IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 8 No.

1, February 2001 117

Effect of Long-term Corona on Non-ceramic

Outdoor Insulator Housing Materials
V. M. Moreno and R. S.Gorur
Department of Electrical Engineering
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

ABSTRACT
The influence of long-term corona on the degradation of non-ceramic composite insulator (NCI)
housing materials was studied. Polymer samples were obtained from full-scale NCI, employ-
ing three different housing materials, namely silicone rubber (SIR), ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM) rubber and a blend of EPDM with silicone rubber. The effect of relative
humidity and externally applied mechanical stress as acceleration factors was assessed. Sev-
eral modes of degradationwere observed, namely, cracking, roughening, and discoloration. In
general, the severity of degradation increased with the relativehumidity level and application
of mechanical stress. Periodic monitoring of corona discharge magnitude and pulse repeti-
tion rate allowed for a simplistic computation of the energy needed for initiation of surface
changes. A comparison of these calculated values with expected conditions in the field was
made. It is postulated that even under severeoperating conditionsover a period of many years,
degradationof the housing materials evaluated due to water droplet corona is highly unlikely.

1 INTRODUCTION
ECENTLY, several experimental studies have focused on the evalu-
R ation of NCI housing material degradation due to corona occurring lows for a cumulative effect of the electrical discharges and their side
under clean and wet conditions. Conclusions drawn from such stud-
ies seem to indicate that water droplet triggered corona can provoke
degradationof the NCI surface, especially on the shank of the insulator
[l].Permanent loss of the NCI housing hydrophobicity has also been
reported to occur [l,21. From theoretical calculations also, it was shown
that the local enhancement of the electric field at the edges of the wa-
ter droplets can be high enough to generate corona. It is of practical
interest to quantify the energy required to cause water droplet corona
material degradation, and also to understand the mechanisms involved
in such a process. Information on these aspects is insufficient at this
time.
The work performed hitherto, on the study of dynamics of water
droplets subjected to high ambient electric fields, serves as a basis from
which some initial inferences may be drawn [3-61. For instance, Wind-
mar [5] has identified that the threshold value of the ambient electric
field required for initiation of water droplet corona lies between 5 to
7 kV/cm for single and multiple droplets aligned in the same direction
as that of the applied electric field. Several other processes related to
water droplet triggered corona may also occur. It is known that damage
to a polymer surface from corona is dependenton both the intensity and
duration of the discharge. In the case of water droplet triggered corona,
these two discharge parameters are influenced by the water droplet size
and shape [l,5,7]. Therefore, the actual dynamic behavior of aqueous
bodies on the NCI surface will play a major role on degradation.
The continuous exposure of a specific NCI surface area to corona al-
reactions to be studied. The time that a single water droplet (or set
of droplets) remains at the same place on the insulator surface is im-
portant. Under the influence of gravity a water droplet deposited on
the NCI shank will be displaced downwards. Additionally, if the elec-
tric field generates within a water droplet, charge magnitudes in excess
of the Rayleigh limit, electrohydrodynamic instability will take place
thus promoting droplet deformation and coalescence [5]. In the event
of corona discharges being already triggered at the NCI surface-water
droplet-air interface, the interaction of such discharges with the poly-
mer will render the initially water repellent surface hydrophilic. Conse-
quently, water filming on the NCI surface will be promoted and a drastic
change in water droplet size and shape can be expected. Both chemi-
cal and electrophysicalphenomena have been reported to influence the
mechanism of hydrophobicity loss [&lo].
It can be seen that for understanding the degradation modes asso-
ciated to corona triggered by water droplets, a series of events seem-
ingly having inherent self-opposing characteristics should be consid-
ered. Such processes can inhibit the rate of degradation. Poorly de-
signed insulatorhardware (including corona rings) can promote corona
even under dry conditions, and this could be a continuous source of
discharges. In the presence of condensed moisture, water droplets may
create discrete sources of corona, randomly distributed along the in-
sulator. Assessment of the corona performanceof the housing and its

1070-9878/1/$3.00 02001 IEEE

118 Moreno et al.: Effect of Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators

correlation with the service is important from a practical standpoint. 8

The intent of this paper is to provide some information on this subject. . . .. .... El -En 1
2 NCI ELECTRIC FIELD
CALCULATlONS
The electric field ( E )required for triggering of water droplet corona
has been estimated from several experimental works [l,51. Typical E
threshold values for water droplet triggered corona are in the range of
5 to 7 kV/cm. The test geometry considered in such experiments were
short insulator sections.
Gmlnd md 29 she& Lioc md
0 50 100 150 200
3 Distance from energized end (em)

45 Em

500kv 1.5 sm 7-

Figure 1. NCI dimensions used in the 3D E calculations.

0 100 200 300
b) Distance from energized end (em)
It is of interest to determine for a full-scale insulator, the electric
stress distribution during field operation. In the present study, 345 and Figure 2. Comparison of the distribution and magnitude of the tan-
500 kV rated non-ceramic insulators were modeled. The insulators are gential (Et)and normal (E,) components of the electric field on (a)
fitted with corona rings at both the line and the ground end, as is nor- 345 kV and @) 500 kV rated NCI.
mally the case in service. The dimensions of the insulator, hardware and
corona rings were obtained from commercial catalogs, and its schematic occurrence in NCI under fair weather conditions. Under foul weather
is shown in Figure 1. conditions, corona can be expected at various points along the insulator
A boundary element method (BEM) based computer program length.
(COULOMBTM)was employed. Since clean and dry operating condi-
tions are assumed, the E magnitude is obtained by solving Laplace's 3 EXPERIMENTAL
equation considering only permittivity values. A relative permittivity
3.1 SAMPLES
(E, = 4) is used for the NCI housing material. For both insulators, a
two-conductor bundle was considered. Flat polymer samples (- 0 . 2 5 ~0.65 cm2in size) were cut from new
In Figures 2(a) and (b), the tangential (E,) and normal (E,) elec- full-scale NCI made out of three different materials, namely SIR, EPDM
tric field magnitudes calculated along the surface of the shank of each and a blend of EPDM with siliconerubber (blend ratio 95:5 in %wt,re-
N

NCI are shown. It can be seen that electric field magnitudes equal to
or in excess of the theoretical threshold values for water droplet corona
initiation can occur in the sections closest to the energized end of the
insulator even under dry conditions. The tangential E component gen-
erates stress magnitudes on the insulator shank in the range established
spectively). The average sample thickness was 0.5 cm. All the samples
contained a large quantity of fumed silica and/or alumina trihydrate as
inorganic fillers.
3.2 TEST EQUIPMENT

-
for water droplet triggered corona. In the 345 kV NCI case, such a high
electric field region extends to 10 cm from the energized end. For
-
the 500 kV rated NCI, such E magnitudes are observed to distances
18 cm away from the line end.
It is noteworthy to mention that the simulation results presented
above do not take into consideration the effect of environmental fac-
tors such as humidity, pressure, and contamination, which are known
to have a noticeable influence on E. The results obtained from this
analysis are deemed good enough to provide an indication of corona
-
A point/plane electrode configuration was used in these experi-
ments. The point electrode (tip radius 0.02 cm) served as the corona
source. The measuring back-electrode consisted of a central brass disc
(diameter= 2 cm) and an aluminum guard ring (inner diameter = 4 cm,
outer diameter = 5 cm). A PTFE insert was used to electrically isolate
both the central and guard electrodes. The distance between the corona
electrode and the sample surface was maintained at 0.1 cm. The point/
plane electrode setup was enclosed in an acrylic chamber with dimen-
sions 45x45~120cm3 (height x depth x width, respectively).
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
High voltage
trwrfomer
120 : 7200/15000V Circuit component
hiao 5kVA values
1u) ; 0.140 v c I I I cc= l0OpF
Figure 3. Schematic of the electric test setup.
Corona apparent chargemagnitude and repetition rate were recorded
periodically by a calibrated partial discharge (PD) detector (Haefely
type 561) and a digital oscilloscope (Tektronix model 540C, 500 MHz,
2 GUS). Figure 3 schematically shows the layout of the measuring
circuit. HV measurements were performed through a capacitivelycom-
pensated probe (Tektronix model P6015 A). Corona current was mea-
sured through an electrically guarded RC impedance ( R = l MO,
C = 5 nF). A PD-free coupling capacitor C, (Hartmann & Braun,
100 ~ $ 3 kV)
0 and a high precisionmeasuring impedance 2, (coupling
quadrupole, Haefely type 565) completed the test setup. Fourier trans-
form infrared (FTIR) spectral analysis was performed on the samples at
different times throughout the entire test time in order to monitor the
structural changes undergone by the polymer as a result of its expo-
sure to corona. FTIR analysis was carried out on a Nicolet Magna-IR
560 spectrometer equipped with an attenuated total reflection (ATR)-
IR analysis device (Spectra-Tech, model I"-0048). There was no need
for any sample preparation for the IR analysis. Hence, the same sam-
ple was subjected to further corona exposure if necessary, In addition,
weight measurements were periodically taken on the samples with the
aid of a precision balance (Mettler model AE100, accuracy k 0.0001 g).
3.3 TEST METHOD
Samples were exposed to corona discharges under both low (35 to
40%) and high (95 to 100%) relative humidity conditions for 500 h.
A heating resistance fog generator was used to create the high rela-
tive humidity environment by boiling de-ionized water (conductivity
= 5 p S/cm, pH = 6.5). A constant fog input rate (500 gm3/h) was
employed for all high relative humidity evaluations. Care was taken
to avoid fog from directly hitting the specimens under test, thus pre-
venting the sample surface from experiencingundesirable temperature
-
increase. The average temperature increase inside the test cell due to
the fog input was measured to be 3 to 5C above the ambient tem-
perature. ac voltage (7.2 kV,) was applied to the corona electrode
throughout the test period. For comparison purposes, samples were
tested with and without application of mechanical stress by employing
the arrangements shown in Figure 4. Samples tested under low rela-
tive humidity conditions were evaluated only without application of
mechanical stress. The samples were removed from the cell at specific
times along the test period in order to perform surface condition in-
spection, weight measurements and FTIR analysis. Evolution with time
of the degradation process was thus monitored, and the time at which
deep cracking first was identified on the samples, was recorded corre-
spondingly,For the purposes of this study, a crack formation stage was
Vol. 8 No. 1, February 2001 119
-
considered to be reached if cracks extended beyond
and 10 pm in width.
- 100 pm in length
To h m voltage p o w r rupply To PDmearunngcraIt
To hl@ voltage power q p y TOPD meawmgcmb
I
I I
Tea e l l
stedm q u t
Figure 4. Sample testing fixtures. (a) No application of mechanical
stress, (b) application of mechanical stress.
RESULTS
4
4.1 SURFACE ANALYSIS
Micrographs periodically taken on the samples over the entire test
time allowed monitoring of the progress of degradation to be per-
formed. In Figure 5, the surface state after 145 h of testing of samples
evaluated under high humidity conditions with application of mechan-
ical stress is illustrated. Various degrees of material degradationcan be
identified. The early stage of crack formation on blend samples can be
observed in Figure 5(a). On blend samples, crack formation at this stage
of the degradation process seems to be at least partly promoted by the
formation of a filler-based lattice on the sample surface. The cracks al-
ready visible on the surface of the blend sample initiate at and develop
along the branches of such filler-based lattice. In contrast, degradation
observed on EPDM samples was mainly characterized by gradual ero-
sion of the sample surface. Two distinctive stages of the degradation
mechanism identified on the EPDM samples are shown in Figure 5@).
The lower section of the picture illustrates the presence of a thin de-
graded layer of the material. The upper section of the picture, which
corresponds to the surface of the sample directly exposed to corona
impingement, evidences the removal of the degraded polymer layer.
This observation, consistent with findings reported by Xu et al. [U],
may be attributed to an initial roughening of the sample surface result-
ing from loss of polymer, which uncovers an underlying layer of filler
[12]. Once the layer of unbound filler becomes exposed, the mechani-
cal impact of the subsequent discharges may remove this layer hence
120
Figure 5. Typical degradation patterns after 145 h of testing on ma-
terial samples evaluated with application of mechanical stress un-
der high relative humidity conditions (95 to 100% RH): (a) blend, @)
EPDM, (c) SIR.
rendering a temporarily smoother surface. As the energy provided by
additional discharges promotes the degradation of a new layer of poly-
mer, the roughening detected at 145h of testing will be produced again.
This process seemed to continue repeatedly and erosion of the sample
surface located directly underneath the corona electrode was identified
ultimately.
In Figure 5(c), also the appearance of surface degradation at 145 h
of testing on a SIR sample is presented. Degradation observed on the
SIR material showed similar characteristics to those identified on blend
samples. Initially, a dense grid of filler-based branches was built on the
sample surface. The loss of mechanical integrity in these sections of the
sample, accompaniedby the effect of the externally applied mechanical
stress, eventually made the shallow cracks to develop into deeper and
wider cracking. When compared to degradation observed on EPDM and
Moreno et al.: Effectof Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators
blend samples at the same time of testing, a more advanced stage of
this process was generally identified on the SIR samples.
Figure 6. Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the
testing time (500 h) on blend samples evaluated with application of
mechanical stress under high relative humidity conditions(95 to 100%
RH).
Figures 6 to 8 illustrate the surface state of the samples previously
shown in Figure 5, as observed at the end of the test period (500 h).
In Figure 6(a), the presence of a filler residue on the blend sample sur-
face directly exposed to corona can be seen. The final appearance of
the cracks formed on the sample surface is observed also. Interestingly,
cracking did not necessarily evolve following a path perpendicular to
that of the applied mechanical stress on samples tested in a bent posi-
tion. This behavior can be identified particularly on the blend sample
shown in Figure 6(a), where the direction of the mechanical stresses
resulting from bending of the sample on the test fixture is indicated
graphically. A magnified image of this sample confirms the presence of
clusters of filler particles on the sample surface (see Figure 6(b)). From
Figure 6(b), it also can be verified that the intensive cracking identified
on the samples at the end of the test time essentially originated from
the small cracks observed in Figure 5(a).
Figure 7 shows the surface state of an EPDM sample at the end of
the test period. Two major features of degradation occurring on EPDM
samples can be highlighted:
1. Unlike degradation observed on SIR and blend samples, formation of a
filler-based lattice was identifiedonly at prolonged times of exposureto
corona, as depicted in Figure 7@). Shallow cracking ( 4 0 p m in depth)
and slight surface whitening were observed also on the section of the
samples directly exposed to corona impingement.
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical InsulatioiD
Figure 7 . Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the
testing time (500 h) on EPDM samples evaluated with application of
mechanical stress under high relativehumidity conditions (95 to 100%
RH). Ring patterned degradation is indicated by circles.
2. Extensive darkeningoccurred on the surface area surrounding the Sam-
ple section directly exposed to corona impingement. Darkening of
corona treated polymer surfaces has been reported previously by Karner
et al. [13] from laboratory studies. Vlastos et al. [14] have identified a
similar degradation pattern on naturally aged SIR insulators after sev-
eral years of outdoor exposure at an experimental test site.
Figure 8(a) shows the surface condition of an SIR sample at the end
-
of the test period. On SIR samples evaluated under high humidity con-
-
ditions and mechanicalstress application, cracks extending 6 to 7 mm
in length and 3 mm in depth often were observed. Such intensive
crackingwas accompaniedby increased amounts of unbound filler with
respect to the quantities observed at earlier stages of the test period (see
also Figure 8(b)).
The surface condition at the end of the test period (500 h) of samples
evaluated in a low humidity environment without applying external
mechanical stress is illustrated in Figurges 9 to 11. By comparing these
test results with those of samples evaluated under high humidity con-
ditions and application of external mechanical stress, some differences
in both the apparent nature and the rate of degradation seem to be evi-
dent. On blend samples, the filler-based grid formed as a consequence
of polymer degradation showed a more densely connected pattern with
respect to that observed on samples exposed to higher humidity con-
ditions (see Figure 9(a)). The amounts of unbound filler present on the
sample surface, however, were similar in both cases (low and high hu-
midity conditions). This behavior could have been mainly determined
by the absence, in the low humidity tests, of the externally applied me-
Vol.8 No.1, February 2001 121
Figure 8. Typical degradation Patterns observed at the end of the
testing time (500 h) on SIR samples evaluated with application of me-
chanical stress under high relative humidity conditions (95 to 100%
RH).
chanical stress. Crack growth along the filler-based branches of the
grid, as promoted by external mechanical stresses, thus may have been
inhibited partly Nevertheless, polymer chain scission leading to ex-
posure of unbound filler essentially evolved under the influence of the
energy released through the corona discharges.
Scission of the polymer backbone chain, as described above for
blend samples, is deemed the primary process leading to degradation
on EPDM samples tested under low humidity conditions. Unlike the
EPDM samples evaluated in high humidity conditions, chain scission on
the EPDM samples tested in a low humidity environment was largely
evidenced by the formation of a seemingly higher number of cracks on
the sample surface. Such increased number of surface cracks showed,
however, a shallower profile as observed in Figure 10. Figure 11illus-
trates the pattern of degradation identified on SIR samples evaluated in
a low humidity environment. In general, such degradation process was
characterized by features similar to those already discussed for tests
conducted under high humidity conditions. Formation of the filler-
based lattice eventually gave rise to initiation of small cracks in and
along the lattice branches. Larger amounts of filler accumulated along
the grid branches, to the point where the loss of mechanical properties
of the damaged polymer surface further promoted crack growth. In the
absence of externally applied mechanical stresses, only those arising in
the material itself from internal strain forces can be accounted for as a
factor determining the progress of cracking.
The reduced degree of polymer deterioration identified from low
122 Moreno et al.: Effect of Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators

Figure 9. Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the Figure 10. Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the
testing time (500h) on blend samples evaluated without applicationof testing time (500h) on EPDM samples evaluatedwithout applicationof
mechanical stress under low relative humidity conditions (35 to 40% mechanical stress under low relative humidity conditions (35 to 40%
RH). RH).

humidity tests with respect to those from high humidity tests for all of Table 1. A summary of evaluationresults as observed for each mate-
the evaluated materials may be attributed at least partly to the afore- rial group under every test condition adopted in this study.
mentioned condition. However, the lack of higher levels of moisture, Test rnndition IMaterial I Observations
which can act as a catalytic element for chemically induced polymer High relative humidity SIR Deep cracking (- 3 mm in depth),
degradation processes, also could have been responsible for the trends (95-loo%),mechanical stress surface whitening
in material damage referred to before. The effect of humidity, in terms EPDM Surface darkening, shallow cracking
of degradation rate, manifested itself in generally somewhat shorter blend Deep cracking, (- 1.5 mm in depth),
surface whitening
times required to crack formation on tests run under high humidity con- High relative humidity SIR Deep cracking (-- 2 mm in depth),

evaluated under low humidity conditions usually fluctuated 200 h -

ditions. For instance, whereas times to crack formation for SIR samples (9S-l00%), no mechanical
stress
surface whitening

-
EPDM Surface darkening, slight roughening
and longer, times to cracking in a high humidity environment were
blend Shallow cracking (-- O S mm in depth),
found to range between 130 to 150 h. A summary of the varying surface whitening
levels of degradation observed on every material group with respect to Low relative humidity Deep cracking ( w 2.5 mm in depth)
each test condition adopted in this study is presented in Table 1. (35-40%), no mechanical
stress
4.2 FTIR ANALYSIS
The results obtained from the FTIR analysis performed on the tested
samples are presented in this section. Two main aspects of the observed
corona induced degradation are to be highlighted: The dependence of material sample, individual FTIR readings were taken on each 'degrada-
polymer damage on the relative intensity of corona according to the tion ring' surface where varying levels of degradation were seemingly
ring-patterned degradation marks identified on every material group, observed. Accordingly, each spectrum shown in Figure 12 for every
and the correlationof FTIR spectra evolution with time and the varying material is labeled as (a) through (d) from the center of the sample to-
degrees of material degradation. ward its outer section. The changes identified in the FTIR spectra for
In Figure 12, typical FTIR spectra recorded after 500 h on EPDM, every material are determined mainly by the relative position of the
SIR and blend samples tested under high humidity conditions are com- analyzed surface with respect to the corona electrode. The reduction in
pared graphically with those corresponding to new samples. For every the spectral peak heights identified through FTIR analysis for each ma-
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 8 No. 1, February2001 123

~ . ........... .. ...... ......... ....

100
(a1
80
(bl
5 60
E (Cl
E 40
z New. d)

4000 3000 2000 1000

too (a)

EO
(bl
(Cl
60
E
E 40
c
20 New d)
3 :

0 EPDM
4000 3000 2000 1000

100 la1
ibl
BO
(Cl

2 80
n id1
p 40

20

0
4000 3000 2000 1000
Wavenumbers (cml)

Figure 11. Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the
testing time (500 h) on SIR samples evaluated without application of
mechanical stress under low relative humidity conditions (35 to 40%
RH).
terial group shows a decreasing trend with the distance from the center
of the sample (curve a).
On blend and EPDM samples, absence of the absorption bands due
to CH3 (2950 cm-' and 1460 cm-') on the sample surfaces closest to the
corona electrode (curves a and b) can be identified. Only a reduced
absorption peak at 1020 cm-' due to the ATH filler is observed in these
Figure 12. Typical FTIR spectra (500h test time) of samples evaluated
under high humidity conditions as a function of distance to corona
electrode.
be due to actual changes in the chemical composition of the polymer, as
well as surface physical changes (for instance, increased surface rough-
ness) [17]. From the FTIR analysis results shown in Figure 12, it can also
be deduced that corona degradation provoking complete lost of poly-
mer integrity was restricted only to surface locations within a certain
distance from the HV electrode (curves a and b). This observation can
be confirmed by the degradation patterns illustrated in Figures 6 to 8.
Under the test conditions adopted in this study, such locations were
usually situated not beyond 1 to 2 mm from the vertical axis of the
N

spectra. Because the FTIR point locates farther away from the corona
electrode (curves c and d), the intensity of both CH3 and ATH-related
absorption bands correspondinglyincreases. On these sections of the
sample, absorption due to surface degradation products can now be
identified. Particularly, the presence of highly oxidized carbons (C=O,
ketone carbonyl)at 1718cm-' is detected. The absorption peak observed
at 1640 cm-' is attributed to hydroxyl (OH) groups in water [15,16].
On the SIR FTIR spectra (Figure 12), a similar pattern of peak height
reduction as that found on blend and EPDM can be seen. Predominantly,
absorption due to ATH at wavenumbers 1020 cm-' and lower is identi-
fied on the sample sections closest to the corona electrode. A strong re-
duction in the intensity of absorptionbands attributed to OH due to the
ATH filler (3300 cm-l), CH3 (2960 cm-') and Si-CH3 (1270 to 1255 cm-')
groups, is observed also (curves a and b). Unlike the trends identified
on blend and EPDM samples, no absorption due to polymer degrada-
tion products is detected on sample sections located farther away from
the corona electrode (curves c and d). Only a weak absorption peak
due to OH in water can be seen at wavenumber 1640 cm-' [15,16].
It is well known that changes in the IR absorption peak heights may
corona electrode.
Regarding the time required for the polymers to undergo a complete
loss of integrity and to show, in turn, a filler-based powdery surface,
only a slight variation among the three evaluated materials was ob-
served. In general, the first traces of an unbound filler layer building
up on the surface of blend and SIR samples were detected after 130 to N
180 h of exposure to corona under high humidity conditions. Slightly
longer times were required by EPDM samples to reach a comparable
degradation stage. Tests performed under low humidity conditions
yielded somewhat longer times for all samples to show evidence of a
powdery surface. In this latter case, the difference in times required
by all three materials to develop an unbound filler layer on their sur-
face was almost negligible. Intensive surface polymer degradation and
exposure of underlying filler were detected after 200 to 250 h of test-
ing. Results obtained from FTIR analysis on samples evaluated under
-
low humidity conditions seem to agree with the observations described
above.
In Figure 13, the evolution with time of FTIR spectra of material
samples exposed to corona in a low humidity environment is depicted
124 Moreno et al.: Effect of Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators

0.4/ EPDM
2
L4 ---SiR

, . Blend
OL
4000 ~
L, ..... ...... .., ._.._
3000 2000 1000

Figure 13. Typical FTIR spectra of samples evaluated under low hu-
midity conditionsas a function of corona exposure time. (a) 100 h, (b)
200 h, (c) 300 h, (d)500 h. Spectra taken at the area directly undemeath Ofc I I I I I

the corona electrode. b) 0 100 200 300 400 500

Test time (h)
and graphically compared with spectra corresponding to new material
Figure 14. Material weight gain (moisture absorption) characteris-
samples. FTIR spectra presented in Figure 13 were taken at the sample
tics as a function of time. (a) High humidity condition testing, (b) low
section directly exposed to corona impingement (center degradation
humidity condition testing.
ring according to Figure 12). From Figure 13, FTIR spectra evidenc-
ing drastic reductions in intensity of peaks related to the base polymer
were recorded at test times fluctuating between 200 to 300 h (curves b Varying moisture absorption characteristics were identified for ev-
and c). FTIR spectra recorded at the end of the test period always indi- ery material. Under the two different relative humidity test conditions,
cated complete loss of the polymer original structural properties, which however, the same ranking of the materials in terms of the amount of
was reflected through the total absence of IR absorption peaks. Corona absorbed moisture prevailed. Given the unavailability of more accu-
provoked degradation, however, showed distinctive features depend- rate information on the particular formulation of each material group,
ing on the polymer composition. As pointed out previously, whereas very few inferences regarding a possible explanation of the observed
cracking was almost invariably observed on blend and SIR samples, trends can be made. Nevertheless, the existence of a strong correlation
only slight surface erosion occurred on EPDM samples at the end of the between the moisture absorption characteristics of each material group
corona exposure period. and the respective corona provoked degradation identified at the end of
the test period (as already discussed in Section 4.1) seems to be evident.
4.3 WEIGHT MEASUREMENTS A more detailed discussion on this issue is presented in a following
Prior to their exposure to corona, all samples were pre-conditioned Section of this paper.
in a circulating-air oven at 80C for 3 h to ensure elimination of resid- 4.4 CORONA DISCHARGE
ual moisture in the sample volume. Therefore, sample weight increase CHARACTERIZATION
recorded during testing of each material group was assumed to be es-
sentially resulting from moisture absorption processes. In Figures 14(a) By periodically recording the relevant PD parameters of the corona
and @) are presented plots of weight gain measurements for material pulses impinging on the surface of samples under test, the estimationof
samples tested under high and low humidity conditions. Through a di- cumulative charge magnitudes for each polarity of the sinusoidal volt-
rect comparison of the moisture absorption characteristics of both test age wave was carried out. PD characterizationwas performed through
conditions, the influence of the high humidity atmosphere can be no- the measurement of both an average PD apparent charge magnitude

-
ticed clearly. Moisture uptake on samples tested under this latter con- and its corresponding repetition rate. PD repetition rate was obtained
dition resulted to be 2x that of tests performed under low humidity in a straightforward manner from the oscilloscopefrequency readings
conditions. by setting the trigger level above that of the background noise. Average
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 8 No. 1, February 2001 125

PD apparent charge magnitudes were determined by operating the PD

instrument in a 'moving window' measurement mode. A measurement
window of ~ 6 0 ("w 3 ms) in width was maintained for each semi-
cycle of the sinusoidal wave at the center of the phase position where
most PD activity was detected. Typically, for the positive semi-cycle
occurrence of PD was identified between 60" and 150". For the nega-
tive semi-cycle, most PD activity was registered between 240" and 330".
This is graphically presented in Figure 15. In general, after a period of
great fluctuation in magnitude and frequency (normally, the first 2 or
3 h of testing), the recorded PD parameters showed a much more stable
behavior. During the course of this study, no noticeable influence of the
relative humidity conditions on the behavior of PD phase location was
identified. However, a meaningful effect of humidity on the PD magni-
tude and frequency, and hence on the computed values of cumulative
charge could be seen.
In computing such cumulative charge values, the assumption was
made that the amount of energy being drawn by each single discharge .
.
.
.
.
.
was entirely transferred to the sample surface. It is recognized, how-
ever, that some considerationsregarding the extrapolation of these re-
sults to more realistic cases may be required. On the other hand, exper-
imental results reported in [18]8nd [19]provide a basis for the develop-
ment of the cumulative charge computation presented in this paper. By
adopting a similar approach, Gustavino et al. [18]have been able to pre-
dict the life of polymer films exposed to corona through the proper iden- , . . . . . . . . , . . . , . . . . . . ,. . . ,.
, . ., . . . . . . .
,
. . . .
tification of PD parameters and its application in mathematical models.
Contin and co-workers [19] also have reported on the strong correla-
tion between PD features and the resulting amount of degradation as a
diagnostic tool for corona provoked material damage.
Typical cumulative charge curves (each polarity and total) are pre-
sented in Figure 16 for samples tested under high humidity conditions.
As remarked previously, after the initial hours of testing, the discharge
pattern followed a fairly constant trend and hence a rather linear in-
crease is shown by cumulative charge curves. The latter statement was
found also valid for tests conducted under low humidity conditions.
I . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ,. . . .. . . , . . . i
. . .. , ,, ,
, , ,
,

Cumulative charge plots as computed for material samples tested in a c j w j

low humidity environment are illustrated in Figure 17. Through a pre-
liminary test setup calibration procedure, a reduction of the influence Figure 15. Oscillograms showing (a) Typical PD phase location and
of geometry variables on the corona discharge patterns was intended. waveform for @) positive and (c) negative PD and corona current
Therefore, as long as the electrode configuration was controlled prop- pulses.
erly, no significant differences in the computed values of cumulative
charge for each sample were expected. The results presented in Figures magnitudes of negative polarity cumulative charge recorded for both
16 and 17verify the above and illustrate as well the strong influence of low and high humidity tests were similar. This observation opens the
humidity on the calculated cumulative charge values. Given the chem- possibility for further remarks:
ical nature of processes involved in degradation of the polymer, this
latter finding may play a significant role on the interaction of corona 1. Under the test conditions adopted in our study, only the discharge
and the material surface [20,21]. In our study the influence of humidity mode for the positive polarity is clearly influenced by an increase in
was manifested primarily by noticeable differences in the cumulative relative humidity. This was visually confirmed by the occurrence of
charge values computed for each polarity for tests effected under high stronger intensity streamer discharges, which are almost invariablyas-
sociated to positive polarity corona [22,23].
humidity conditions. In these tests, somewhat higher total cumulative 2. Based on the above, it may be inferred that the larger amount of degra-
charge values were computed for the positive polarity with respect to dation generally observed in samples tested under high humidity con-
those for the negative polarity (see Figure 16). From a direct compar- ditions may be attributed reasonably to processes promoted by posi-
ison of the results presented in Figures 16 and 17, it is interesting to tive polarity corona byproducts. Shahin [24,25] has reported on the
note that whereas positive polarity cumulative charge values were sig- chemical species generated by positive corona, among which hydrated
nificantly larger in the former case (Figure 16, high humidity tests) the versions of N0,ions constitute the most abundant byproduct.
126 Moreno et al.: Effectof Corona on Non-CeramicInsulators

10
a
c
e
P)
>
-
9
3
5

5
0
0
100 200 300 400 50C 0 100 200 300 400 500
*
I
i
- - . -- Neg
- .
F IO
a

100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
15
Total
- - - Pos. a - - - Total
Pos.
- - . --Neg.
-
1
_ _ _ _ _ -Neg. f2 I
Time t o crack formation
-130 h

0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
(cl Test time (h) Test time (h)

Figure 16. Typical cumulative charge values for material samples Figure 17. Typical cumulative charge values for material samples
tested under high humidity conditions (95to 100%RH). Positive, neg- tested under low humidity conditions (35 to 40% RH). Positive, neg-
ative and total cumulative charge values are plotted as a function of ative and total cumulative charge values are plotted as a function of
test time: (a)blend, @) EPDM, (c) SIR. test t h e (a) blend, @) EPDM, (c) SIR.

3. The previous remark further supports the postulation of chemically
(acidic)triggered mechanisms as the predominantfactor in water droplet
corona related degradation of insulator housings.
4. For metal point/dielectric surface plane electrode configurations, it has
been observed that suppression of corona discharges due to charge
accumulation processes may take place [23,26,27]. From a practical
standpoint, given the nature of the mechanisms seeminglydetermining
corona exposed material degradation, such an inhibiting discharge be-
havior would be desirable. This applies particularly to positive corona.
In terms of potential practical applications, a deeper and more detailed
analysis of this issue might be worthwhile.
Included in the cumulative charge plots of Figure 16 are the times
for crack formation as recorded for the respective blend and SIR sam-
ples. For the EPDM sample, the time required for surface chalking is
correspondingly indicated. From Table 1, it can be observed that m-
der the test conditions adopted in this study the evaluated SIR mate-
rial performed less satisfactorily compared to the rest of the materials.
Therefore, in attempting to assess an expected field corona performance
for the polymer housings included in this evaluation, the SIR material
is considered as the analysis case. In the following Section, the sig-
nificance and correlation between the values of cumulative charge and
the observed increasing degree of sample degradation up to the time
of crack formation are discussed, and their extrapolation to a practical
case is performed.
5 DISCUSSION
Under the test conditions adopted in this study, similar degradation
patterns were identified on both blend and SIR samples. In terms of
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
corona degradation rate, these two materials also showed the less sat-
isfactory electrical performance. Weight gain measurements indicate
that the highest moisture uptake levels corresponded to the materials
referred to above. Consequently, it may be speculated that the observed
trends in material degradation are closely related to both the kind and/
or amount of filler present in the formulation of each polymer and its
respectivemoisture absorption characteristic [28]. Given the strong cor-
relation between degradation and moisture absorption characteristics,
an additional source of material deteriorationmight be ascribed to me-
chanicalexpansion forcesdue to boiling of water absorbed during sam-
ple evaluation, as already suggested by Kumagi et al. [29]. In the range
of corona currents recorded during these tests (w 5 to 10 PA), tem-
N This estimates, when compared to the most commonly reported
peratures rising above the water boiling point are likely to be achieved
at the tip of the corona discharge [30].
It is well known that the interaction of electrical discharges and
moisture causes the generation of acid liquid byproducts, in addition
to volatile species such as ozone [21,25,31].By assuming occurrenceof
NCI housing, chemical attack derived from such mechanisms as those
described above, the increased degrees of degradation identified on
samples tested under high humidity conditions can satisfactorilybe ex-
plained. Application of external mechanical stresses is a factor adding
to the greater amounts of material degradation observed on samples
tested under such Conditions.
On the other hand, formation of a filler-based grid on the sample
surface as identified during this study suggests that thermally activated
processesmay have taken place as well. At a macroscopic level, the en-
ergy released by corona discharges (as detected, for instance, through
infrared thermography) may not seem high enough as to acknowledge
the occurrenceof thermal processes on the sample surface. At the mi-
croscopic level, however, the tip of the discharge might constitute a
localized source of heat releasing energy high enough as to possibly
break the weakest bonds in the polymer matrix. Thus, the effect of ther-
mal processes on corona provoked degradation may not be ruled out
completely,
From a practical standpoint, lifetime prediction for NCI remains an
issue of significant controversy, Recent discussions on the damaging
effect of wet corona on the long-term performance of NCI have raised
additional concerns on the already debated issue of polymer insulation
long-term reliability [2]. Based on the results obtained from this ex-
perimental work, the authors have attempted to find a correlation of
these with expected NCI field operating conditions and performance.
In developing such assessment, some assumptions regarding the PD
parameters that characterize the corona discharge activity have corre-
spondingly been made. These assumed values are based on experimen-
tal results previously reported by the authors [32]. By simulating the
source of corona with a point electrode attached to the energized end
of a NCI, PD magnitudes ranging between 15 and 70 pC and PD repeti-
tion rates from 0.06 to 125 kHz were recorded. For the purposes of the
present analysis, the SIR material evaluated in this study is considered
as a reference case. The reasons for including the SIR in this analysis
have been already discussed in Section 4.4 of this paper.
On the basis of the experimental results reported in [32],an average
PD magnitude of 15 pC and PD repetition rate of 1kHz are assumed as
conservative estimates of NCI PD activity, From Figure 16, the time to
Vol. 8 No.I , February 2001 127
crack initiation identified for the SIR material corresponded to 3.45
N
to 4.5 C (- 130 to 150 h of testing, respectively)for samples evaluated
under high humidity conditions and application of external mechanical
stress. Therefore, the expected time to crack formation may be inferred,
in a simplistic form, as
PD magnitudexPD frequencyxTimeto cracking x 3.45 to 4.5 C (1)
If time to crack formation is to be determined in years, the respective
multipliers are to be included in the previous expression. Performing
the respective computations, it is found that
Time to crack formation M 7.3 to 9.5 yr (2)
field experiences,may not seem to provide a reliable indication of NCI
housing degradation-free operating time expectancy, However, it is im-
portant to recall the fact that the humidity conditions adopted in this
experiment are much more severe than those usually found in the field
during normal NCI operation. Gorur and Bernstein [33] identified, dur-
ing field monitoring of cable terminations installed in several locations
throughout the USA, that significant levels of leakage current activity
can be expected for a period of about one hour per day at a vast majority
of operation sites. The above figure is strongly related to the humidity
conditions present at every service location. If its inclusion in the esti-
mation of the time to cracking of NCI housing materials was effected,
theaew calculated values would yield very long times (1OOt yr). lime
to cracking values obtained by averaging both extreme results, how-
ever, will provide more realistic estimates.
Field experienceindicates that the condition where corona discharge
continuously impinges on the surface of an NCI housing is a rather
uncommon event, and has been linked with sharp edges at poorly de-
signed hardware and/or arc damaged metal fittings. In addition, the
above presented calculation assumes as a critical point the approximate
time at which the first traces of crack formation were detected. If the
time for cracks to develop toward the sample bulk to a depth of 3 mm
(a typical NCI housing thickness),is taken instead as the worst case sce-
nario, longer times for degradation from water droplet corona will be
obtained correspondingly,Once taken into consideration, these factors
will affect significantlyboth the crack formation times initially derived
from the experimental results of this study and the times when cracking
may have reached the NCI fiberglasscore.
6 CONCLUSIONS
A summary of the results obtained from a study aimed at assessing
degradation-free operating times for NCI housing materials when
subjected to corona and varying humidity and mechanical stressing
conditions has been presented.
Humidity was found to play a major role on degradationundergone
by the NCI housing materials evaluated in this study. The role of hu-
midity was not only limited to determining the amount of degradation
observed on the samples at the end of the test period, but it also influ-
enced the nature of the degradation mechanisms occurring under every
test condition adopted in this evaluation.
It has been estimated that even under the assumption of extremely
severe weather conditions to be present during field operation, the NCI
housing time to crack formation figures derived from this analysis,
128 Moreno et al.: Effect of Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators
which are attributable to water droplet corona degradation amount to
many years.
It is deemed that fairly reasonable results have been obtained by the
authors from their approach to the estimation of times to crack forma-
tion associated to water droplet corona on NCI housing materials, It
is considered, therefore, that similar computations may be performed
properly for any NCI housing material formulation.
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Manuscript was received on 21 February 2000, in final form 25July2000.