HISTORY

Masonry began spontaneously in the creation of low walls by stacking stones or pieces of
molded mud taken from dried puddles, Mortar was originally the mud smeared into the joints of
the rising wall to lend stability and weathertightness. Where stone lay readily at hand, it was
preferred to bricks Changes came with the
passing millennia: People learned to quarry, cut,
and dress stone with increasing precision

By the fourth millennium B.C., the peoples of

Mesopotamia were building palaces and

temples of stone and sun-dried brick. In the third

millennium, the Egyptians erected the first of
their stone temples and pyramids

In the last centuries prior to the birth of Christ,

the Greeks perfected their temples of limestone and marble. Control of the Western world then
passed to the Romans, who made the first large scale use of masonry arches and roof vaults in
their
temples,
basilicas,
baths,
palaces,
and
aqueducts.
Medieval civilizations in both Europe and the Islamic world brought masonry vaulting to a very
high plane of development. The Islamic craftsmen built magnificent palaces, markets, and
mosques of brick and often faced them with brightly glazed clay tiles. The Europeans directed

their efforts toward fortresses and cathedrals of

stone, culminating in the pointed vaults and
flying buttresses of the great Gothic churches

During the Industrial Revolution in Europe and North America, machines were developed that
quarried and worked stone, molded bricks, and sped the transportation of these heavy materials
to the building site. Sophisticated mathematics were applied for the first time to the analysis of
the structure of masonry arches and to the art of stonecutting. Portland cement mortar came
into widespread use, enabling the construction of masonry buildings of greater strength and
durability.

In the late 19th century, masonry began to lose its primacy among the materials of construction.
The very tall buildings of the central cities required frames of iron or steel to replace the thick
masonry bearing walls that had limited the heights to which one could build. Reinforced
concrete, poured rapidly and economically into simple forms made of wood, began to replace
brick and stone masonry in foundations and walls. The heavy masonry vault was supplanted by
lighter floor and roof structures of steel and concrete that were faster to erect.

MORTAR

Mortar is a workable paste used to bind building

blocks such as stones, bricks, and concrete masonry
units together, fill and seal the irregular gaps between
them, and sometimes add decorative colors or
patterns in masonry walls. In its broadest sense
mortar includes pitch, asphalt, and soft mud or clay,
such as used between mud bricks. Mortar comes from Latin mortarium meaning crushed.

Ancient mortal

The first mortars were made of mud and clay. Because of a

lack of stone and an abundance of
clay, Mesopotamia constructions were of baked brick, using
lime or pitch for mortar. According to Roman Ghirshman, the
first evidence of humans using a form of mortar was at
the Mehrgarh of Baluchistan in Pakistan, built of sun-dried
bricks in 6500 BCE.

Types of mortar:

Ordinary Portland cement mortar, It was invented in

1794 by Joseph Aspdin and patented on 18 December
1824, largely as a result of efforts to develop stronger
mortars. It was made popular during the late nineteenth
century, and had by 1930 became more popular than lime
mortar as construction material. The advantages of
Portland cement is that it sets hard and quickly, allowing a
faster pace of construction. Furthermore, fewer skilled
workers are required in building a structure with Portland cement.

Polymer cement mortars (PCM)

are the materials which are made
by partially replacing the cement
hydrate binders of conventional
cement mortar with polymers. The
polymeric admixtures
include latexes or emulsions,
redispersible polymer powders,
water-soluble polymers,
liquid thermo set resins and
monomers. It has low
permeability, and it reduces the
incidence of drying shrinkage
cracking, mainly designed for
repairing concrete structures.
Lime mortar is composed of lime and
an aggregate such as sand, mixed with water. The
setting speed can be increased by using impure
limestone in the kiln, to form a hydraulic lime that
will set on contact with water. Such a lime must be
stored as a dry powder. Alternatively,
a pozzolanic material such as calcined clay or
brick dust may be added to the mortar mix.
Addition of a pozzolanic material will make the
mortar set reasonably quickly by reaction with the water.

Pozzolanic mortar is a fine,

sandy volcanic ash. It was originally
discovered and dug at Pozzuoli,
nearby Mount Vesuvius in Italy, and was
subsequently mined at other sites, too. The
Romans learned that pozzolana added to
lime mortar allowed the lime to set relatively
quickly and even under water. Vitruvius, the
Roman architect, spoke of four types of
pozzolana. It is found in all the volcanic
areas of Italy in various colours: black,
white, grey and red. Pozzolana has since
become a generic term for any siliceous
and/or aluminous additive to slaked lime to create
hydraulic cement

Firestop mortars are mortars most typically used

to firestop large openings in walls and floors
required to have a fire-resistance rating. They
are passive fire protection items. Firestop mortars
differ in formula and properties from most other
cementitious substances and cannot be substituted
with generic mortars without violating the listing and
approval use and compliance.
 Mortar Ingredients

Mortar is made of four basic ingredients:

1. Portland Cement
2. Hydrated Lime
3. Sand
4. Water

We'll also take a good look at masonry cement. This is a manufactured, premixed, packaged
combination of Portland cement, hydrated lime and optional admixtures. Masonry cement is so
much easier to use that you don't often find anyone mixing mortar from scratch at a job site
anymore although it is a cost effective way to do it.

Portland cement

The binding agent is Portland cement. It was named after the Isle of Portland in the English
Channel.

Type I Normal This is a general purpose cement. It's usually the only type you'll need. It comes
in three varieties; regular, air-entrained and white. Regular Portland cement is gray in color and
costs less than the white variety.

Type II Modified This type of Portland cement generates less heat than type I as it cures, and
makes concrete that's moderately resistant to sulfate damage.

Type III High Early Strength Use this when you want concrete to set and cure as soon as
possible. Here is an example. Let say you are on a job near Chicago. It's early October and the
job's running behind schedule. Then a cold front rolls in. You can't stop work and wait out the
weather. But you can mix concrete using type III Portland cement. This concrete will cure in just
three days instead of seven needed to cure concrete made with type I cement.

Type IV Low Heat This generates even less heat than type II as it cures, but it's expensive.
That's why it's only used on jobs such as dams that call for very large masses of concrete.

Type V Sulfate Resistant This Portland cement has a higher resistance to sulfate damage than
Type II. Use it, instead of Type II, when job site conditions are more extreme. Usually you make
mortar with type I, normal Portland cement. Once in a while you will use type III Portland cement
to make it set up faster, in near freezing weather for example. The color is the one property that
does not change how well it does its job.

Color. Cements are available in a range of colors. The most common color is light gray, about
the same color as ordinary concrete block. Cements are also available in white, as well as in a
range of darker grays, all achieved by controlling the ingredients used in the manufacture of the
cement itself. In the final mortar mix, a much broader range of colors can be produced either by
adding pigments to the mortar at the time of mixing or by purchasing dry mortar mix that has
been custom colored at the factory. Packaged mortar mixes can be obtained in shades ranging
from pure white to pure black, including all the colors of the spectrum.

Mortar Mixes

MORTAR TYPE MINIMUM AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS
M 2500 psi
S 1800 psi
N 750 psi
O 350 psi

Mortars mixed with portland cement, blended hydraulic cement, masonry cement, or mortar
cement are all specified according ASTM C270. Four basic mortar types, distinguished primarily
by differences in strength, are defined:

Type M mortar is a high-strength mortar with less workability than Type S or N mortars. It is
recommended for masonry construction below grade, masonry subject to high lateral or
compressive loads, or masonry exposed to severe frost action.

Type S mortar has a higher flexural bond strength than Type N mortar. It is recommended for
exterior reinforced masonry, exterior load bearing masonry walls, and veneers and walls subject
to high wind forces or high seismic loads

Type N mortar is a general-purpose mortar with a balance of good bonding capabilities and
good workability. It is recommended for exterior veneers, non load bearing exterior walls,
parapets, chimneys, and interior load bearing walls

Type O mortar is a low-strength mortar recommended mainly for interior non load bearing
masonry and historic restoration work.

Mortar Hydration

Hydraulic cement mortars cure by hydration, not by drying: A complex set of chemical reactions
take up water and combine it with the constituents of the cement and lime to create a dense,
strong crystalline structure that binds the sand particles and masonry units together. Once
hydraulic cements harden, they become water insoluble. Mortar that has been mixed but not yet
used can become too stiff for use, either by drying out or by commencing its hydration. If the
mortar was mixed less than 90 minutes prior to its stiffening, it has merely dried and the mason
can safely re temper it with water to make it workable again. If the unused mortar is more than
2 hours old, it must be discarded because it has already begun to hydrate and cannot be re
tempered without reducing its final strength. On large masonry projects, an extended life
admixture is sometimes included in the mortar. This allows the mortar to be mixed in large
batches and kept for as long as 72 hours before it must be discarded. Most masonry units
should not be wetted before laying, but to prevent premature drying of mortar, which would
weaken it, masonry units that are highly absorptive of water should be dampened slightly before
laying.

BRICK MASONRY

A brick is building material used to make walls,

pavements and other elements
in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term
brick referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is
now used to denote any rectangular units laid in
mortar. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing
soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials. Bricks
are produced in numerous classes, types,
materials, and sizes which vary with region and
time period, and are produced in bulk quantities.

Molding of bricks

Three major methods are used today for forming bricks: the soft mud process, the dry-press
process, and the stiff mud process.

The oldest is the soft mud process, much more water is

used, and the mix is placed in wooden molds to form the
size unit desired. To keep the clay from sticking, the
molds are lubricated with sand or water; after they are
filled, excess clay is struck from the top of the mold. It is
from this process that the terms wood-mold, sand-struck,
or water-struck brick were derived.

The Dry-Press process is particularly

suited to clays of very low plasticity. Clay is
mixed with a minimal amount of water (up
to 10 percent), then pressed into steel
molds under pressures from 500 to 1500
psi (3.4 to 10.3 MPa) by hydraulic or
compressed air rams.
In the stiff-mud or extrusion process, water in the range of 10 to 15 percent is mixed into the
clay to produce plasticity. After pugging, the tempered clay goes through a de-airing chamber
that maintains a vacuum of 15 to 29 in. (375 to 725 mm) of mercury. De-airing removes air
holes and bubbles, giving the clay increased workability and plasticity, resulting in greater

strength.

Firing.

Today, bricks are usually burned in either a periodic kiln or a continuous tunnel kiln. The
periodic kiln is a fixed structure that is loaded with bricks, fired, cooled, and unloaded. Brick are
fired between 10 and 40 hours, depending upon kiln type and other variables. There are several
types of kilns used by manufacturers. The most common type is a tunnel kiln, followed by
periodic kilns. Fuel may be natural gas, coal, sawdust, methane gas from landfills or a
combination of these fuels.

Brick size

NAME WIDTH LENGTH HEIGHT

Modular 90mm 190mm 57 mm
Standard 90mm 200mm 57 mm
Engineer modular 90mm 190mm 70 mm
Engineer standard 90mm 200mm 70 mm
Closure modular 90mm 190mm 90mm
Closure standard 90mm 200mm 90mm
Roman 90mm 290mm 40mm
Norman 90mm 290mm 50mm
Engineering norman 90mm 290mm 70mm
Utility 90mm 290mm 90mm
King size 75mm 240mm 70mm
Queen size 75mm 190mm 70mm
Laying of bricks

Types of cuts:

Closer- It is the
portion of the
brick cut along the length in such a way as one long face remains intact

Queen closer - When a brick is cut along its length, making it two equal halves then it is
called queen closer. Thus a queen closer is a broken brick portion whose width is half as wide
as the original brick. This is also called as queen closer half.

Queen closer quarter- If a queen closer is broken into two equal pieces then it is known
as queen closer quarter. Such a closer is thus a brick piece which is one quarter of the brick
size.

King closer - If a brick is cut in such a way that the width of one end becomes half that of a full
brick, while the width at the other end is equal to the full width, then it is called as king closer. It
is obtained by cutting out a triangular portion of the brick between the centre of one end (width
side) and the centre of the other end (lay side). Thus it has half header and half stretcher face.

Beveled closer - It is a form of king closer in which the whole length of the brick (i.e. stretcher
face) is chamfered or beveled in such a way that half width is maintained at one end and full
width is maintained at the other end

Mitred closer - It is a portion of a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width. The
angle of splay may vary from 450 to 600. Thus one longer face of the mitred closer is of full
length of the brick while the other longer face is smaller in length.

Bat - When a brick is cut across the width, the resulting piece is called bat. Thus a bat is smaller
in length than the full brick.

Half bat - If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the original brick, it is known as half
bat

Quarter bat - It is a form of brick bat having its length equal to three quarter of the length of a full
brick.

beveled bat - A brick bat is called beveled bat, when its width has beveled.

Bonds

Bonds
it is the arrangement of bricks in brickworks so that the vertical joints do not come over to each
other. Bonds in brickworks is provided to achieve a united mass as soon as practicable to suit
the length, the height and the thickness of the brickworks and the stresses to which it is
subjected

Types of bonds

STRETCHER BOND
A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the brick of size 190 mm
90 mm 90 mm, 190 mm 90 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond masonry all the
bricks are arranged in stretcher courses. However care should be taken to break vertical joints.
This type of construction is useful for the construction half brick thick partition wall.
HEADER BOND
A header is the shorter face of the brick as
seen in the elevation. In a standard brick it
is 90 mm 90 mm face. In header bond
brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in
the header courses . This type of bond is
useful for the construction of one brick thick
walls
ENGLISH BOND
In this alternate courses consist of headers
and stretchers. This is considered to be the
strongest bond. Hence it is commonly used
bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break
continuity of vertical joints a brick is cut
lengthwise into two halves and used in the
beginning and end of a wall after first header.
This is called queen closer. The figure shows
typical one brick and one and half brick thick
wall with English bond.
FLEMISH BOND
In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher. Alternate courses
start with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a
course starts with header. Every header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it.
Flemish bonds may be further classified as

Double Flemish Bond

Single Flemish Bond.

In case of double flemish bond, both faces of the wall have flemish look, i.e. each course consist
of alternate header and stretcher, whereas single flemish bond outer faces of walls have flemish
look whereas inner faces have look of English bond
Spanning Openings in Brick Walls
The spanning of openings, Openings for doors , windows and access openings must be bridged
over by some means to support the masonry above. Arches and lintels used to bridge the
openings. Lintels act like a beam and transfers
the load vertically downwards. The wall over the
lintel will tend to create an arch over the opening,
leaving only the area under the arch to be carried
by the lintel beam. Valid for running bond, but not
stack bond. Loads will "arch" around the load
triangle
Lintels:
Lintels
Openings
in
masonry
walls are
spanned by horizontal members known as lintels. The
ht. of lintel is kept in multiple of brick course ht. i.e.
65mm. The depth of Lintels is not usually less than
150mm. The lintels may be constructed of: Timber
Stone Brick. Precast or cast-in-situ concrete Structural
steel Reinforced concrete masonry.
Types of lintel
Timber lintel:
Timber lintel Timber good in compression Used in
ancient structures. Not being used today because of
unavailability of material, cost. Likely to get damaged in
case of fire. Likely to rot causing wall over it to collapse.

Stone lintels:
Stone lintels Used where stone is widely available. High cost Inability to
withstand transverse stresses. Minimum thickness of stone lintel 8cm.
Brick lintels:
Brick lintels Hard, well burnt, first class
bricks are laid on edge- soldier bricks.
Depending upon span, depth varies
from 100mm to 200mm. Suitable for
small openings up to 900mm with light
loading conditions. Bricks having frogs
are more suitable for lintel construction. Frogs filled with
mortar increase shear resistance of brick lintel. For larger
spans, brick lintels are to be provided with steel
reinforcement. Depth limited to 100mm or multiples of brick courses.

Concrete lintel:
Concrete lintel Very common in use today. Usually
reinforced with steel. Used for small and large spans,
heavy loading conditions. Concrete- relatively cheap
can be molded in desired shape & size when in
plastic condition, good strength in compression- good
strength against crushing. Concrete lacks strength
against tensile forces. When lintel is subjected to
load, it will slightly bend; particles in upper part exert
compressive forces i.e. particles are pushed against
each-other, particles in lower part exert tensile forces
i.e. they are pulled apart and particles in middle part
are neither in compression and nor in tension i.e.
they are in neutral axis
Casting lintel Pre-cast lintel: lintels are casted into mould and have been hardened before it is
built into wall. For smaller spans up to 1.2m precast lintels are used. Marking is done to know
the location of reinforcement in the lintel. Letter T is marked to know position of top surface of
lintel. Additional reinforcement has to be provided to guard against lifting stress. Advantage of
precast lintels brickwork can be raised on lintel immediately after it is placed in position. Cast
in situ lintel: lintel is cast in position inside formwork over the opening in walls. Need formwork
for casting. Need to be cured and hardened before the masonry is being constructed above.
Pre-stressed concrete lintels :
Pre-stressed concrete lintels Used particularly over internal openings. Concrete is casted
around high tensile steel wire which are anchored into the concrete. Concrete is compressed by
tension in the steel wires Under the load, the compression of concrete due to pre-stressed wires
has to overcome before the lintel bends.
Steel lintels:
Steel lintels For large spans and heavy loading
conditions, RCC lintels may prove uneconomical
because of increasing depth. Steel lintels- section
of rolled steel joists used singly or in combination
of two or three. Connected to each other by bolts
passing through them at intervals. System is
embedded in concrete and cured like RCC lintel.
Less depth than RCC lintels.
Arches:
A curved structure for spanning an opening, designed to support a vertical load primarily by
compression Example of form following function. The invoiced stresses are principally
compressive. Because brick masonry has greater resistance to compression than tension.
Masonry arch is frequently the most efficient structural element to span openings
Types of arches
Semi Circular Arch :
Semi Circular Arch An arch whose intrados is a
semicircle (half circle). Exactly half a circle,
centre is on the Springing Line All joints radiate
from the centre of the circle All these types of
arch have an odd number of arch stones or
voussoirs The centre voussoir is called the
Keystone

Segmental Arch :
Segmental Arch An arch whose intrados is circular
but less than a semicircle. Shallow arch with the
centre below the springing line Lateral movement of
the abutment is due to the horizontal thrust of the
arch. This thrust develops in all arches. The flatter
the arch, the greater the horizontal thrust. This thrust
must be sufficiently restrained so that lateral
movement of the abutment does not cause cracking
in the arch or its collapse.

Jack arch/Flat Arch:

Jack arch/Flat Arch A flat arch with zero or little
rise. The relatively small rise of a jack arch is
called camber which is provided to correct
illusion of sagging. Bricks are placed in soldier
manner adjacent to each other. Lesser strength
than semi-circular and segmental arch. For
spans over 1.0m need additional support such
as a metal flat or angle. Metal cramps can be
inserted at vertical joints to resist tensile stresses. Suitable for small spans.
Bulls eye arch:
Bulls eye arch An arch whose intrados is a full circle. Also
known as a Circular arch.
CORBEL ARCH:
CORBEL ARCH Do not require
staging or form work. Simple to
construct.
Gothic Lancet Arch :
Gothic Lancet Arch Pointed arch Tall and
narrow opening Centers are located on the
springing line outside the clear opening or
width of the arch Taller than width Can
have a keystone or a joint at the point
Gothic Drop Arch :
Gothic Drop Arch Pointed arch Centers on the
springing line inside the clear opening Wider than
height Can have a keystone or joint at the point.
Gothic Equilateral Arch :
Gothic Equilateral Arch Based on an equilateral
triangle The centers are on the springing line
exactly at the clear opening. Can have a keystone
or in this case a joint at the point.

Three Centered Arch:

Three Center Arch A geometrically formed arch
Has three centers two on the springing line and
one in the centre below The bedding layers can
be clearly seen in this example
Tudor Four Centered Arch :
Tudor Four Centered Arch Uses 4
curves and centers to make up the
arch A pointed, four centered arch
of medium rise-to-span ratio whose
four centers are all beneath the
extrados of the arch.
Slide 29:
Elliptical Arch An arch with two centers and
continually changing radii.

Circle on
Circle
Arch :
Probably one of the most complex arch shapes to produce in stone Arch is circular in plan and
circular in elevation Requires complex geometry to set out to produce temple
Horseshoe Arch:
Horseshoe Arch extends below the centre springing line In this case it is a redundant railway
tunnel arch

Venetian :
Venetian An arch formed
by a combination of jack
arch at the ends and
semicircular arch at the
middle. Also known as a
Queen Anne arch
Rough Arches:
Rough Arches
Constructed from
ordinary uncut bricks.
Give rise to edge shaped joints. To reduce too wide mortar joints
at extrados, arches are constructed in header course. Used for
low cost construction or where appearance has little importance
than cost.

STONE MASONRY

HISTORY:

Stonemasonry is one of the earliest trades in the history of civilization. During the time of the
Neolithic Revolution around 10,000 BC, when man began to domesticate animals, farm the land
and build static communities, people learned how to use fire to create quicklime, plasters, and
mortars. They used these to fashion homes for themselves with mud, straw or stone giving rise
to the discipline known today as stonemasonry.

Masonry

is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical shapes, at times simple,
but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the resulting stones, often together
with mortar, to form structures.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A ROCK AND A STONE

Rocks

are hard materials that are found on the earths crust. The rocks can be found above the ground

as well as below the ground.

Stones

are non-metallic minerals. A stone is formed from rocks after it has been trimmed or dressed or

polished into tiny pieces.

Stones are used in the construction of lintels, claddings, kitchen tops and a lot more in

construction activities. Rocks, as a whole are not used in the construction industry but are used

when converted into stones.

TYPES OF STONE USED

Igneous stones

Granite is one of the hardest stones and requires such different techniques to
sedimentary stones that it is virtually a separate trade. With great persistence, simple
mouldings can and have been carved from granite, for example in many Cornish churches
and in the city of Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its
strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, and breakwaters.
Igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat
harder rocks such as tuff to hardest rocks such as granite and basalt.
Metamorphic STONES

Marble is a fine, easily worked stone, that comes in various colours, but mainly white. It
has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and buildings
of the Italian Renaissance

Sedimentary STONE

Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary stone, from Durham
Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome. There are two main types of sedimentary stone used in
masonry work, limestones and sandstones. Examples of limestones include Bath and Portland
stone. Yorkstone and Sydney sandstone are well-known sandstones.

Types of stonemasonry
Fixer Masons
This type of masons have specialized into fixing the stones onto the buildings. They
might do this with grouts, mortars and lifting tackle. They might also use things like
single application specialized fixings, simple crimps, and dowels as well as stone
cladding with things like epoxy resins, mastics and modern cements.

Memorial Masons
These are the masons that make headstones and carve the inscriptions on them.
Todays stonemasons undergo training that is quite comprehensive and is done both in
the work environment and in the classroom. It isnt enough to have hands-on skill
anymore. One must also have knowledge of the types of stones as well as its best uses
and how to work it as well as how to fix it in place.

Rubble Masonry
When roughly dressed stones are laid in a mortar the result is a stone rubble masonry.
UNCOURSED RUBBLE MASONRY

RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY

Ashlar Masonry
Stone masonry using dressed (cut) stones is known as ashlar masonry.
Stone Veneer
Stone veneer is used as a protective and decorative covering for interior or exterior walls
and surfaces. The veneer is typically 1 inch (2.54 cm) thick and must weigh less than
15 lb per square foot (73 kg m2) so that no additional structural supports are required.
The structural wall is put up first, and thin, flat stones are mortared onto the face of the
wall. Metal tabs in the structural wall are mortared between the stones to tie everything
together, to prevent the stonework from separating from the wall.
Slipform Stonemasonry
Slipform stonemasonry is a method for making stone walls with the aid of formwork to
contain the rocks and mortar while keeping the walls straight. Short forms, up to two feet
tall, are placed on both sides of the wall to serve as a guide for the stone work. Stones
are placed inside the forms with the good faces against the form work. Concrete is
poured behind the rocks. Rebar is added for strength, to make a wall that is
approximately half reinforced concrete and half stonework. The wall can be faced with
stone on one side or both sides.[2]

CONCRETE MASONRY

Concrete masonry is one of the most versatile building products available because of the wide
variety of appearances that can be achieved using concrete masonry units. Concrete masonry
units are manufactured in different sizes, shapes, colors, and textures to achieve a number of
finishes and functions
CONCRETE MASONRY

One of the most common masonry units is the concrete block. It consists of hardened cement
and may be completely solid or contain single or multiple hollows. It is made from conventional
cement mixes and various types of aggregate. These include sand, gravel, crushed stone, air-
cooled slag, coal cinders, expanded shale or clay, expanded slag, volcanic cinders (pozzolan),
pumice, and scotia (refuse obtained from metal ore reduction and smelting). The term
concrete block was formerly limited to only hollow masonry units made with such aggregates
as sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Today, the term covers all types of concrete block-both
hollow and solidmade with any kind of aggregate. Concrete blocks are also available with
applied glazed surfaces, various pierced designs, and a wide variety of surface textures.

Figure 8-3.-Mortar mixing machine

Although concrete block is made in many sizes and shapes (figure 8-4) and in both modular and
nonmodular dimensions, its most common unit size is 7 5/8 by 7 5/8 by 15 5/8 inches. This size
is known as 8-by-8-by-16-inch block nominal size. All concrete block must meet certain
specifications covering size, type, weight, moisture content, compressive strength, and other
characteristics. Properly designed and constructed, concrete masonry walls satisfy many
building requirements, including fire prevention, safety, durability, economy, appearance, utility,
comfort, and acoustics.
Concrete blocks are used in all types of masonry construction. The following are just a few of
many examples:

Exterior load-bearing walls (both below and above grade)

Interior load-bearing walls
Fire walls and curtain walls
Partitions and panel walks;
Backing for brick, stone, and other facings; Fireproofing over structural members
Fire safe walls around stairwells, elevators, and enclosures
Piers and columns; Retaining walls
Chimneys
Concrete floor unit

There are five main types of concrete masonry units:

Hollow load-bearing concrete block

Solid load-bearing concrete block
Hollow non-load-bearing concrete block
Concrete building tile
Concrete brick

Load-bearing blocks are available in two grades: N and S. Grade N is for general use, such as
exterior walls both above and below grade that may or may not be exposed to moisture
penetration or weather. Both grades are also used for backup and interior walls. Grade S is for
above-grade exterior walls with a weather-protective coating and for interior walls. The grades
are further subdivided into two types. Type I consists of moisture-controlled units for use in arid
climates. Type II consists of non-moisturecontrolled units.
 Figure 8-4.-Typical unit sizes and shapes of concrete masonry units.

BLOCK SIZES AND SHAPES

Concrete masonry units are available in many sizes and shapes to tit different construction
needs. Both full- and half-length sizes are shown in figure 8-4. Because concrete block sizes
usually refer to nominal dimensions, a unit actually measuring 7 5/8-by-7 5/8-by-15 5/8-inches is
called an 8-by-8-by-16-inch block. When laid with 3/8-inch mortar joints, the unit should occupy
a space exactly 8-by-8-by-16 inches.

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) specifications define a solid concrete block
as having a core area not more than 25 percent of the gross cross-sectional area. Most
concrete bricks are solid and sometimes have a recessed surface like the frogged brick shown
in figure 8-4. In contrast, a hollow concrete block has a core area greater than 25 percent of its
gross cross-sectional area-generally 40 percent to 50 percent.

Blocks are considered heavyweight or lightweight, depending on the aggregate used in their
production. A hollow load-bearing concrete block 8-by-8-by-16-inches nominal size weighs from
40 to 50 pounds when made with heavyweight aggregate, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone,
or air-cooled slag. The same size block weighs only 25 to 35 pounds when made with coal
cinders, expanded shale, clay, slag, volcanic cinders, or pumice. The choice of blocks depends
on both the availability and requirements of the intended structure.
Blocks may be cut with a chisel. However, it is more convenient and accurate to use a power-
driven masonry saw (figure 8-5). Be sure to follow the manufacturers manual for operation and
maintenance, As with all electrically powered equipment, follow all safety guidelines.

Figure 8-5.-Masonry saw.

BLOCK MORTAR JOINTS

The sides and the recessed ends of a concrete block are called the shell. The material that
forms the partitions between the cores is called the web. Each of the long sides of a block is
called a face shell. Each of the recessed ends is called an end shell. The vertical ends of the
face shells, on either side of the end shells, are called the edges.

Bed joints on first courses and bed joints in column construction are mortared by spreading a 1-
inch layer of mortar. This procedure is referred to as full mortar bedding. For most other bed
joints, only the upper edges of the face shells need to be mortared. This is referred to as face
shell mortar bedding.

Head joints may be mortared by buttering both edges of the block being laid or by buttering one
edge on the block being laid and the opposite edge on the block already in place.

MASONRY MORTAR
Properly mixed and applied mortar is necessary for good workmanship and good masonry
service because it must bond the masonry units into a strong, well-knit structure. The mortar
that bonds concrete block, brick, or clay tile will be the weakest part of the masonry unless you
mix and apply it properly. When masonry leaks, it is usually through the joints. Both the strength
of masonry and its resistance to rain penetration depend largely on the strength of the bond
between the masonry unit and the mortar. Various factors affect bond strength, including the
type and quantity of the mortar, its plasticity and workability, its water retentivity, the surface
texture of the mortar bed, and the quality of workmanship in laying the units. You can correct
irregular brick dimensions and shape with a good mortar joint.

Workability of Mortar

Mortar must be plastic enough to work with a trowel. You obtain good plasticity and workability
by using mortar having good water retentivity, using the proper grade of sand, and thorough
mixing. You do not obtain good plasticity by using a lot of cementitious materials. Mortar
properties depend largely upon the type of sand it contains. Clean, sharp sand produces
excellent mortar, but too much sand causes mortar to segregate, drop off the trowel, and
weather poorly.

Water Retentivity

Water retentivity is the mortar property that resists rapid loss of water to highly absorbent
masonry units. Mortar must have water to develop the bond. If it does not contain enough water,
the mortar will have poor plasticity and workability, and the bond will be weak and spotty.
Sometimes, you must wet brick to control water absorption before applying mortar, but never
wet concrete masonry units.

Mortar Strength and Durability

The type of service that the masonry must give determines the strength and durability
requirements of mortar. For example, walls subject to severe stress or weathering must be laid
with more durable,

stronger mortar than walls for ordinary service. Table 8-1 gives mortar mix proportions that
provide adequate mortar strength and durability for the conditions listed.

Table 8-1.-Recommended Mortar Mix Proportions by Unit Volume

Types of Mortar

The following mortar types are proportioned on a volume basis:

Type M One part portland cement, one-fourth part hydrated lime or lime putty, and three parts
sand; or, one part portland cement, one part type II masonry cement, and six parts sand. Type
M mortar is suitable for general use, but is recommended specifically for below-grade masonry
that contacts earth, such as foundations, retaining walls, and walks.

Type S One part portland cement, one-half part hydrated lime or lime putty, and four and one-
half parts sand; or, one-half part portland cement, one part type II masonry cement, and four
and one-half parts sand. Type S mortar is also suitable for general use, but is recommended
where high resistance to lateral forces is required.

Table 8-1.-Recommended Mortar Mix Proportions by Unit Volume

Type N One part portland cement, one part hydrated lime or lime putty, and six parts sand;
or, one part type II masonry cement and three parts sand. Type N mortar is suitable for general
use in above-grade exposed masonry where high compressive or lateral strength is not
required.

Type O One part portland cement, two parts hydrated lime or lime putty, and nine parts sand;
or, one part type I or type II masonry cement and three parts sand. Type O mortar is
recommended for load-bearing, solid-unit walls when the compressive stresses do not exceed
100 pounds per square inch (psi) and the masonry is not subject to freezing and thawing in the
presence of a lot of moisture.

MIXING MORTAR

The manner in which mortar is mixed has a lot to do with the quality of the final product. In
addition to machine and hand mixing, you need to know the requirements for introducing
various additives, including water, to the mix in order to achieve optimum results.
Machine Mixing

Machine mixing refers to mixing large quantities of mortar in a drum-type mixer. Place all dry
ingredients in the mixer first and mix them for 1 minute before adding the water. When adding
water, you should always add it slowly. Minimum mixing time is 3 minutes. The mortar should be
mixed until a completely uniform mixture is obtained.

Hand Mixing

Hand mixing involves mixing small amounts of mortar by hand in a mortar box or wheelbarrow.
Take care to mix all ingredients thoroughly to obtain a uniform mixture. As in machine mixing,
mix all dry materials together first before adding water. Keep a steel drum of water close at hand
to use as the water supply. You should also keep all your masonry tools free of hardened mortar
mix and dirt by immersing them in water when not in use.

Requirements

You occasionally need to mix lime putty with mortar. When machine mixing, use a pail to
measure the lime putty. Place the putty on top of the sand. When hand mixing, add the sand to
the lime putty.

Wet pails before filling them with mortar and clean them immediately after emptying.

Mixing water for mortar must meet the same quality requirements as mixing water for concrete.
Do not use water containing large amounts of dissolved salts. Salts weaken the mortars.

You can restore the workability of any mortar that stiffens on the mortar board due to
evaporation by remixing it thoroughly. Add water as necessary, but discard any mortar stiffened
by initial setting. Because it is difficult to determine the cause of stiffening, a practical guide is to
use mortar within 2 1/2 hours after the original mixing. Discard any mortar you do not use within
this time.

Do not use an antifreeze admixture to lower the freezing pint of mortars during winter
construction. The quantity necessary to lower the freezing point to any appreciable degree is so
large it will seriously impair the strength and other desirable properties of the mortar.

Do not add more than 2-percent calcium chloride (an accelerator) by weight of cement to mortar
to accelerate its hardening rate and increase its early strength. Do not add more than 1-percent
calcium chloride to masonry cements. Make a trial mix to find the percentage of calcium chloride
that gives the desired hardening rate. Calcium chloride should not be used for steel-reinforced
masonry. You can also obtain high early strength in mortars with high-early-strength portland
cement.

MODULAR PLANNING

Concrete masonry walls should be laid out to make maximum use of full- and half-length units.
This minimizes cutting and fitting of units on the job. Length and height of walls, width and
height of openings, and wall areas between doors, windows, and corners should be planned to
use full-size and half-size units, which are usually available (figure 8-6). This procedure
assumes that window and door frames are of modular dimensions which fit modular full- and
half-size units. Then, all horizontal dimensions should be in multiples of nominal full-length
masonry units.

Both horizontal and vertical dimensions should be designed to be in multiples of 8 inches. Table
8-2 lists nominal length of concrete masonry walls by stretchers. Table 8-3 lists nominal height
of concrete masonry walls by courses. When 8-by-4-by-16 units are used, the horizontal
dimensions should be planned in multiples of 8 inches (half-length units) and the vertical
dimensions in multiples of 4 inches. If the thickness of the wall is greater or less than the length
of a half unit, a special-length unit is required at each corner in each course. Table 8-4 lists the
average number of concrete masonry units by size and approximate number of cubic feet of
mortar required for every 100 square feet of concrete masonry wall. Table 8-5 lists the number
of 16-inch blocks per course for any wall.
Table 8-2.-Nominal Lengths of Concrete Masonry Walls in Stretchers
 Table 8-3.-Nominal Heights of Modular Concrete Masonry Walls in Courses

Table 8-4.-Average Concrete Masonry Units and Mortar per 100 sq. ft. of Wall
 Table 8-5.-Number of 16-Inch Blocks per Course

You should always use outside measurements when calculating the number of blocks required
per course. For example, a basement 22 feet by 32 feet should require 79 blocks for one
complete course. Multiply 79 by the number of courses needed. Thus, a one-course basement
requires a total of 790 blocks for a solid wall, from which deductions should be made for
windows and doors. If any dimension is an odd number, use the nearest smaller size listed in
the table. For example, for a 22-foot by 31-foot enclosure, use 22 feet by 30 feet and add one-
half block per row.

As a Builder, you might find yourself in the field without the tables handy, so here is another
method. Use 3/4 times the length and 3/2 times the height for figuring how many 8-by-8-by-16-
inch blocks you need for a wall. Lets take an example:

Given: A wall 20 ft long x 8 ft high

3/4 x 20 = 60/4 = 15 (8" x 8" x 16" bloc per course)

3/2 x 8 = 24/2 = 12 courses high

15 x 12 = 180 total blocks

ESTIMATING MORTAR

You can use rule 38 for calculating the raw material needed to mix 1 yard of mortar without a
great deal of paperwork. This rule does not, however, accurately calculate the required raw
materials for large masonry construction jobs. For larger jobs, use the absolute volume or
weight formula. In most cases, though, and particularly in advanced base construction, you can
use rule 38 to quickly estimate the quantities of the required raw materials.
Builders have found that it takes about 38 cubic feet of raw materials to make 1 cubic yard of
mortar. In using rule 38 for calculating mortar, take the rule number and divide it by the sum of
the quantity figures specified in the mix. For example, lets assume that the building
specifications call for a 1:3 mix for mortar, 1 + 3 = 4. Since 38 4 = 9 1/2, youll need 9 1/2 sacks,
or 9 1/2 cubic feet, of cement. To calculate the amount of fine aggregate (sand), you multiply 9
1/2 by 3. The product (28 1/2 cubic feet) is the amount of sand you need to mix 1 cubic yard of
mortar using a 1:3 mix. The sum of the two required quantities should always equal 38. This is
how you can check whether you are using the correct amounts. In the above example, 9 1/2
sacks of cement plus 28 1/2 cubic feet of sand equal 38.

Figure 8-6.-Planning concrete masonry wall openings.

SAFE HANDLING OF MATERIAL

When you handle cement or lime bags, wear goggles and snug-fitting neckbands and
wristbands. Always practice good personal cleanliness and never wear clothing that has
become stiff with cement. Cement-impregnated clothing irritates the skin and may cause serious
infection. Any susceptibility of the skin to cement and lime burns should be reported. Personnel
who are allergic to cement or lime should be transferred to other jobs.

Bags of cement or lime should not be piled more than 10 bags high on a pallet. The only
exception is when storage is in bins or enclosures built for such storage. The bags around the
outside of the pallet should be placed with the mouths of the bags facing the center, The first
five tiers of bags each way from any corner must be cross piled. A setback starting with the sixth
tier should be made to prevent piled bags from falling outward. If you have to pile bags above
10 tiers, another setback must be made. The back tier, when not resting against an interior wall
of sufficient strength to withstand the pressure, should be set back one bag every five tiers, the
same as the end tiers. During unpiling, the entire top of the pile

Lime and cement must be stored in a dry place. This helps prevent lime from crumbling and the
cement from hydrating before it is used.
TYPES OF MASONRY WALLS

1. Load Bearing Masonry Walls:

Load bearing masonry walls are constructed with bricks, stones or concrete blocks. These walls
directly transfer loads from the roof to the foundation. These walls can be exterior as well as
interior walls. The construction system with load bearing walls are economical than the system
with framed structures.

Fig: Load Bearing Masonry Wall

The thickness of load bearing walls is based on the quantity of load from roof it has to bear. For
example a load bearing wall with just a ground floor can have its outer walls of 230mm, while
with one or more floors above it, based on occupancy type, its thickness may be increased.

The load bearing walls can be reinforced or unreinforced masonry walls.

2. Reinforced Masonry Walls:

Reinforced masonry walls can be load bearing walls or non-load bearing walls. The use of
reinforcement in walls helps it to withstand tension forces and heavy compressive loads. The
un-reinforced masonry walls are prone to cracks and failure under heavy compressive loads
and during earthquakes. They have little ability to withstand lateral forces during heavy rain and
wind. Cracks also develop in un-reinforced masonry walls due to earth pressure or differential
settlement of foundations.
To overcome such problems, reinforced masonry walls are used. Reinforcement in walls are at
required intervals both horizontally and vertically is used. The size of reinforcement, their
quantity and spacing are determined based on the loads on the walls and structural conditions.

3. Hollow Masonry Walls:

Hollow or Cavity masonry walls are used to prevent moisture reaching the interior of the building
by providing hollow space between outside and inside face of the wall. These walls also helps in
temperature control inside the building from outside wall as the hollow space restricts heat to
pass through the wall.

Fig: Hollow Masonry Wall

When the wall is exposed to moisture for a sustained period and penetrates through the outer
face, the water reaches the cavity or the hollow space and flows down. Then they are drained
through the weep holes to the exterior of the building. These hollow spaces may be coated with
water repellent coating or damp-proofing to further reduce the ingress of moisture.

4. Composite Masonry Walls:

These walls are constructed with two or more units such as stones or bricks and hollow bricks.
This type of masonry wall construction is done for better appearance with economy.

In composite masonry walls, two wythes of masonry units are constructed bonding with each
other. While one wythe can be brick or stone masonry while the other can be hollow bricks. A
wythe is a continuous vertical section of masonry one unit in thickness.

Fig: Composite Masonry Wall

These wythes are interconnected either by horizontal joint reinforcement or by using steel ties.

5. Post-tensioned Masonry Walls:

Post-tensioned masonry walls are constructed to strengthen the masonry walls against the
forces that may induce tension in the wall such as earthquake forces or wind forces.
These walls are constructed from the foundation level and post-tensioning rods are anchored
into the foundation. These rods are run vertically between the wythes or in the core of concrete
masonry units.

After the masonry wall construction is completed and cured, these rods are tensioned and
anchored on the steel place at the top of the wall.

CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

Spanning Systems for Masonry Bearing Wall Construction
Ordinary Joisted Construction

So-called Ordinary construction, in which the floors and roof are framed with wood joists and
rafters and supported at the perimeter on masonry walls,

Ordinary construction is essentially balloon framing in which the outer walls of wood are
replaced with masonry bearing walls.

Notice two very important details: the recut ends of the joists and the metal anchors used to
tie the wood framing and the masonry wall together.

Heavy Timber or Mill Construction

Heavy Timber or Mill construction, like Ordinary construction, combines masonry exterior walls
with a wood frame interior. However, it uses heavy timbers rather than light joists, rafters, and
studs, and thick timber decking rather than thin wood panel sheath-
ing and sub flooring.

Steel and Concrete Decks with Masonry Bearing Walls

Spanning systems of structural steel, sitecast concrete, and precast concrete are frequently
used in combination with masonry bearing walls.

Detailing Masonry Walls

Flashings and Drainage Two general types of flashing are used in masonry construction:

1. External ashings prevent moisture from penetrating into the masonry wall at its
exposed top or where it intersects the roof.
2. Internal ashings (also known as concealed or through-wall ashings) catch water that
has penetrated a masonry wall and drain it through weep holes back to the exterior.

The external flashing at the intersection of a flat roof and a wall parapet is usually constructed in
two overlapping parts a base ashing and a counterashing or cap ashing.

Base Flashings are typically angles that are used for attaching roofing materials to as well as
capping the top to ensure that the base of the roof is secured. It also allows for the expansion
and contraction of the roof and wall.

Counterflashing, also referred to as cap flashing, is the first line of defense against water
infiltrating your building. Counterflashing is the piece of metal that is applied to the masonry wall
designed to shed water off of the wall and down onto the roof surface.
The base flashing is normally turned up for a height of at least 8 inches (200 mm).

Flashings may be made of sheet metal, modified asphalt membranes, plastics, rubbers, or
composite sheets.

Sheet metal flashings are the most durable and the most expensive.

Copper and stainless steel are best; galvanized steel eventually rusts and disintegrates.

Aluminum and lead are unsuitable for ashings in masonry walls because they react chemically
with mortar.

Thermal Insulation of Masonry Walls

A solid masonry wall is a good conductor of heat, which is another way to say that it is a poor
insulator. In many hot, dry climates, the capacity of an uninsulated masonry wall to store heat
and retard its passage keeps the inside of the building cool during the hot day and warm during
the cold night.

There are three general ways of insulating masonry walls:

on the outside face
within the wall
on the inside face.

Insulation on the outside face is a relatively recent development. It is usually accomplished by

means of an exterior insulation and nish system (EIFS), which consists of panels of plastic
foam that are attached to the masonry and covered with a thin, continuous layer of polymeric
stucco reinforced with glass fiber mesh.

Insulation within the wall can take several forms. If the cavity in a wall is made sufficiently wide,
the masons can insert slabs of plastic foam insulation against the inside wythe of masonry as
the wall is built.

The inside surface of a masonry wall can be insulated by attaching wood or metal furring strips
to the inside of the wall with masonry nails or powder-driven metal fasteners.
Some Special Problems of Masonry Construction

Expansion and Contraction

Masonry walls expand and contract slightly in response to changes in both temperature and
moisture content.

Three different kinds of surface divider joints are used in masonry:

Expansion joints are intentionally created slots that can close slightly to accommodate
expansion of surfaces made of brick or stone masonry.
Control joints are intentionally created cracks that can open to accommodate shrinkage in
surfaces made of concrete masonry.

Abutment joints, sometimes called construction joints or isolation joints, are placed at junctions
between masonry and other materials, or between new masonry and old masonry, to
accommodate differences in movement.

MASONRY AND THE BUILDING CODES

The utilization of masonry loadbearing walls in Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 (Ordinary), and Type 4
(Mill, or Heavy Timber) construction has been discussed in earlier sections of this chapter.
Masonry walls are frequently constructed for interior partitions, fire separation walls, and fire
walls in buildings of all construction types. In the table below gives rule-of-thumb values for fire
resistance ratings of common types of masonry walls and partitions, along with Sound
Transmission Class ratings to allow comparison of the acoustical isolation capabilities of these
walls with those of the partition systems shown in chapter 23.
 Wall Type Fire resistance (Hours) STC
4 (100mm) brick 1 45
8 (200 mm) brick 4 52
10 , 12 (250 and 300 mm) 4 59
brick
4 concrete block .5 to 1 44
8 concrete block 1 to 2 55
The Uniqueness of Masonry

Masonry is often chosen as a material of construction for its association in peoples minds with
qualities of permanence and solidity and with beautiful buildings and architectural styles of the
past. It is often chosen for its unique colors, textures, and patterns; for its fire resistance; and for
its easy, often automatic compliance with building code requirements. Masonry is often chosen,
too, because it is economical. Although it is labor intensive, it can create a high-performance,
long-lasting structure and enclosure in a single operation by a single trade, bypassing the
difficulties that are frequently encountered in managing the numerous trades and subcontractors
needed to erect a comparable building of other materials.

Masonry, like wood Light Frame construction, is a construction process carried out with small,
relatively inexpensive tools and machines on the construction site. Unlike steel and concrete
construction, it does not require (except in the case of ashlar stonework) a large expensively
equipped shop to fabricate the major materials prior to erection.

Basic tools for masonry

Brick Hammer

Brick Jointer
 Rubber Mallet

Line Block

String Line
 It shares with sitecast concrete construction a lengthy construction schedule that requires
special precautions and can encounter delays during periods of very hot, very cold, or very wet
weather. But generally it does not require an extensive period of preparation and fabrication in
advance of the beginning of construction because it uses standardized units of materials that
are put into final form as they placed in the buildings.

From the beginning of human civilization, masonry has been the medium from which we have
created our most nearly permanent, most carefully crafted, most highly prized buildings. It has
given the massiveness of the Egyptian pyramids, the inspirational elegance of the Parthenon,
and the light-filled leftiness of the great European cathedrals, as well as the reassuring the
coziness of the fireplace, the brick cottage, and the walled garden. Masonry can express our
highest aspirations and our deepest yearnings for a rootedness in the earth. It reflects both the
tiny scale of the human hand and the boundless power of the hand to create.

Ultimate Compressive Strength Density

Bricks 2000-20,000 psi (14-140 Mpa) 100-140 lbs/ft (1600-2240

kg/m)

Concrete masonry units 1500-6000 psi (10-41 Mpa) 75-135 lbs/ft (1200-2160 kg/m)
Limestone 2600-21,000 psi (18-147 Mpa) 130-170 lbs/ft (2080-2720
kg/m)

Sandstone 4000-28,000 psi (28-195 Mpa) 140-165 lbs/ft (2240-2640

kg/m)

Marble 9000-18,000 psi (62-123 Mpa) 165-170 lbs/ft (2640 -2720

kg/m)

Granite 15,600-30,800 psi (108-212 165-170 lbs/ft (2640 -2720

Mpa) kg/m)

Material Allowable Tensile Allowable Density

Strength Compressive strength

Wood (average) 700 psi (4.83 MPa) 1,100 psi (7.58 MPa) 30 pcf (480 kg/ m)
Brick masonry 0 250 psi (1.72 MPa) 120 pcf (1,920 kg/m)
(average)

Steel (ASTM A36) 22,000 psi (151.69 22,000 psi (151.69 490 pcf (7,850 kg/m)
MPa) MPa)

Concrete (average) 0 1,350 psi (9,51 MPa) 145 pcf (2,320 kg/m)

Brick Cottages
Eurepean Cathedrals

Fireplaces

Pathernon
Walled Gardens