3.91) dont
match exactly this is due to rounding error based on the equation parameters. The
difference will barely be noticeable on the graph.
To answer part a., we use Solver to find where the demand and supply curves intersect. In
this case, its essential to look at the graph to determine the approximate location of the
intersection point. This is how we determine which definition of the demand function to use
when setting D( p ) S ( p ) = 0.
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Based on the graph, the curves appear to intersect near p = 3. Thus we will use the second
demand definition to find market equilibrium.
Note that in order to find the market equilibrium point, we must evaluate either the demand
or supply function at the input found by Solver above. You could also evaluate both supply
and demand to make sure they are equal.
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We find market equilibrium to occur when the price of gasoline is about $2.75 per gallon. At
this price, about 361 million gallons will be purchased. You may have noticed that the
answer given in the text for demand and supply quantity is slightly different than the one
obtained above. This is because the textbook authors were using unrounded models to make
their calculations.
To answer part b., we must find the producer surplus and the consumer surplus. When
integrating, be sure to use the unrounded equilibrium price. In order to calculate consumer
surplus, we must integrate both the second and third definitions of the demand function. In
addition, since the demand function never crosses the horizontal axis, we substitute a large
value for the upper limit of integration to estimate the area under the curve as the input
values increase without bound.
Once again our answers are a little different than those given in the text. This is due to
rounding error and serves as a reminder to use unrounded model parameters whenever
possible.
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Youve probably noticed that the formulas used to find consumer and producer surplus are
pretty complicated. It is recommended that you write formulas out on paper before
attempting to enter them into Excel. Also, remember that using copy and paste can save a lot
of time. It is often easier to paste and then update a formula than to enter a formula from
scratch.
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6.6 Calculus in Probability (Part 2)
6.6. 1 Normal Density Function (CC5e p. 478)
We do not have an integration rule for the normal density function. However, we can always
estimate the area under a curve using rectangles. Consider Example 3 on page 478.
We start by graphing the normal density function on the interval [ 6,12 ] .
1 ( x29)
2
10
Next, use 500 left and right rectangles to estimate 9 2
e dx . Remember that you can
use the SUMIF function to make the calculations easier.
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We estimate the value of the integral (probability) to be about 0.34.
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6.7 Differential Equations: Slope Fields and Solutions
6.7.1 Eulers Method (CC5e p. 491)
We illustrate Eulers Method for numerically estimating the solution to a differential

equation. Consider Example 2 on page 491.
We start by setting up columns for t , S (t ) , and E (t ) , the Eulers Method estimate. We then
enter the formulas for the rate of change and the estimated value of the sales function, as
shown below.
Note that you could graph the values of E (t ) to get an idea of what the sales function for
these four years looks like. See Figure 6.74 on page 492.
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We can also use Eulers Method with a differential equation involving two variables, as in
Example 3 on page 493.
Once again, you could graph the Euler estimates to obtain the picture in Figure 6.75.
Chapter 7 Ingredients of Multivariable Change: Models, Graphs, Rates
7.1 Multivariable Functions and Contour Graphs
7.1.1 Plotting Contour Graphs from Equations (CC5e p. 522)
We can use Excel to make both contour graphs and three-dimensional graphs. We illustrate
with the function g ( x, y ) =(9 x) 2 + 0.2 y 3 given in the Quick Example on page 522. In
order to create the contour graph in Figure 7.10 and the three-dimensional graph in Figure
7.9, we must first create a table of values. Since the function we are graphing includes both x
and y in its formula, we will need to use cell references where only the column letter or row
number (but not both) is absolute.
To create the contour graph, we choose option Other Charts from the Charts group of the
Insert tab. Under Surface, we choose the third type, Contour. As with other charts, it can be
helpful to have the data selected before choosing the chart type.
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Once the graph is created, it will need to be adjusted. For example, in Figure 7.10 in the text,
there are contour curves for levels g = 50 , 100, 150, and 200. In order to make this change,
go to the Format tab (recall that the Chart Tools only appear when the chart is selected) and
choose Vertical (Value) Axis from the drop-down box in the Current Selection Group. Then
click Format Selection and adjust the window settings to go from 0 to 200 with a major unit
(scale) of 50.
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One of the nice features of contour graphs in Excel is that each contour area is automatically
created in a different color. This makes the contours easier to see. You can change the color
scheme to be different shades of the same color, as well as impose gridlines on the graph.
These options can be found in the Chart Styles group of the Design tab. Choose several
different styles to see what they look like, and then decide on the one you like best.
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You may have noticed that there is a lot of white space surrounding the graph. This is
because Excel automatically creates a size that makes the gridlines square. You can adjust
this by choosing 3-D Rotation from the Background group of the Layout tab.
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With 3-D Rotation selected on the left, uncheck the Autoscale box under Chart Scale and
then adjust the Depth (% of base) until the graph fills the chart area. Notice that the gridlines
now create rectangles instead of squares.
7.1.2 Plotting Three-Dimensional Graphs from Equations (CC5e p. 522)
Now lets create the three-dimensional graph in Figure 7.9 on page 522. With the data
selected, choose Other Charts, Surface as before. This time, however, choose the first type,
3-D Surface, instead of Contour.
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Once again, you can experiment with different Chart Styles and decide on one that you like
best. As with a two-dimensional graph, you can point at the vertical axis gridlines to
highlight them and then hit delete to remove them.
There are many formatting options available for three-dimensional charts in Excel. We have
gone over a few of them, but you should take some time to explore the different possibilities.
Your instructor may have specific formatting options that he or she wants you to use.
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7.2 Cross-Sectional Models and Rates of Change
Making a cross-sectional model is very similar to creating the regression models we learned
about in Chapter 1. In general, when a table of values for a function with two input variables
is presented, the first input variable is written across the top row and the second input
variable is written down the first column.
7.2.1 Cross-Sectional Models from Data (CC5e p. 542)

Consider the data given in the Quick Example regarding Iowa Corn Crop Yield on page 542.
We will create a model for y (17, t ) , the Iowa corn crop yield (in bushels per acre) when the
average monthly rainfall is 17 mm and the average monthly temperature is t F. We start by
creating a table of values and looking at a scatter plot.
Based on the fact that the data are increasing and concave up, both quadratic and exponential
models are possibilities. Since both types of equations fit the data equally well, we consider
end behavior. In this case, since we expect the corn crop yield to decline toward zero as the
temperature goes down, the exponential model makes more sense. Remember to create cells
for the model parameters and paste the parameters with at least 16 decimal places. Use these
cells as references if any calculations are required.
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We could also create a cross-sectional model based on one row of the table. For example, we
could find the crop yield when the temperature is held constant at 73 F and the rainfall
varies.
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7.2.2 Rates of Change of Cross-Sectional Models (CC5e p. 545)

We can also find the derivative of a cross-sectional model with respect to the variable that is
being allowed to change. Consider Example 2 on page 545. We found the model requested
in part a. at the beginning of this section. Recall that y (17, t ) = 1.878(1.062t ) bushels per
acre is the corn crop yield in Iowa when t F is the average monthly temperature and 17 mm
is the average monthly rainfall, for temperatures from 64 F to 76 F. To answer part b., we
use the short-cut derivative rule for an exponential function. The derivative is
dy (17, t )
= 1.878(1.062t )(ln1.062) bushels per acre per degree. Lets calculate the specific
dt
rate of change requested (when the temperature is 73F) and graph the yield function along
with the tangent line at t = 73 . Note that although the temperatures given in the data only go
up to 76 F, the table of values goes to 85 F. This is to make the curvature of the model
equation more pronounced so that the tangent line is more clearly visible.
The cross-sectional model requested in part c. was already created earlier in this section.
Recall that y (r , 73) =
7.314r + 274.838 bushels per acre is the corn crop yield in Iowa when
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r mm is the average monthly rainfall and 73 F is the average monthly temperature, for
rainfall amounts from 16 mm to 18.5 mm. Part d. asks for the rate of change of yield with
respect to rainfall when the rainfall is 17 mm and the temperature is 73 F. In this case, since
the cross-sectional model is linear, the rate of change is the same no matter what the rainfall
amount is. The derivative is the slope of the linear equation, about -7.3 bushels per acre per
mm. If we were to draw the tangent line at r = 17 on the graph of y (r , 73) , the tangent line
and the cross-sectional model graph would be identical.
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7.3 Partial Rates of Change
To calculate partial derivatives, it is important to keep track of the variables involved.

Labeling cells and using cell references can be very helpful.
7.3.1 Partial Derivatives (CC5e p. 552)

Consider the function given in Example 1 on page 552. Lets review where the future value
equation comes from so that we can use unrounded parameters. Recall that the future value
of investment P at interest rate r compounded n times per year for t years is given by
nt
r
F ( P, r , n=
, t ) P 1 + dollars, assuming P is in dollars. In this case, we are given that r =
n
0.06 and n = 4. Thus the base b of the future value function F ( P, t ) given in the book can be
4
0.06
found by calculating 1 + . Lets enter this formula into Excel so we can reference it
4
in calculations.
Now we can answer part a., which asks us to find Ft and evaluate it at P = 1000 and t = 10 .
In this partial derivative, the variable P is considered to be constant. We use the short-cut
rule for the derivative of an exponential function to find Ft = P(1.0614t )(ln1.0614) .
Remember that even though on paper we write the formula with the based rounded to three
significant digits, when we evaluate Ft (1000,10) we will reference the cell with the
unrounded base.
Excel 2007 Guide
Finally, we answer part b., which requires another calculation that references the base cell.
7.3.2 Numerical Estimates of Partial Derivatives
Recall that with single-variable functions we could estimate a rate of change numerically. A
numerical estimate gives a quick snapshot of the instantaneous rate of change by finding
the average rate of change over a very small input interval. In general,
f ( a + h) f ( a )
f (a ) and we use a small value for h, such as 0.0001 or 0.00001. This is a
h
good method to use when the function youre working with doesnt have a short-cut rule,
when the short-cut rule would be very complicated and time-consuming to enter into Excel,
or when you want to check that youve entered a short-cut derivative formula correctly.
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This same idea applies to functions of more than one variable as well. In general,
f (a + h, y ) f (a, y )
f x ( a, y ) , where y is held fixed, we let x vary by some small amount,
h
and find the average rate of change of f ( x, y ) over a small interval. In addition,
f ( x, a + h ) f ( x, a )
f y ( x, a ) , where x is held fixed, we let y vary by some small amount,
h
and find the average rate of change of f ( x, y ) over a small interval.
We illustrate the numerical method for the partial derivatives found with the future value
function above. We start with Ft (1000,10) . To numerically estimate this partial derivative,
F (1000,10.0001) F (1000,10)
we calculate .
0.0001
The answer comes out the same (to two decimal places) as it did using the algebraic method.
For the second partial derivative, FP (7500,10) , we show a second way to make the
calculation. In this case, we use the future value formula to find F (7500,10) and
F (7500.0001,10) F (7500,10)
F (7500.0001,10) separately. We then calculate based on
0.0001
the results in the future value cells.
Excel 2007 Guide
Once again, the answer (to two decimal places) matches what we found earlier.
The numerical method for estimating a partial derivative can be helpful in situations where
the partial derivative doesnt lend itself to short-cut derivative rules or where the partial
derivative formula is very complicated to enter into Excel. You can also use the numerical
method to check work that youve done algebraically.
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7.4 Compensating for Change
7.4. 1 Finding the Slope of a Line Tangent to a Contour Curve (CC5e p. 566)
We illustrate two methods for finding the slope of a line tangent to a contour curve using the
body mass index function given in Example 2 on page 566.
dw
Part a. asks us to find at the point (67,129) on the contour curve. First, we evaluate
dh
B (67,129) .
Next, we find the equation for the 20.2-contour curve solved for w in terms of h. This
20.2h 2 dw
equation is w = . Now we can find using the simple power rule for derivatives:
703 dh
dw 40.4h dw
= . To calculate we use the unrounded value in cell C2.
dh 703 dt (67,129)
dy f x
We could also use the formula = to make the calculation. In this case, we have to
dx fy
find the two partial derivatives, Bh and Bw , first. These formulas are given in the solution to
Excel 2007 Guide
1406 w 703
part a. Bh = 3
points per inch and Bw = 2 points per pound. We can evaluate each
h h
Bh dw
of these partial derivatives at the point (67,129) , and then divide to find .
Bw dh
Notice that the answer using each method is the same. In general, it is not necessary to use
both methods when finding the slope of a line tangent to a contour curve. We have
demonstrated with this example that both methods work equally well. Your instructor may
require that you know one or the other method, or both methods.
Since weve found the slope of the tangent line to the 20.2-contour curve, lets graph the
contour curve with its tangent line. As always, we begin with tables of values for both the
contour curve and the tangent line. Lets use heights from 48 to 80 inches.
Chapter 7 123
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Excel 2007 Guide
7.4.2 Compensating for Change (CC5e p. 566)
Now lets answer part b. of Example 2. In order to figure out how much weight needs to
change to compensate (keep BMI constant at 20.2 points) for an additional 0.5 inches of
dy
growth, we can use the general formula y x from the box on page 566. In this
dx
dw
case, we find w h where h =0.5 .
dh
Chapter 8 Analyzing Multivariable Change: Optimization
8.2 Multivariable Optimization
8.2.1 Using Partial Derivatives to Locate Extrema (CC5e p. 590)
Finding extreme values for multivariable functions is similar to finding extreme values for
functions of one variable. Instead of finding where the derivative is zero, we find where the
partial derivatives equal zero. This often involves solving one of the partial derivative
functions for one of the variables in terms of the other(s). In the following examples, we
work with functions of two variables.
Consider Example 1 on page 590. As always, it is a good idea to graph the function first to
get a visual picture of whether extreme points exist and approximately where they occur.
Using a three-dimensional graph, there appears to be a minimum at approximately 3 workers

and about 5 hours.
Next, we find where the partial derivatives equal zero. Its a good idea to find each partial
derivative on paper first. Simplifying each formula will make it easier to work with. In this
case, f x ( x, y ) =0.6 x + 0.03 y 1.8 and f y ( x, y ) =0.2 y + 0.03 x 1.2 . Although these
equations are relatively simple to work with algebraically, we demonstrate using Solver to
find where each equation equals zero. Before we can use Solver, we have to have each
equation in one variable instead of two. Once again, you will probably find it helpful to do
the algebra on paper first before working in Excel. For demonstration purposes, I will solve
for a different variable than in the text. This will verify that the method works regardless of
which variable you choose to solve for. Lets solve f x for y. This gives
Excel 2007 Guide
1.8 0.6 x
=
y = 60 20 x . We now substitute this expression for y into f y and use Solver to
0.03
find the value of x that makes f y equal to 0.
Solver finds the solution to be about x = 2.7 workers. Note that in this case the equation we
set equal to zero is linear, and so it has only one solution. Sometimes there may be more
than one solution when a partial derivative is set equal to zero, which is why it is important to
look at a graph and to put an initial guess in for the input variable before running Solver to be
sure the correct solution is being found.
In order to find the y value that is part of the extreme point, we can use the equation for y
found above and substitute the x value solution into the equation. Its also a good idea to
substitute the extreme x and y values into the other partial derivative to verify that it, too,
equals zero. Finally, we can evaluate the quality control function at the extreme point to find
the minimum value.
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Excel 2007 Guide
The minimum of about 0.7 percent occurs when there are approximately 2.7 workers on task
for about 5.6 hours each.
8.2.2 Classifying Critical Points Using the Determinant Test (CC5e p. 591)
Recall that with single-variable functions, when an extreme point is found we can classify it
as a maximum or a minimum by using either the first or the second derivative test.
Multivariable functions use the determinant test to classify critical points. This involves
finding the second partials matrix.
We illustrate this method using the quality control example from above. First, find f xx , f yx ,
f xy , and f yy . In this case, each of the second partials is a constant. Otherwise, when setting
up the matrix in Excel we would evaluate each second partial derivative at the critical point
(referencing the cells where the unrounded x and y values are located). We enter the second
partials in the order shown in the Quick Example on page 591. We then use the MDETERM
function to find the determinant of the second partials matrix.
Excel 2007 Guide
Since the determinant is positive (0.1191) and f xx is positive (0.60), f has a relative
minimum at the critical point. This verifies what we found earlier by looking at the graph of
f.
8.2.3 Finding Critical Points Using Matrices (CC5e p. 594)
When the system of equations found by setting the partial derivatives equal to zero is linear,
we can use matrices to find the critical points. Consider Example 3 on page 594. Lets graph
the function to determine whether any critical points are visible, and the nature of those
critical points. In this case, it is difficult to spot a critical point on the three-dimensional
graph, but on the contour graph there appears to be a saddle point at about s = 1.5 and
m=7.
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Excel 2007 Guide
We start by finding each partial derivative, f s and f m . Instead of setting the partial
derivatives equal to zero, we write the equations so that the constant terms are on the right-
hand side of the equal sign. In addition, we make sure that the coefficients of the input
variables occupy the same positions on the left-hand side of each equation. This gives the
system
0.18s + 0.2m = 1.08

0.2 s + 0.072m =0.21
We now create a two matrices in Excel, one (a 2 x 2 matrix called A) made up of the
coefficients of the partial derivative equations and one (a 2 x 1 matrix called B) made up of
the constants.
Excel 2007 Guide
The inverse of matrix A is denoted A1 and is also a 2 x 2 matrix. In order to find the critical
point, we must multiply matrix A1 by matrix B. In order to find matrix A1 we use the
MINVERSE function of Excel.
Once you click on OK, only one number appears, in cell O6. In order to extend the matrix
to the rest of the cells you must highlight the four cells where you want the matrix to appear,
press F2, and then press CTRL, SHIFT, ENTER at the same time. The MINVERSE function
will then appear in all four cells of the matrix with a set of brackets around it.
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Excel 2007 Guide
Our next step is to multiply matrix A1 by matrix B. We do this using the MMULT function.
In the MMULT function we tell Excel which two matrices (arrays) we want to multiply
together. Array 1 is matrix A1 and Array 2 is matrix B.
Once again, only one number appears, in cell O10. In order to extend the matrix to cell O11
you must highlight the two cells where you want the matrix to appear, press F2, and then
press CTRL, SHIFT, ENTER at the same time. The MMULT function will then appear in
both cells of the matrix with a set of brackets around it.
Excel 2007 Guide
Finally, you can evaluate f ( s, m) at the critical point to find the output value at the extreme
point.
In order to determine the nature of the critical point (maximum, minimum, saddle point), we
can use the determinant test with the second partials matrix. Repeat the procedure described
in the previous section to calculate the determinant of the second partials matrix.
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Excel 2007 Guide
Since the determinant is negative, the critical point corresponds to a saddle point. This
matches what we saw on the contour curve at the beginning of this example.
Remember that the technique of using matrices to find critical points only works when the
system of equations based on the partial derivatives is linear. This technique would not work
for Example 4 on page 595, since both variables are raised to the second power as well as
multiplied together in the partial derivatives.
Excel 2007 Guide
8.3 Optimization under Constraints
8.3.1 Finding and Classifying Critical Points with Constraints (CC5e p. 604)
Optimization techniques when a constraint is involved are the same as the ones discussed in
Section 8.2 except that there is one additional equation in the system of equations to be
solved. Consider the function given in Example 2 on page 604. When we substitute the
second equation from the Lagrange system in for in the first equation, we get
0.18 L0.4 K 0.4 = 18(0.12 L0.6 K 0.6 ) . Solving the budget constraint equation for K gives
=K 200 18 L . We now substitute the expression for K into the first equation and put all the
variables on one side of the equal sign. Note that a value has been typed into cell A2 so that
the partial derivative equation doesnt give a division by 0 error.
We now ask Solver to find the value of L that makes the partial derivative equation equal to
zero.
Chapter 8 135
Excel 2007 Guide
Since we already had the equation for f entered into Excel, once the solution is found we
not only get the optimal number of worker hours and capital investment, but the optimal
monthly production as well. We could also calculate the budget constraint to make sure it
equals 200.
Our final task is to verify that the optimal point found does in fact correspond to a maximum.
To do this we choose two close points on either side of L = 6.66667 (since all of our
equations depend on the value of L) and check that they give smaller production levels than
the optimum point.
At both of the close points, the value of f is less than at the critical point. Thus, the critical
point corresponds to a maximum.

Excel 2007 Guide: Calculus Concepts: An Informal Approach To The Mathematics of Change 5e

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Excel 2007 Guide: Calculus Concepts: An Informal Approach To The Mathematics of Change 5e

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Excel 2007 Guide designed to accompany

Calculus Concepts: An Informal Approach to the Mathematics of Change 5e

0.1 Vocabulary and Calculations

7 3 108 768 102 52

The answers to these questions can be found on the next page.

Answers to Practice Expressions page 3

0.2 Cell References and Copying

0.2.1 Cell References

0.2.2 Using Cell References with the Copy Feature

Suppose we want to create a table of values for an equation y = 3 x . Create a column of x

0.2.3 Relative vs. Absolute References

0.2.4 Other Methods of Copying

0.3 Formatting Cells and Other Excel Options

0.3.1 Formatting Cells

0.3.2 Other Excel Options

0.4 Adding Solver to Your Computer

1.1 FunctionsFour Representations

1.1.1-1.1.2 Entering and evaluating a function (CC5e p. 4)

1.1.3 Using Equation Solver (CC5e p.6)

1.1.4 Graphing a function (CC5e p. 5, Example 1)

1.2 Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits

1.2.1 Numerically Investigating End Behavior (CC5e p. 16)

1.3 Limits and Continuity

1.3.1 Numerically investigating function behavior (CC5e p. 24)

1.3.2 Graphing a piecewise defined function (CC5e p. 29)

In order to determine whether a given function is continuous at a particular input value, we

1.4 Linear Functions and Models

1.4.1 Entering data (CC5e p. 37)

1.4.2 Graphing a scatter plot of the data (CC5e p.37)

1.4.3 Calculating first differences (CC5e p. 37)

1.4.4 Fitting a linear model to data (CC5e p. 39)

Find a linear model for the data.

Retail Sales of Electricity

1.4.5 Aligning data (CC5e p. 40)

1.4.6 Reporting and Calculating Answers

1.5 Exponential Functions and Models

1.5.1 Calculating percentage changes (CC5e, p. 48)

1.5.2-1.5.3 Exponential data (CC5e, p. 50)

Find an exponential model for the data.

1.5.2 Calculating percentage changes for data

1.5.3 Fitting an exponential model to data

1.6 Models in Finance

1.6.2 Evaluating a loan with compound interest (CC5e, p. 59)

1.6.3 Calculating doubling time (CC5e, p. 63)

1.7 Constructed Functions

1.7.2 Evaluating a function constructed using function composition (CC5e, p. 69)

1.7.3 Approximating the model of an inverse function (CC5e, p. 70)

1.8 Logarithmic Functions and Models

1.8.1 Fitting a logarithmic model (CC5e, p. 78)

Find a logarithmic model for the data.

1.8.2 Fitting the inverse of a log model (CC5e, p. 80)

1.9 Quadratic Functions and Models

1.9.1 Fitting a quadratic model (CC5e, p. 88)

1.9.2 Calculating second differences (CC5e, p. 91)

1.10 Logistic Functions and Models

1.10.1 Fitting a logistic model (CC5e, p. 96)

1.11 Cubic Functions and Models

1.11.1 Fitting a cubic model to data (CC5e 105)

1.11.2 Using the Model Equation to Answer Questions

1.12 Cyclic Functions and Models

1.12.2 Fitting a sine model to data (CC5e p115)

2.1 Measures of Change over an Interval

2.1.4 Graphing the Secant Line (CC5e p. 134)