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09. Neoclassical Period
[1702-1798]
General Discussion:
* The duration of this age is from 1702-1798.
* This age is known as the Neo-classical age as it imitated the
classical rules and regulations.
* The other name of this age is classical age or Pseudo Classical
Age or 18th Century Literature.
* This period is also known as Augustan Age after the name of the
Roman Emperor Augustus or Octavius Caesar.
The 18th century is known as The Age of Enlightenment or The
Age of reason, to stress the rational trend of the period and the
attitude according to which reason and judgment should be the
guiding principles for human activities. It saw the birth of a new
literary movement: Neoclassicism or Rationalism. This movement
was greatly influenced by the ideas of John Locke and Isaac Newton.
The importance of Newton is clearly seen in the epitaph written by
Alexander Pope: Nature and Natures laws lay hid in night; God
said, Let Newton be! And all was light. In his Principia
Matematica the scientist showed that the universe was governed by
mechanical principles and exact laws rather than by divine ones as it
was believed before. He left little place for God and we may say that
he destroyed the traditional religious view of the world making God
subject to the laws of science. Newton was elected President of the
Royal Society, an association of learned man who wanted to promote
scientific studies and to try new methods of experiment. Thanks to
the research, new discoveries that religion seemed unable to explain,
were made and Science became the new authority. It was believed
that science and reason would have improved mans condition
turning him into a social being who would conform to the rules of
civilised life. Reason , the most important mans ability, enabled him
not only to think but also to act correctly. Man, the only living
creature to have it, became important for his power of observation
more than for his power of feelings. Reason became the criterion of
everything: what could be justified by reason was right and what
could not be justified or proved by reason was false and rejected.
Every thing was regulated by reason, nature too. People were
attracted by a reasoned Nature, as the one we can find in parks or
gardens, a nature that reflected order and harmony. To follow
nature meant to represent the world as it was, to obey reason.
Rationalism, stressing out the importance of reason and observation,
started the beginning of the scientific thought and freed man from
ignorance. Enlightenment thinkers mostly tended to atheism. They
believed that principles should only be accepted on the basis of
reason and not on the authority of sacred texts and tradition. In this
Age of reason both government and the king had to justify
themselves rationally. The belief that the king ruled by Divine Right
was questioned. The king and the government ruled by the
agreement of the people, by contract which they had to respect.
The importance of reason was also influential in the literature of the
time and English literary standards were reformed. The artistic
creation, like science, had to follow exact rules and was to be based
on reason. The writers modelled much of their works on Classical
writers and referred to ancient Greece and Rome using subjects from
classical mythology and history. All that brought to the birth of a
new movement known as Neoclassicism. The reform was helped by
the French writer Nicolas Boileau , who published a book, Art
Poetique , which provided the key idea of neoclassicism: in good art
inspiration must be controlled by judgement. He listed the rules of
good writing: writing should be clear, balanced, ordered, elegant and
eloquent. Neoclassicism provided the basis for the Augustan school
of writing which dominated the 18th century literature.
THE AUGUSTANS
The Augustans were so called because they compared their period
to that of the Emperor Augustus in ancient Rome, a period of
political stability, splendour and tranquility. They wanted this period
of stability to last and attacked everything which threatened to upset
it. They thought that ancient art was superior to modern one and
often imitated the great Roman classical authors: Vergil, Ovid, Titus
Livius and Horace. The Augustans believed that their duty was not to
try to be original but to re-express universal truths about mankind.
Their Age was characterized by the spirit of the Enlightenment
which implied a new way of thinking characterized by philosophical,
scientific and rational spirit. As to the contents, they mostly used
classical subjects and focused on man in society seen, not as an
individual, but as an important piece of a perfect whole, a piece of a
perfect mosaic. The artist was seen as he who had to express his
knowledge of the world in a rational and objective way. He should
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not allow his own emotions and prejudices to influence his writing.
In order to achieve objectivity , the writer had to write clearly and to
use a precise and correct language, a language that all readers had to
understand. The language they adopted was the poetic diction, an
artificial language which used uncommon and learned words,
Latinate and periphrasis. Samuel Johnson published his famous
Dictionary and helped to understand the meaning of words. As far as
style the authors were allowed to use wit, that is attractiveness,
clever invention and humour.
Towards the middle of the century there was a reaction against
rationalism and writers focused their attention on the individual and
on the peoples feelings. This new interest found its expression in a
new prose form, the Novel. As far as poetry, we have to say that
Augustan poetry was of secondary importance and continued the
restoration trend for satire and mock-heroic poems written in heroic
couplet in which a trivial subject was treated with the seriousness of
epic for comic effect. The most important representative was
Alexander Pope and his finest work was The Rape of the Lock,
telling about a quarrel between two aristocrat families because of a
trivial incident: Lord Petre had cut a lock of hair of Miss Arabella
Fermor and that action was considered as an insult. Pope wrote it to
ridicule the narcissistic attitude of the aristocracy. In the second half
of the century new trends started to emerge and the heroic couplet
lost its dominant position.
THE TRANSITION AGE
The Age of Neoclassicism was followed by a transitional period also
known as Pre-Romanticism. It developed during the last decades of
the 18th century. There was a reaction against classicism and reason
and a search for new models of poetry taken no longer from ancient
Rome and Greece but from the Middle Ages. The period was greatly
affected by the French Revolution, the American Revolution and the
Industrial Revolution. They provided literature with new themes
which began to develop side by side with the old ones. First of all
there was a new interest towards the poor and the children, who lived
at the margin of society during the Augustan Age. Satire and realism
were respectively replaced by sentimentalism and imagination,
paving the way to the flourishing of Romanticism. The Age
preserved its main features with its emphasis on reason, precision,
order, clarity and harmony, but some other features appeared in
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opposition to them: interest in country life, new way of seeing
Nature, different role of Art, new themes based on feelings and so
on.
Poetry was no longer concerned with wit but with simple feelings
and nature. Poetry was pervaded by a melancholic tone and was
often associated with meditation on Death. This kind of poetry was
remembered as Graveyard Poetry. The poets of the Graveyard Group
were melancholic and seek for solitude. Their thoughts were directed
towards Death, or the fear of Death, suicide and graves. The settings
of their poems were often medieval ruins, caverns, coffins and
skeletons. The most important poet of the group was Thomas Gray
and his most famous poem was Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard, based on the concept of the leveling power of Death.
Other poets were Edward Young and Robert Blair, both church
ministers. The Graveyard poets influenced the Gothic Novel and the
Ossian Poetry which became very popular literary forms especially
among they who were unsatisfied with classical novel and poetry and
looked for Gothicism, a mixture of both medieval features(ruins,
ancient castle and so on) and supernatural. Both poems and novels of
this kind were melodramatic, full of horrors and supernatural and set
in a medieval context. The most famous Gothic Novels were
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and The Castle of Otranto by Walpole.
Characteristics:
i) Growing influence of the parliament.
The influence of the parliament is immense in this period. The
growing importance of the parliament is based on the
consciousness of the people about politics.
ii) Development of party spirits.
The literature of the period shows a political awareness of the
people and so party spirit is developed remarkably in this period.
iii) Growth of intellectualism.
Growth of intellectualism is one of the most significant trends of
this age. The literature during this time shows the intellectuality
of the people.
iv) Wit and humour.
Another major feature is with and humor. The writings of this
age are full of wit and humour.
v) The rise of satire.
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Satire is a literary attack on the follies and vices of an individual
or a society for the purpose of correction through laughter and
ridicule. Most of the writings of this age were satire on prose.
This period is called the golden age of satire.
vi) The beginning of mock heroic epic.
The mock epic is a long narrative poem written in elevated style
dealing with a very trivial or insignificant subject. The grand
treatment of a low subject produces hilarious laughter and makes
the story more ridiculous.
vii) Criticism of the aristocratic society particularly aristocratic
ladies.
The people living in the aristocratic society become the subject
of criticism in the Neo-classical Age. Specially, the aristocratic
ladies are ridiculed or criticised bitterly.
viii) Literature is confined to the drawing room of the rich class
upper people.
The literature of this age is the age of the aristocratic people and
their ins and outs. So, literature remains locked at the door of the
upper class sophisticated people of the time.
ix) The use of bombastic or unintelligible language.
The writers of this period use bombastic language in their
writings. So, literature becomes unintelligible to the common
writers.
x) Innovation of novel.
The innovation of novel is a milestone of the Neo-classical Age.
It paves the way of upliftment of English literature.
xi) Transitional poetry.
This period is also known as the age of transitional poetry.
xii) Precursor of Romantic poetry.
With the skilled hand of composing poetry of Thomas Gray,
William Blake and James Thomson, English literature gets the
Romantic Age after this period.
xiii) Mystical Poetry.
Another major characteristic of this age in mystical poetry.
Mystical poetry is based on mystic ideas and beliefs.
xiv) The publication of lexicography.
Lexicography publication is a rare achievement of this age. Dr.
Samuel Johnson is the successful lexicography writer.
xv) The publication of the first English daily.
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The publication of the first English daily is a milestone and
unique achievement of the English. The first English daily is
The Daily Current and it is published in 1702.
xvi) The publication of the periodicals.
Different types of periodicals are published in this age. Daniel
Defoes The Review is the first successful periodical in
English literature and it is the newspaper of the Whig party. Tory
partys newspaper is The Examiner. Newspaper of Joseph
Addison is The Spectator and Richard Steele is The Tatler.
Rambler is the newspaper of Dr. Samuel Johnson.
xvii) The innovation of letter writing.
A significant attainment of the age is the innovation of letter
writing.
xviii) Picture of London Society.
The writers of this age have depicted a blameless and exact
picture of London Society.
xix) Composition of elegy.
Elegy is a type of lyric poem mourning for the death of an
individual or lamenting over a tragic event.
xx) Allegorical writings.
An allegory is a story of double meaning. Allegorical type of
writings are one of the major trends of this age.
Major Writers and Writings:
Novel
1. Daniel Defoe
i) 1st novelist in the History of English Literature.
ii) Adventurous type of novel.
iv) Life of the Pirates.
v) Communication system of Neo-classical Period.
Writings :
i) Robinson Crusoe.
2. Henry Fielding
i) Composition of picaresque novel.
ii) Heroes represented as endeavoring rascal.
iii) Picture of the rural and urban areas.
iv) The element of Romance.
v) The element of mystery.
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vi) Melodramatic element. i) Johnsons Dictionary.
Writing : ii) The life of the Poets.
i) Tom Jones. iii) The Preface to Shakespeare.
ii) Joseph Andrews. iv) London criticism.
3. Richardson 7. Edmund Burke
i) First successful novelist. i) Political Leader
ii) Love and Marriage. ii) Political Discourse
iii) Virtues of women. iii) Literally Value
iv) Conflict between male and female. iv) Comprehensive knowledge about the topic.
v) Struggle of the women. v) Full of Arguments.
Writings :
Writings : i) Speech on conciliation with America.
i) Pamela. ii) East India Bill.
4. Goldsmith iii) American Taxation.
i) Autobiographical novelist. iv) Reflection of the French Revolution.
ii) Moral purpose. 8. James Boswell
iii) Fluctuation of emotion. i) Biography writer.
iv) Evil male characters. ii) Follower of Dr. Samuel Johnson.
v) Conflict between male and female. iii) Suggestiveness.
Writings : iv) Philosophical statement.
i) Vicar of Wakefield. Writings :
5. Jonathan Swift i) The life of Dr. Johnson.
i) A great allegorical writer. 9. Joseph Addison
ii) Destructive satirist. i) Precursor of novel.
iii) Political criticism. ii) Humourous Style.
iv) Adventurous type of writing. iii) Art of characterization.
v) Science fiction. iv) Observation of the contemporary society.
vi) Criticism of Royal class. v) Extra-ordinary prose style.
Writings : vi) Comparison and contrast between the characters.
i) The Tale of Tub. vii) Publisher of a periodical.
ii) Gullivers Travels. Writings :
iii) The Battle of Books. i) Roger at Home.
6. Dr. Samuel Johnson ii) Roger at Household.
i) A great educationist. iii) Roger at Church.
ii) A versatile genius. iv) Female Orator.
iii) Composer of Lexicography. v) Rural Manners.
iv) Extra-ordinary prose style.
v) Comprehensive idea about Shakespeare. Poetry
Writings : 1. Alexander Pope
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i) A great satirist. iv) The Bard.
ii) Innovation of Mock Heroic Epic. 4. William Blake
iii) Affinity with the classical writers. i) Precursor of romantic poetry.
iv) Following the classical rules and regulations. ii) Use of Symbols.
v) Complicated language. iii) Christian elements/Theme of Christianity.
vi) Subject matter taken from royal or aristocratic society. iv) Division of poetry into two categories.
vii) Picture of the 18th Century Society. v) Criticism of the society.
viii) Criticism of the Aristocratic Women. vi) Treatment of nature
ix) Lack of Imaginative power. vii) Simplicity of language.
x) Wit and humour. Writings :
Writings : i) Lamb.
i) The Rape of the Lock (masterpiece) ii) Nurses Song.
ii) Dunciad. iii) Divine Image.
iii) Essays on criticism. iv) The Holy Thursday.
Precursor of Romantic Poetry v) Chimney Sweeper.
2. James Thomson
i) Precursor of romantic poetry. Experience :
ii) Treatment of nature i) Tiger.
iii) Pastoral elements. ii) London.
iv) Description of the seasons. iii) Chimney Sweeper.
v) Comprehensive Language. iv) Human Abstract.
Writings : v) Poison.
i) Summer. vi) Nurses song.
ii) Autumn. 5. Oliver Goldsmith
iii) Winter i) Theme of loneliness.
iv) Spring. ii) Close observation of nature.
3. Thomas Gray iii) Rural settings/Pastoral settings.
i) Precursor of romantic poetry. iv) Use of figures of speech.
ii) Elegy writer. v) Versatile genius.
iii) Philosophical ideas. Writings :
iv) Mystical elements. i) The Traveller.
v) Concept of death. ii) The Deserted Village.
vi) Treatment of nature.
vii) Pastoral settings.
viii) Pessimistic view.
Writings :
i) Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.
ii) Ode on the Death of the Favourite cat.
iii) Progress of Poesy.
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Brief Questions:
1. What is Neo-classical Age?
Ans. In English literary history the age covering from 1660 to
1789 is called neo classical age.
2. Why is Neo- Classical age the age of prose and reason.?
Ans. Neo- classical Age is called the age of prose and reason as
it is dominated with prose by most of the prominent prose
writers of English Literature.
3. Who is Jonathan Swift?
Ans. Jonathan Swift is one of the greatest satirists in the history
of English belonging to Neo- classical Age.
4. Write two major works of Swift?
Ans. "The tale of tub" and "Gulliver's Travels"
5. What is the master piece of Jonathan swift?
Ans. "Gulliver's Travels".
6. What is the most famous works of Defoe?
Ans. Robinson Crusoe.
7. what are the major works of Defoe?
Ans. "Robinson Crusoe", "Captain Singleton", "Captain George
Carton" etc.
8. Why is Robinson Crusoe so famous?
Ans. It is as famous as some critics think it as the first of novel
writing.
9. What are the salient features of Neo- classical age?
Ans. Rise of prose, rise of novel, satirical writing, Trend to
classical writing; writing of magazines etc are the major trends
of Neo- Classical age.
10. Who is called the "Literary dictator?
Ans. Dr. Samuel Johnson.
11. What is a commendable writing of Johnson?
Ans. Preface to Shakespeare
12. Who wrote "life of Dr. Johnson"?
Ans. James Boswell.
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13. Who is Edmund Burke?
Ans. Edmund Burke is considered to be a great orator.
14. Who wrote Reflections on the French Revolution?
Ans. Edmund Burke.
15. What are the major works of Burke?
Ans. "Speeches on American Taxation and Conciliation with
America" "Reflections on the French Revolution."
16. Who are major writers of Neo- classical Age?
Ans. Jonathan Swift, Daniel Defoe, Dr. Samuel Johnson Addison
and Edmund Burke.
17. What is "Spectator'?
Ans. A periodical writing.
18. Who wrote "spectator"?
Ans. It was written by Joseph Addison.
19. What is "The Tattler".
Ans. It is a periodical written by Richard Steele.
20. What is supposed to be true form of novel in English
Literature?
Ans. Pamela.
21. When was "Pamela' Published?
Ans. Pamela was published in 1740.
22. Who is Henry Fielding?
Ans. Henry Fielding is the greatest prose writer in English.
23. What are the major writings of Henry Fielding?
Ans. "Tom Jones" and "Joseph Andrews"
24. When was Robinson Crusoe" was published?
Ans. "Robinson Crusoe" was published in 1720.
25. Who wrote "Pilgrim's Progress"?
Ans. John Bunyan
25. What does "Tom Jones" deal with?
Ans. It deals with story of an attempted seduction of a woman by
a man.
26. Who wrote "Roderick" and "Peregrine Pickle"?
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Ans. Tobias Smollett.
27. Who wrote 'The sentimental Journey"?
Ans. Laurence Sterne.
28. Who wrote "History of Rasselas"?
Ans. Dr. Johnson.
29. Who is Oliver Goldsmith?
Ans. Prominent novelist of Neo- classical Age.
30. What is "The Vicar of Wakefield"?
Ans. It is a novel written by Oliver Goldsmith.
31. Do you find any female novelist in Neo- classical Age?
Ans. Yes, Fanny Burney. "Evelina" and "Cecilia" are her two
famous novels.
32. Who wrote 'The Battle of the Books?
Ans. Jonathan Swift.
33. What does "The tale of a Tub" Swift deal with?
Ans. It is a satire on the pride and emptiness among modern
scholars.
34. What kind of writing of "London" and 'The vanity of
Human"?
Ans. These two are minor writings of Dr. Johnson and these two
are poems.
35. What is the first major worker of Alexander pope?
Ans. 'Essays on Criticism."
36. When was 'Essay on criticism" Published?
Ans. It was published in 1711.
37. What is the master piece of Alexander pope?
Ans. "The Rape of the Lock."
38. From which writing was the title of "The Rape of the Lock"
taken from?
Ans. "The Rape of Lucrece"
39. 'Who wrote The Rape of Lucrece"?
Ans. William Shakespeare.
4o. What does "The Rape of the Lock" deal with?
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Ans. It deals with the life style of aristocratic lady in Pope's age.
42. What kind of writing "The Pope of the Lock" is?
Ans. It is a mock epic.
42. Who wrote The lives of the poets?"
Ans. Dr. Johnson.
43. Who wrote "A Treatise of Human Nature"?
Ans. David Hume.
44. Who is Adam Smith?
Ans. A precursor of writing on Economics belonging to
eighteenth century
45. Who wrote "The wealth of Nations" and "Political Justice"?
Ans. Adam Smith.
46. What does the term Neo- classicism imply?
Ans. Neo- classicism implies a return to the classical spirit -the
spirit of ancient Greece an d pone.
47. In which writing does "The proper study of mankind is
Man" occur in"?
Ans. "In Essays on Man"
48. Why is Eighteenth century called "The age of Reason"?
Ans. Because it lays utmost emphasis on the intellectual aspects
of man.
49. What did the literary works of Neo- classical age deal with?
Ans. The literary works of Neo- classical age dealt with social,
political and moral life.
50. Who wrote "Epigrams"?
Ans. Alexander Pope
51. Who wrote "A Modest Proposal"?
Ans. Jonathan Swift.
51. When and where was Daniel Defoe born?
Ans. Daniel Defoe was born in 1660 in London.
52. What does "Robinson Crusoe" describe?
Ans. It describes the tale of a marooned individual who builds
his own empire in a deserted island through relent less efforts.
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53. In which writing of Defoe do you find the idea of "Original
sin"?
Ans. The idea of original sin is referred to "Robinson Crusoe".
54. Who are the major characters of "Gulliver's Travels"?
Ans. Samuel Gulliver, Emperor of Lilliput, Brobdingnagian
king, Lord Munodi, Houyhnhnms and Yahoos are the major characters.
55. Who are the Yahoos in "Gulliver's travels"?
Ans. The Yahoos are a barbaric race of filthy and repulsive
human beings who live in the country of Houyhnhnms
56. On which does swift satirize in "Gulliver's Travels"?
Ans. Swift satirizes on English politics religion, doctors, lawyers
and scientists.
57. How many voyages does swift deal with in "Gulliver's
Travels"?
Ans. Swift deals with four voyages in Gulliver's Travels.
58. What is satire according to Swift?
Ans. "Satire is a sort of glass wherein beholders generally
discover everybody's face, but their own"
59. What kind of writing "Speech on Conciliation" is?
Ans. It is a hallmark in the Tradition of western oratory.
60. Who wrote "The campaign"?
Ans. Addison.
61. What is satire?
Ans. Satire is literary attack on the follies and vices of an
individual or a society to correct them through laughter and
ridicule.
62. What is allegory?
Ans. An allegory is a story or description in prose or verse with
double meaning.
63. Who wrote "Impeachment of warren Hastings"?
Ans. Edmund Burke.
64. When was "Speeches on American Taxation" Published?
Ans. 1774
65. When was 'Speech on conciliation with America written?
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Ans. 1775.
66. Who wrote "Terror is not always the effect of force, and an
armament is not a victory
Ans. Edmund Burke.
67. Who wrote "It was not English but the English constitution
that conquered Ireland."
Ans. Edmund Burke.
77. Who wrote "The Epistle to Arbuthnot" and "The Dunciad"?
Ans. Alexander Pope.
78. Who is Lord Bolingbroke?
Ans. A chief political figure and writer of Neo classical age.
79. Who wrote "A Letter on the spirit of Patriotism" and "The
Idea of a Patriot kind"?
Ans. Lord Bolingbroke.
80. Who wrote "The Principles of Human Knowledge?
Ans. George Barkley
81. Who wrote "Dramatic Poesies"?
Ans. John Dryden
82. What is "The parliamentary Intelligencer"?
Ans. It is a periodical and it was published in 1659.
83. what is "The Public Intelligence?
Ans. It was the only official press during the reign of Cromwell.
83. What kind of writing Gullivers Travel" is?
Ans. It is a satirical writing with allegorical significance.
84. How does protagonist represent him in "Robinson Crusoe"?
Ans. In "Robinson Crusoe" the protagonist represents himself as
a prototype colonizer.
85. What is Cato and who wrote it?
Ans. It is tragedy and it was written by Joseph Addison.
86. Who wrote poetry in seasons?
Ans. James Thomson.
87. Who are the Transitional poets?
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Ans. Thomson Gray William Collins, Burns, Edward Young and 100. What kind o writing "The Rope of the lock" is?
William Blake. Ans. It is a mock epic.
88. Who wrote Elegy written in the Country Churchyard."?
Ans. Thomas Gray.
89. Who is George Crabbe and what is his poem?
Ans. A precursor of romanticism and his famous poems are The
village" and The Parish Register"
90. What are the Major novels of Henry Fielding?
Ans. The major novels o Henry fielding are "Tom Jones",
"Joseph Andrews" and Amelia".
91. What is 'Clarissa Harlowe'?
Ans. It is novel and it was written by Richardson.
92. What is 'Coverley Papers"?
Ans. The Coverley Papers is a collection of essays selected
from an 18th century daily called "The Spectator.
93. What is 'The plebian' and who wrote it?
Ans. The plebian is a political article and it was written by
Richard Steele.
94. What wrote 'Mirror' and 'Lounger'?
Ans. "Mirror" and "Lounger" are two periodicals and they are
written by Henry Mackenzie.
95. Who is Fanny Burney and what is her writing?
Ans. Fanny Burney is a woman novelist of the 18th century and
she wrote "Evelina' and 'Cecilia'.
96. Who wrote "The fool of Quality"?
Ans. Henry Brooke, a novelist of the 18th century.
97. What is 'Tristram Shandy' and who wrote it?
Ans. Tristram Shandy is novel which was written by
Lawrence Sterne.
98. Who are the major satirists of the 18th century?
Ans. The major satirists of the 18th century are John Dryden and
Alexander Pope.
99. What kind of novel is Joseph Andrews?
Ans. "Joseph Andrews" is a picaresque novel.
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Short Questions:
1. Why Neo-classical age is called the age of a prose and
reason?
Ans: Though poetry constitutes the chief glory of English
literature in every age, there is found an exception to this general
affair in the eighteenth century literature. The chief interest in
this age lies in the various types of prose writings as well as
novels. The eighteenth century is rightly addressed as the age of
prose and reason as both these element are found to Dr. Johnson
scholarly criticism and dictionary, Addison and Steeles elegant
essays, Defoes adventurous tales, Swifts Satires, Gibbons
history and Burkes oratory and the extra-ordinary novels of
Richardson and Henry Fielding. There was a great change in the
trend of the age as the party spirit and the parliamentary debates,
social studies and political rights became the chief attractions of
the age. Mans intellectual and moral life was specially
emphasized in a very reasonable and argumentative manner. A
rational explanation for human rights and wrongs and the
relation between human beauty and virtue had been tried to be
established. The development was found not only in some
literary works but also in pamphlets, magazine, newspapers,
periodicals, essays, various, fiction, philosophical as well
biography writings. Jonathan Swift, Daniel Defoe, Dr. Samuel
Johnson, James Boswell, Edmund Burke, Edward Gibbon,
Joseph Addison and Richardson are the most prominent literary
figures who are responsible for the development of prose and
reason of this age.
2. Describe in brief about the growth of mock epic in the
eighteenth century.
Ans: Mock epic is one of the kinds of literary work that
comically and satirically imitates the form and style of the epic.
Generally the subject matter belonging to mock epic is trivial but
it is written in lofty manner. It employs the lofty style, the high
and serious tone and the supernatural machinery of epic to treat a
trivial subject and theme ridiculous. In the eighteenth century
literature, Alexander Pope handled it successfully. The poem
The Rape of The Lock is written in grand style but it deals
with a very trivial subject. Here Pope has presented a very trivial
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theme. In it there are invocation to Muses, proposition of the
subjects, battles, supernatural machinery, longer speeches,
Homeric similes and grand style but all of the devices are
employed for a simple family dispute in lieu of national struggle.
In this great work, Pope presents vivid pictures of the scenes and
situations of an epic on a diminutive scale in ludicrous manner.
Last of all, it is noted that Pope is successful enough to exhibit
the idea of Mock epic in the eighteenth century literature.
3. Make a short account on the emergence of Romanticism in
the eighteenth century literature.
Ans: It goes without saying that the eighteenth century is
addressed as the prose and reason. It is dominated by some
prominent literary figures of English literature such as Dr.
Samuel Johnson, Jonathan swift, Daniel Defoe, Addison,
Fielding and Richardson. Poetry in this age is characterized as
satirical and instructive, artificial and social. Their poetry is
confined within the artistic drawing room. Romantic elements
like love for nature, romantic passion, glory for the past,
revolutionary zeal were isolated from their poetry. But a strong
reaction against this artificial classical is found in the remarkable
works of some subsequent poets. These poets brought about
romantic attitude to poetry and these poets are rightly addressed
as the precursor of romantic poets as well as the transitional
poets in the history of England belonging to the late eighteenth
century literature. Thomson, Young, Crabbe, Goldsmith, Collins,
Thomas Gray and William Blake are rightly addressed as the
precursors of Romanticism in English as they truly worked to
revive Romanticism in English literature. These poets wrote
poems based on nature and related nature to man. Many
outstanding romantic elements are manifested in their poetic
verses.
4. Make a short description on Edmund Burkes contribution
to the 18th century literature.
Ans: Edmund Burke, one of the greatest orators of England and
one of the great prose writers in the eighteenth century literature,
was born at Dublin on January 12, 1729. Burke is
comprehensively regarded as one of the most prominent orators
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in English and he is addressed second to none in the vast arena
of English oratory. He is rightly called the golden mouthed
orator and the Demosthenes of English. His vast greatness lies
in English political speeches as he himself also used to deliver
striking political speeches. His great works are the masterpieces
of forensic art. On American Taxation, On Conciliation with
America and On the Impeachment of Warren Hastings are said
to be his most popular and remarkable works. His Speech on
Conciliation with America has been acknowledged by historians
and critics as a hallmark in the tradition of western oratory. The
critics and the readers applaud this grand speech because it is
replete with the wealth of imagery, political insight and
humanity. It is universally recognized all over the world because
of its aesthetic qualities. In fact, the speech is a formal piece of
oration with classical rhetoric which was delivered in the House
of Commons. With a gracious heart he advances with his
speeches with a view to seeking peace. In the speech Burke
generates a fierce and imperishable campaign against the policy
of trying to coerce the American colonies. With a compromising
attitude, he wanted to hold his policy of compromise. In fine, in
his speech he wants to establish peace. His contributions to
English prose are also proved with his other writings.
5. Describe Oliver Goldsmiths literary achievement to the 18 th
century literature.
Ans: Oliver Goldsmith is regarded as one of most outstanding
literary figures in the history of English literature belonging to
the second half of the eighteenth century literature. He was born
at Pallas in Ireland. Trying hard to establish a sustainable career,
he turned to literature. His great writings drew the attention of
famous persons like Dr. Johnson. Though the 18 th century is the
age of prose, Goldsmiths endeavor was to rescue the decadent
British drama of the eighteenth century. Goldsmith produced two
sparking comedies namely The Good Natured Man and She
Stoops to Conquer and these two comedies are published in
1768 and 1773. He made a strong reaction in these dramas to the
sentimental drama that dominated the literary scene of the
eighteenth century. Goldsmiths first poem is The Traveller
which was published in 1765 dealing with his wanderings
through Europe. His The Deserted village is also an
56
outstanding poem in which he deals with the memories of his
youth. He has also showed his greatness in Elegy on the Death
of a Mad Dog. He has prose works of astonishing range and
variety. The Citizen of the World which was published in
1759, is a prosaic writing dealing with the simplicity and
shrewdness of English society. The Vicar of Wakefield is
called a splendid and masterpiece of Goldsmith, an important
work of fiction. In this fiction, he has delineated Vicars
character with pathos and humor. The History of England and
An History of Earth and Animated Nature are also his
remarkable works.
6. Write a brief on drama in the eighteenth century
Ans: The eighteenth century in the history of English literature is
largely characterized by the vast development of prose and novel
but there are some brilliant playwrights in this age. Though Dr.
Johnson, Richard Steele, Joseph Addison, James Thomson and
Young wrote some plays but their contribution to the 18 th century
drama is not worth mentioning.
George Lillo, Colley Cibber, Richard Cumberland wrote some
dramas but they are mere names to be mentioned and their works
did not produce permanent impression.
In such a critical situation of drama two prominent dramatists of
this age name Oliver Goldsmith and Sheridan came out to rescue
the depths of drama of the eighteenth century literature. The
Rivals, The School for Scandal and The critic are the three
prominent dramas of Sheridan. Sheridan came forward to protest
against the prevailing sentimentalism with a greater distinction.
He declared amusement as the basic purpose of comedy. His
plays are a tone of curious mixture of satire and romance which
certain Shakespearian comical tone. Oliver Goldsmith is also a
formidable name in the arena of drama in the eighteenth century
literature. His remarkable plays are The Good Natured Man
and The Stoops to Conquer Colley Cibber is a minor figure in
the arena of drama in the eighteenth century. The Careless
Husband, The Funeral, The Lying Lover, The Tender
Husband and The Conscious Lovers are the most prominent
plays of Cibber. John Kelly wrote The Married Philosopher a
remarkable work in which we find a French sentimental work for
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the first time. The depths of sentimentalism were manifested in
the works of Hugh Kelly and Richard Cumberland. False
Delicacy, The School for Wives and A Word to the Wise
are the most noteworthy dramas of Hugh Kelly. Fashion able
Lover, The Jew and The Wheel of fortune are the
remarkable plays of Cumberland. Addisons Cato is a great
work of Pseudo classical tragedy. Nicholas Rowes Fair
Penitent. George Lillos The London Merchant are also the
some distinguished dramas in the eighteenth century.
55 56
Short Notes:
1. Picaresque Novel
The Picaresque novel is originated in the sixteenth century in Spain,
as a reaction against the romance of chivalry. The word Picaresque
has been derived from the Spanish word Picaro which means a
rogue or Knave. Generally the Picaresque novel is a type of
romance that deals with rogues or villains. It presents a series of
adventures and misadventures, mostly on the highways, sometimes
on the sea. It does not have well-formed plot construction. It a tale of
the adventures or misadventures of a picaro of range who wanders
from one place to another, from one setting to another from one
country to another from countryside to the town, from town to the
countryside. While wandering from one place to another a picaro has
to experience different incidents, situations and problems. Tom
Jones and Joseph Andrews are two remarkable novels as they are
greatly characterized by picaresque novel. A picaresque novel is
marked by certain features: a. It has a picaro or semi-criminal as its
central protagonist b. It does not possess a well organized plot. c.
Characters from all classes are presented in a picaresque novel. d. A
picture of contemporary society is presented realistically and
completely e. There may be satire in a picaresque novel and the
writer may satirize the social incident in a satirical way.
2. Thomas Gray
Thomas Gray is regarded as one of the most prominent poets in the
arena of English literature particularly in the late of the 18 th century
literature. Matthew Arnold speaks of him as a born-poet who fell
upon an age of prose. Though his poetic output is meager, he has
showed his extra-ordinary literary craftsmanship in writing some
outstanding poems. Elegy Written in a Country Church yard is
regarded as one of the most striking examples in the arena of elegy in
English literature. It is not easy to describe the greatness of this great
poem. From its publication it received massive praise from the side
of the readers as well as the critics.
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard has often been praised for
its technical perfection and universal appeal. The poem was written
more than two hundred years ago but it is still tranquility to every
human mind. Some critics also appreciated it for its universal appeal.
Dr. Johnson rightly said, The Church yard abounds with images,
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which find a mirror in every mind with sentiments to which every
bosom returns an echo. In this outstanding elegy, Gray has built up
a setting with the external landscape, which is similar to the internal
mood of the persona. He has done this in order to create an
atmosphere harmonious to the mood of mourning. In a major part of
this elegy, the poet has contrasted the false vanity of the wealthy and
powerful people with the simplicity of the ordinary people. Grays
deep contemplation on the death of the ordinary country people is
humble and sympathetic and is based on universal facts. To the
contrary, his meditation on the vanity of human pretensions tends to
be a social criticism on the artificiality of the rich and proud people.
It is found that Gray is near to the classical tradition. His expressions
of serious feelings, somber tone, grand style, formal diction give the
poem a great depth.
3. Periodical Press
In order to expedite the social, economic and political activities of a
community, journalism is regarded as a driving force. The rise and
development of journalism is one of the most important
characteristic in the 18th century literature. Though it has attained
massive popularity in the modern era, it was accelerated in the
eighteenth century literature by some reputed literary figures. The
Gazette is the first periodical in Europe which appeared in 1536.
Journalism is called a distinct type of literature which took its quick
race in England in the 18 th century. The genesis of English
periodicals might be traced during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The
first periodical appeared in 1622 and it was composed by Thomas
Archer and Nicholas Bourne. It was a weekly periodical allowing
publishing the news of wars in The Corantos the first English
newspaper. The Mercurius Pragmaticus, Mercurius Politics,
The Scouts, The Posts are some mentionable periodicals which
were greatly engaged in the defense of the rival parties. The
Review and The Examiner are two most distinguished periodicals
of Daniel Defoe which were mostly engaged with the bitter rivalries
of the Tories and the Whigs of England. The Tattler and The
Spectator composed by Steele and Addison are considered to be
immortal periodicals and land marks in the arena of English
journalism. Dr. Johnson is another formidable name in the arena of
56
eighteenth century literature also showed his greatness in the
periodical press. The Rambler and The Idler are also two
important periodical writings of Dr. Johnson. The Plebian is a
political periodical composed by Steele. Henry Mackenzies
Mirror and Lounger are also two great periodicals of the age.
4. Henry Fielding
It is uncompromisingly declared that the 18 th century is the age of
prose and novel. The development of novel is the conspicuous
feature of the 18th century literature. Henry Fielding is rightly
deemed as the greatest novelist of the 18 th century literature who
showed soaring literary craftsmanship in writings novels. Tom
Jones is regarded his masterpiece based on reason and realism of
the eighteenth century literature. Here in this great novel, he deals
with the story of a founding that is brought up by a squire. He
quarrels with him and goes out to London in quest of fortune. On his
way to London, he meets many men who are selfish and covetous
guided by the so-called prudence. In London, he leads reckless life
and he is engaged in many amorous adventures. At last, he is sent to
prison for his reckless activities. Though this remarkable novel, he
has presented a complete picture of society. Joseph Andrews is
another outstanding novel of Fielding which was published in 1742.
It should be noted that Fielding wrote it to ridicule Richardsons
Pamela which contains the story of a virtuous woman. The
History of Jonathan Wilde the Great is another great novel of
Fielding in which deals with a thief. His last novel is Amelia in
which he deals with the courage and patience of a devoted wife.
5. The Rape of the Lock
The Rape of the Lock is considered the masterpiece of Alexander
Pope, a prolific literary figure belonging to the Neo-Classical Age. It
is a mock heroic poem which is divided into five cantos. This great
creation of Pope was published in 1714. The epic was written as a
result of a quarrel between two Roman Catholic families, in which
Pope, though not a member of it, had friends. Here Pope satirizes the
trivial matter of snipping a lock of hair from the head of Miss
Arabella Fermor by Lord Peter in a great heroic style. The author
here shows his extra-ordinary literary craftsmanship in presenting the
life style of his age. Belinda, the heroine of the epic wakes at noon
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and then sails up the Thames to Hampton after an elaborate toilet.
Belinda flirts with all the gentlemen aboard and plays the fashionable
game of ombre. The Baron, Ariel, Clarissa, Umbriel, Queen of
Spleen, Thalestrist Sir Plume are the characters of the poem. The
Baron is the young admirer of Belinda who plots to cut off one of her
locks. The Rape of the Lock contains Popes unique talent in
which he brings all the leading characteristics of the epic machinery
to the service a trivial subject. In order to implement trivial subject
and evoke a truly comic spirit he is callous to the grand features of
epic poetry, grand subject matter, grand diction, rich imagery and
romantic characters. It must be acknowledged that Rape of the
Lock is a great satire in the area of English satirical writings. It is a
satire on the ridiculous attitude of people, which includes their
laziness, vanities, false pride, follies, frivolities and material
aspirations. He wanted to indoctrinate the people of his society in a
satirical way. However, this unique work of Pope occupies a
permanent place in the history of English literature. Dr. Johnson
rightly called it, The most attractive of all ludicrous composition
6. Gullivers Travels
Gullivers Travels is universally deemed as one of the most splendid
creations of Jonathan Swift, a great writer and satirist in the annals of
English literature. It is acknowledged an indictment of the human
race for refusing reason and benevolence as the ways of life. It was
an influential book in his time and still it remains an extra-ordinary
and extremely popular book. A careful study of the book shows that
it an adventurous book describing four voyages of Samuel Gulliver.
The book is divided into four parts. The first part of the book deals
with Gullivers shipwreck and his shelter and unknown island
namely Lilliput. In the land of Lilliput Gulliver discovered some
diminutive beings and the island was inhibited by these diminutive
begins. Here in his first voyage he gathered some astonishing
experiences and ideas about the activities and customs and
controversies of these strange creatures. The voyage of Lilliput is
deeply concerned with English politics of his time. He wants to
expose the littleness and absurd pretensions of man. Next Gulliver
makes his second voyage to the land of Brobdingnag. In this strange
he also experienced some absurd and amusing experiences. In his
part Gulliver becomes pigmy and the same moral is driven home.
The Queen of Brobdingnag purchases Gulliver and presents the king
56
as a gift. Gulliver begins his third voyage to Laputa, Balnibarbi,
Glubbdubdrib, Luggnang and Japan. The people he meets are
interested only in abstract of speculations. In his voyage to Laputa
and other islands, he satirizes the philosophers, projectors and
inventors who waste their energies in order to invent fantastic things.
The fourth voyage of Gulliver is to the land Houyhnhnms and
Yahoos. Here in this part he has presented the Houyhnhnms as the
virtuous creatures who has power of reasoning and the land is
governed and dominated by them. At the same time he has presented
the Yahoos as filthy race of man shaped beasts. Swift appears as a
misanthrope and satirizes man kind to correct them. Gullivers
Travels is rightly addressed as a satire in English literature. Through
this world famous allegorical writings, Swift has satirized the
different sides including politics, religion, society and economy of
English society.
7. Satire
According to NTCs Dictionary, satire a term used to describe any
form of literature that blends ironic humor and with criticism for the
purpose of ridiculing folly, vice, stupidity the whole range of human
foibles and frailties in individuals and institutions. Jonathan Swift
rightly defines satire in the preface of his famous book The Battle
of the Book. As he defines Satire is a sort of glass where in
beholders generally discover everybodys face, but their own. It is a
literary assault on the follies and vices of an individual or a race of
men or even a society with a view to rectifying them through
laughter and ridicule. It may be composed in verse or in prose. It can
be classified into two kind-formal satires i. direct and informal, ii.
indirect satire. In formal satire the author or a persona, created by the
author speaks in the first directly to the reader or to a character who
responds and leads the speaker on. In indirect satire, the satirist
creates a story peopled with characters who speak and acts in such a
manner that they are the targets of satire. It may also be divided into
two. Horatian satire and Juvenalian satire. Horatian satire is said to
be gentle amused and mildly corrective. At the same time Juvenalian
satire is harsh, bitter, excruciating harsh and hatred. In the sphere of
satire in the Neo-Classical age, John Dryden is rightly addressed as a
distinguished artist. Drydens Absalom and Achitophel, Popes
The Rape of the Lock, Swifts Gullivers Travels, Huxleys Brave
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New World, Orwells Animal Farm are the greatest satirical in consequential pamphlets. He gave the fictitious stories a
writing in the vast annals of English literature.
8. Neo-Classicism
The literary ideal of Neo-Classicism in English literary history
extends from 1660 to 1789. It is also rightly addressed as the age of
Dryden, Pope and Dr. Johnson because of their influential role in this
remarkable age. It is a dominant literary movement in England which
bought to revive the artistic ideals of classical Greece and Rome.
There are some conspicuous characteristics which dominated the
literary trend of this distinguished period. Emotional restraint,
following of the classical tradition, elegance in diction, order and
logic, technical precision, emphasis on form over content, dealing
with aristocratic way of life, rise of satire are the most prominent
literary features of Neo-Classicism. This trend of literary gave much
emphasis on intellect rather than to the emotion and it prized wit
over imagination. Neo-Classicism got kindled in European literature
first in French in the 17th century. In wider sense, Neo-Classicism
implies return to the classical sprit, the spirit of ancient Greece or
Rome. It is nothing but classicisms revival; classicism is
reinterpreted. John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, Joseph
Addison, Dr. Samuel Johnson, Richard Steele, Edward Gibbon,
Edmund Burke and Daniel Defoe are the most outstanding literary
figures of Neo-Classical age. Absalom and Achitophel of Dryden,
The Rape of the Lock of Alexander Pope, Gullivers Travels of has nothing to be proud of and Swift sets out to show this to the
Jonathan Swift, Robinson Crusoe of Daniel Defoe, Preface to readers. Through the writings of Swift, he also satirizes the political
Shakespeare of Dr. Johnson are the most wonderful literary work of
Neo-Classical age.
9. Daniel Defoe
Daniel Defoe is rightly addressed as one of the most distinguished
prose writers in the area of eighteen century literature. The first
quarter of the century is primarily a period of prose and the masters
of English prose. In the place, he showed interesting journalism and
his first journal The Review which was published in 1704 and
continued till 1713. In addition to the works mentioned in his
chronology, Defoe produced a vast number of works on all sorts of
subjects; in all he published over 500 works. Defoe apart from the
political satirists, was not only an extra-ordinary prolific and
versatile but a liberal, humane and moral writer. He also wrote some
56
semblance of reality. Robinson Crusoe is rightly addressed as the
most magnificent literary triumph of Daniel Defoe which was
published in 1719. Robinson Crusoe is also called a pioneer work
in novel writing in the history of English literature. It deals with the
story of a shipwrecked man who came to an unknown island. He
lived in this island for twenty four years. Here in this story he deals
with versatile themes including colonialism. The Shortest Way with
the Dissenters is also famous work of Defoe which is his religious
work. Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, A Journal of the Plague
Year, Colonel Jack, Roxana are the also his remarkable works of
Defoe Captain Singleton is a story which deals with the adventure
at sea. Singleton the narrator of this story is kidnapped in his infancy
and sent to sea.
10. Jonathan Swift
Jonathan Swift is the greatest prose writer in the annals of English
literature. He is also one of the greatest satirists in English literature.
He carries the rational criticism of contemporary life to the
dangerous point of misanthropy. In this writings he satirizes every
things including society. He particularly satirizes man and his
activities. Swift felt that man could never achieve perfection. To
Swift man is Yahoo, full of cunning, subterfuge, malice, treachery
and spite. He felt mans body is ugly, his thoughts are depraved, he
parties and their corrupt practices the wars that engaged England at
the time. Gullivers Travels is considered to be masterpiece of
Jonathan Swift and is also a great achievement of English literature.
It is an allegorical writings in which Swift satirizes English politics,
philosophers, scientists, projectors and most prominently human
beings. The Battle of Books, A Tale of a Tub, The Drapiers
Letters are his famous literary works. It is very important to note
that his Gullivers Travels is very favorite to the children as well.
11. Robinson Crusoe
Robinson Crusoe is universally addressed as the pioneering work
in novel writing in the history of English literature which is
composed by Daniel Defoe, a prominent literary figure in the
eighteen century literature. It is addressed as the masterpiece of
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Daniel Defoe which deals with a shipwrecked man in an isolated
unknown island. The book deals with an adventures story of a man,
contrary to his fathers advice and exhortation, leaves home to go to
the sea. After several preliminary adventures this man, whose name
is Robinson Crusoe is cast away on an uninhabited island where he is
doomed to lead a solitary existence for many years. After passing
eighteen years lonely in the island, he one day discovers a human
footprint in the island. Then he somehow rescues a victim of the
cannibals and names him Friday. The native proves a faithful servant
to him and he also contains the theme of colonialism. The universal
appeal of this book is that it shows mans struggle to survive amidst
hostile surroundings. Crusoe is industrious, clever, practical and
pious. Coleridge describes Crusoe as the universal representative and
therefore as a man for whom every reader could substitute himself in
his imaginary. Nothing is done, though suffered or desired but what
every man could imagine himself doing, thinking, feelings or
wishing for, said Coleridge. On the island, Crusoe is man against
nature. He triumphs and the triumph is heroic. Defoe claimed that
this novel was an allegory of his own life; but in reality it may be
regarded as an allegory of every mans life. The book is written in
the plain, lucid colloquial prose. Its realism and its prose style entitle
it to the claim of being the first English novel.
12. Pamela
Pamela is a formidable name in the history English prose fiction
which was written in the middle of the eighteen century. The novel
was composed by Samuel Richardson who is rightly addressed at the
first successful novelist of English literature. Pamela or Virtue
Rewarded was published in 1741. The story of this novel is told in
letters written between different characters which contains both
events and mental trends of different characters. The theme of the
novel is the attempt of a young gentleman to seduce and violate the
chastity of a young pretty virtuous maid, Pamela who works under
him. But as Pamela is a virtuous woman. She wants to resist the
attempts at seduction. Pamela in a series of letters informs her
parents of her condition. She gives way to despair and like her
original, tries to drown herself. During her confinement when she
can no longer home communication with her parents, she records her
experiences in a journal. This is received by the squire whose
sensibility is deeply touched by her piety, her courage and her
55 56
virtues. Then he offered her marriage and Pamela gladly accepts it.
Richardsons purpose to this novel is clear to all as he lays almost
emphasis on virtue. He shows that Pamelas sense of honor, strength
of her character and chastity win the heart of the seducer and as a
reward of her virtue the seducer marries him. He has presented a
social picture of his time through this novel. The novel contains a
special importance and it belongs to epistolary method. It is also
evident that this novel also persuaded the prominent novelists of the
eighteen century namely Smollett and Fanny Burney.
13. Mock-epic
Mock-epic is one kind of literary work that comically or satirically
imitates the form and style of the epic. Generally mock-epic treats a
trivial subject in a lofty manner. It employs the lofty manner, the
high and epic to treat a trivial subject and theme ridiculous. The most
well known example of the mock-epic is Samuel Butlers Hudibras.
It is a long poem which satirized the puritans repression of popular
sports and amusements. The Rape of the Lock is rightly addressed
as one of the blazing examples of mock epics in English literature.
The Rape of the Lock is written by Alexander Pope, a distinguished
author in the eighteen century literature. The poem is written in
grand style but it deals with a very trivial subject. The effect is
comical and dignified trivial. Here Pope has exhibited the devices
and method of an epic to present a very trivial theme. In it there are
invocation to Muses, proposition of subject, battles, supernatural
machinery, journey on water, underwater journey, long speeches,
feasts like coffee Homeric similes and grand style but all of the
devices are employed for a simple family dispute in lieu of national
struggle. In it the poet presents vivid pictures of the scenes and
situations of an epic on a diminutive scale in ludicrous manner. But
the theme of an epic is serious and dignified and the ludicrous has no
place in it. All these factors are responsible enough to call it as
mock-epic.
14. Tom Jones
The History of Tom Jones popularly known as Tom Jones is one
of the most wonderful novels in the history of English novel. It was
written by Henry Fielding a prolific novelist in the arena of the
eighteen century literature of English literature. It is rightly
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acknowledge as the masterpiece of Fielding in which the novelist
adopts a colossal canvas and crowds it with figures. It was published
in 1749 and it contains the story of a foundling who undergoes a
series of adventures because of his being open, generous and
passionate nature. The protagonist of the novel is a foundling who is
brought up in the west of England by a squire named All worthy with
whom he has conflict which leads him to travel to London in
searching of fortune. Tom falls in love with a beautiful lady named
Sophia who was the daughter of a squire neighboring of Tom Jones.
It is a story centering round romance and ultimately ends with a
reversal of fortune for the hero. The second part of the story deals
with the adventures of the hero on the road. The third and the left
Part of the novel are set in London where the protagonist
successfully establishes himself. Sophia flees to avoid marriage with
Bifil whom he detests. The versatile incidents of the story are of
replete with suspense and the readers have to keep a vigilant eye to
look into the incident. At last All worthy arrives in London in quest
of his nephew and the heroines father purses. Last of all the mystery
is unmasked which is in favor of the hero. The hero wins his beloved
and the villainy is exposed. Poetic justice maintained here as
punishment goes against the villain Bifil. Tom Jones is a great
achievement to the vast development of English novel. The plot of
the novel is formed with great care though there a good number of
characters and many scenes in it. It is different from Pamela
composed by Richardson. In Pamela we find serious and full of
moral seriousness but in Tom Jones is humorous and replete with
delightful journeys into human follies and flaws. The novel is also a
social picture which deals with English life in the middle of English
literature. It contains an elaborate panorama of the snobbery,
selfishness and prudence of the eighteen century. Diana Neil rightly
says, It is a great book in itself and a microcosm of the next hundred
years in prose fiction.
15. Thomas Gray
Thomas Gray was born in a business family in London in 1716. His
father was not a successful man. So he was mainly brought up by his
mother. Thomas Gray by nature was a melancholic man. Through out
his life he suffered from a White melancholy. His melancholia was
depended at the death of his friend Richard West Gray lived the life
of a timid and reclusive don. Being fascinated the healing power of
56
nature, he found it different to cope with/adjust with the harsh world
of man, turned to the solitude of nature to seek consolation. The
sense of maladjustment of the world developed in him a kind of
inner conflict and instability. Like other poets of his time, Collins,
Smart and Cowper, he was acutely aware of the fact that he was a
misfit, a failure as a social man. Being born and brought up in a
transitional period, Gray was influenced by both the neo-classical
tradition and the on coming new trend of romanticism. A careful
study of Grays vast literary works shows that in Grays poems dual
trend go together. The restriction of classical rules and the tendency
to break away from them co-exist in his poem. He did not practice
the rigidity of heroic couplet used by Pope and Dryden. Among all
his literary pieces Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard is the
most famous. It has been greatly appreciated for its technical
perfection and universal appeal. The main techniques of this poem
are comparison and contrast. It is a remarkable elegy in English
literature in which the poet has lamented over the death of the
common country people. Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton
College (1747), Hymn to Adversity, To spring, Pindaric
ode-The Bard, The Progress of Poesy, Ode on the Death of a
Favourite Cat are his remarkable poems.
16. The Spectator
In the true sense of the term the 18th century is characterized as the
age of the prose based literature. The age witnessed the vast
development of prose writings and in these massive prose writings
the periodical attained much popularity. In this history of English
periodical essays of the 18th century literature The Spectator is
rightly addressed as a triumph. The Spectator was composed
jointly by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele which was published
in 1711. Addison and Steele employed a definite plan to The
Spectator. It contains a series of literary essays and these are deeply
associated the morals and manners of the society they belonged. In
the first essay Mr. Spectator contains a vivid account of the author
himself. The essayist carefully draws the different aspects of the
spectators character. The next essay is on the Spectator club in
which the essayist depicts the members of the club. These people are
the representatives of different important sections of the English
society of the 18th century. The aim of the Spectator is clearly
educative. Addison and Steele were moralists at heart and they
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employed themselves to refine and reform the tastes of contemporary novel and it was published in 1742. Its full title is The History of
society. The aim of the paper is clearly set out in the essays the aim the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of his friend Mr. Abraham
of the spectator. The Scope of Satire. The place of The Spectator Adams. The novel is written in imitation of Cervantes of the
in the annals of English literature is not ephemeral rather it retains a celebrated Spanish author of Don Quixote Charity is one of the
permanent place in English literature. It became the most influential most dominating themes of this remarkable novels. Fielding has
form in the literary in the first half of the eighteenth century. It upheld the Christian ideology through the characterization of Parson,
proved to be an adapted form which could be used by people of Joseph and Fanny. The write seems to be a great preacher of the
diverse talents. important of charity. He shows there is a greater spirit of charity in
17. Dr. Samuel Johnson the poor than in the rich. There are other themes too. The themes of
the male chastity and female in continence are prominent in the
Dr. Samuel Johnson is undoubtedly recognized as one of the most
novel. The novel begins with a picture of ladys sexuality or
remarkable literary figures in the vast arena of English literature
sensuality and a mans firm resistance novel is to expose will,
belonging to the 18th century literature. He is famous in English
hypocrisy, affection, falsehood and pretence. He was realist as Defoe
literature not because of his bulky and valuable works but because of
and his morality is not prudish. Extreme class distinction is presented
his tremendous influence on the literature the literary men of his age.
in a satirical way. It is said that Joseph Andrews is a Satire on
He is rightly addressed as the Literary dictator of his age because
eighteenth century English social life. The novel gives us a satirical
of his dominant role in the eighteen century literature. His writings
picture of an upper class ladies becoming infatuated with her foot
are however considerable and praiseworthy. He wrote the
man but feeling frustrated in her passion for him. In Joseph Andrews
Dictionary of English Language (the first English dictionary)
the society is delineated by an astounding callousness and
which is the pride of English people. It is a grand and dignified work
selfishness. The rich are presented as hard and selfish and the poor
of Johnson as it was derived from a monumental of labour and
seem to uphold the virtue of charity. The novel deserves our massive
scholarship of Johnson. Though he has many works, it is the work on
appreciation as it presents a comprehensive picture of the 18 th
which later Lexicographical studies are based on. Lives of Poets is
century English society.
also another remarkable works of Johnson which established him a
great critic of literature. In this great book he has made criticism on
Cowley, Dryden and Pope. His famous novel is Rasselas which
deals with the story of philosophical argument. He was also showed
his extra-ordinary literary craftsmanship in writings periodicals.
The Rambler and The Tattler are his two remarkable periodicals.
London and Vanity of Human Wishes are his two famous poems.
Preface is Shakespeare is the most influential writing of Dr.
Johnson which is employed to William Shakespeare. The
contribution of Dr. Johnson in the history of English literature is too
vast to be described in words.

18. Joseph Andrews

Joseph Andrews is one of the most remarkable novels in the annals
English novel which is composed by Henry Fielding, a prominent
novelist in English literature. The novel is addressed as a Picaresque
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Broad Questions:
1. Write a brief description on the development of English novels
with reference to the works of prominent novelists of the 18th
century literature.
Ans. Novel is regarded as one of the most popular forms of
literature and it is the latest arrival in the literary history. The
present status or position of English novel is largely indebted to
the 18th century literature as the 18th century writers paved the
way to the development of English novel. It is truly said that
novel was given its true form in the 18th century. Novel is
supposed to have come only in the eighteenth century when
Richardson wrote his first novel Pamela, and it was published in
1740. Richardson, Henry Fielding, Tobias Smollett, Lawrence
Sterne and Oliver Goldsmith are considered to be the most
remarkable novelists him the 18th century literature.
Samuel Richardson is one of the most outstanding novelists in
the 18th century literature. To Richardson belongs credit of
writing the first modern novel, though he became a novelist
accidentally. In course of compiling a volume of familiar letters,
including love letters, he found himself, all on a sudden, elevated
to the status of the first English novelist. At the very beginning
of English novel, novel was written in the form of letters.
Pamela, the first true novel of English Literature written by
Richardson in 1740 deals with the theme of the reward of a
virtuous maid who became to save her from her master's attempt
to seduce and rape her. At last the virtuous maid ultimately wins
her master as her husband by her prudence and ardent virtue.
"Clarissa Harlowe" and "Sir Charles Grandson" are also two
remarkable novels. These two famous novels bear testimony to
his typical characteristics as a novelist, the first one is divided in
eight volumes and the second one is divided in seven volumes.
Both of these famous novels contain the theme of love and lust
and have also didactic lessons as well. His novels are lucid and
straight forward and they contain the conventional ideas of love,
its comic and tragic effects. He has subtle look to a well
constructed plot and his tales and stories are really praiseworthy.
Henry Fielding, a formidable name in the history of English
novel, showed his extra ordinary craftsmanship to the
56
development of novels in the eighteen century. Being inspired by
the towering success of Pamela' of Richardson, he started to
compose novel. Fielding is rightly addressed as the generator of
four world famous novels namely "Joseph Andrews" Tom Jones"
"The History the life Late Mr. Jonathan wild," The Great" and
"Amelia". He belongs to a distinct creative imagination as well
as impulse in this regard he stands sharp contrast to his
contemporaries. "Joseph Andrews" is the finest creation of
Fielding which was published in 1742. The situation of the novel
is reverse to the novel Pamela. The novel opens with the affable,
intrusive narrator outlining the nature of our hero. Joseph
Andrews is the brother of Richardson's Pamela and is of the
same rustic parentage of patchy ancestry. Here in this famous
novel, we find the attempt of a mistress to seduce her chaste and
honest servant Joseph.
Tom Jones is considered to be the greatest creation of Fielding
which deals with the story of an attempted seduction of a woman
by a man. A careful study of the novel shows that Tom Jones, the
hero of the novel is a passionate and licentious youth who
ultimately loves and marries Sophia whom he tried to seduce. In
Amelia we find a virtuous woman's ardent attempt to save her
misdirected husband.
Tobias Smollett is another great novelist in the 18th century who
has also played important role to the development of novel
writing in the century. Roderick Random is the first novel of
Smollett which was published in 1748. It is considered the
masterpiece of Smollett. It this famous novel, he has delineated
the indiscipline and whimsical life of a Scot of a high birth. Then
he wrote two famous novels namely Peregrine Pickle and The
expedition of Humphrey Clinker.
His Peregrine Pickle shows that the hero of the novel is a retired
naval officer. He feels thinks and conducts completely based on
his profession. A careful study of the novel shows the hero is
used to leading voluptuous life. But at last, he settles to a quiet
and or disciplined life after his marriage with a virtuous lady.
Lawrence Sterne is another famous novelist in the 18th century.
His novels are different from other conventional novel. Tristram
Shandy' and 'The Sentimental Journey are the most remarkable
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novels of Sterne. Besides these prominent novelists there are
some minor novelists who have also contributed to the
development of novels. Dr. Johnsons Rasselas And 'Oliver
Gold Smiths The Vicar of Wakefield are two famous novels in
the 18th century literature.
A women novelist had also contribution to novels in this age.
The name of this female novelist is Fanny Burney. She belongs
to the original mind of a novelist and the delicacy of an
aristocratic lady. Her two famous novels are 'Evelina' and
"Cecilia"
To sum up it can be said that the prominent novelists of the 18th
century had a great contribution to the development of novel in
English literature. It goes without saying that the novelists
belonging to the eighteen century paved the way to novels in the
later ages of English literature.
2. Write an essay on Swift's contribution to the English Prose
Literature of the 18th century.
Ans. It will not be overstated to remark that Jonathan swift is
one of the greatest literary figures in the arena of the 18 the
century. His place is not with the highest literary talents in
English, yet he is the gifted literary figure for writing remarkable
satires and allegories. His remarkable writings have earned
immense prestige for him in home and abroad as he has
produced some outstanding satire writings including "Gulliver's
Travel' "The Battle of the Books" and "The Tale of a Tub".
A writer's thoughts, feelings, state and work must be influenced
by the age he lives. To understand the work of any writer,
therefore, one cannot but understand the influences, political,
religious, social, that were at work in the ages he wrote in. It is
known to all that Swift lived in the age known as Augustan age.
He had a subtle look to the different customs, systems and norms
of the age he pertained to .Swift's age covers up three reigns
such as of William and Mary, of Queen Anne, and George. The
age was not known for peace and calmness. There were
disquieting events and turbulent political unrest in the age.
As a great writer Swift did not ignore the political unrest and
therefore he wrote on it in satirical way. The religious
controversy marked the age of Swift. The Church wars divided
56
into three sections: Catholics, Anglicans and Puritans. The social,
political and religious activities are presented in Swift's prose
satire writings.
It goes without saying that Swift lived in the age of satire, and
there fore Swift has directed his writing to satire. He is
remembered greatly for his remarkable satirical writings
including 'Gulliver's Travels," "The Battle of the Books", The
Tale of a Tub," 'Gulliver's Travels' is addressed as one of the
most outstanding writings of Swift in which he has expressed
virulent satire to mankind scientists, doctors, lawyers and
particularly in English politics. The book is divided into four
parts. In the first voyage "A Voyage to Lilliput," Gulliver, the
narrator of the book, is the only person to reach land after a
shipwreck. Here in the land of Lilliputians Gulliver found human
beings who were six inches tall. The Lilliputians have wars, and
conduct clearly laughable with their self importance and vanities.
The second voyage of Gulliver takes him to Brobdingnag. In the
third voyage, Gulliver has taken the scientists to be satirized. In
this part of the book science is shown to be futile. In the fourth
voyage, the whole mankind is satirized.
"The Tale of a Tub" is also one of the remarkable prose satires of
Swift in which he has also satirized on orthodox Christianity.
"The Battle of the Book" is a great achievement of Swift. It is an
outstanding work of Swift in which he has attacked on pedantry.
In this great book it is argued that invention may be weakened by
overmuch learning. Swift's other prose satires include A Short
character of his Excellency Thomas Earl of Wharton which
contains his effective attack on the able and unscrupulous
politician. He has also shown his greatness in journalistic
writing. "The Examiner" is one of the most remarkable journals
which is covered by 'the conduct of the Allies, 'Some remarks on
the Barrier Treaty and 'The public spirit of the wings. He has
also some religious writings in which he has presented religious
norms of his time. His argument against Abolishing
Christianity" is the most remarkable religious writing. He has
written on Irish affairs including 'The Wearers Bank, The story
of the Injured lady and 'Drapier's letters'.
To conclude, it can be said be said that Swift is rightly addressed
as one of the greatest prose writers in the 18th century. His
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contribution to the development of English prose deserves our
proper appreciation and admiration.
3. Make an assessment on the contribution of Pope to the
eighteen century Literature.
Ans. Alexander Pope, the leader o the Augustan age of English,
is one of the most outstanding literary figures belonging to the
eighteen century of English literature. Dr. Samuel Johnson
rightly vindicates Pope when he says- If Pope be not be a poet,
where poetry is to be found?" It goes without saying, Pope is one
of the greatest poets in his own age and his reputation extends
from the 18th century till modern age. He is a versatile genius
whose quality and quantity of his literary achievement have
placed him in a towering position of English Literature.
A subtle study of Pope literary works shows us that his works
cover a very long period and they can be divided into three
distinct stages. In each stage, he has shown his extra ordinary
literary craftsmanship, quality, versatility and originality. The
first stage, though it is addressed as formative stage, Pope has
confidently and successfully produced some of the best writings
of his literary life. In this stage Pope wrote. The Pastorals, An
Essay on Criticism This Pope of the lock' Messiah, 'The
Windsor Forest' The Temple of Fame' "Verse to the Memory of
an Unfortunate lady. Among all writings The Rape of the
Lock" is regarded as the most prolific and outstanding creation
of Pope. Through this wonderful writing, Pope has emerged as a
great satirical writer in his age as well as English literature. "An
Essay on Criticism" is also a great creation of Pope which is
loaded with some literary epigrams. It is a fine collection which
is a storehouse of critical maxims such as "For fools rush in
where angels fear to tread", To err is human, to forgive divine",
"A little learning is a dangerous thing etc.
In the second stage of his literary life, Pope has concentrated on
translations and annotations. In this stage he wrote the
Translation of Homer's world famous epic "The Iliad" and
Odyssey'. He also wrote the annotations of the works of
Shakespeare and of John. Sheffield Besides, 'Miscellanies' and
"Epistles to Addison" are found in this stage of Pope's literary
career. The third stage of Pope literary refers to his satirical
56
works. In this stage pope has produced some word famous
satirical writings namely The Dunciad ,Moral Essays, An
Essay on Man', Satires and Epistles of Horace Imitated,
'Epistles to Arbuthnot'. The Dunciad is called the most
wonderful writing which bears a bitter satire on the literary men
of his age. An Essay on Man' is also a very well known and
most quoted of all Pope's works. The purpose of the essay as
Pope himself says, "Vindicate the ways of God to man". In it
there is no unanswered problem in Pope's Philosophy.
Alexander Pope is rightly addressed as a perfect artist because of
some conspicuous and extra ordinary characteristic of his literary
achievement. The first and foremost characteristic of Pope is the
correctness in style. It is said there is nowhere any error or flaw
in his art of poetic composition as well as in his outstanding
technique and therefore credit goes to him as a perfect artist.
Pope was a conscientious artist and a laborious craftsmanship.
He was not satisfied with any thing that fall short of perfection.
His one great aim was to express his best thoughts, opinions,
views on any matter in the best words. Though some times he
borrowed his thoughts from outside, his expression was his own.
Pope is the unchallenged master of the heroic couplet. Just as
Milton is of blank verse almost all of Pope's poetry is in the
heroic couplet
Pope is not only a perfect artist but also he is called the true
representative of his age, as in most of his writings he shows
himself emphatically as the spokesman of his age. In this regard
we can easily refer to his wonderful creation "The Rape of the
lock' A mock epic which pictures the artificial tone of the age
and the frivolous aspect of humanity. The fashions, frivolities,
the vanities and the follies of the upper society are faithfully
recorded in Pope's poetry particularly in 'The Rape of the lock'.
Pope is acknowledged as great satirist in the history of English
literature. Though in the realm of satire, Dryden stands out as
great artist, it is undeniable that as a satirist Pope even seems
superior to Dryden in his range and aim. Through his versatile
writings he does not direct his satire to any particular man or
woman rather his motive was to satirize the whole race of men or
woman or the whole corrupt vulgar and artificial English society.
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Pope refers many qualities of his age through his writings. He
imitated the ancients and insisted on the rules of poetry
thoroughly in accordance with the spirit of the age. But he lacks
the imaginative power and depth of feeling without which great
poetry is impossible. Hazlitt remarks,
He was not distinguished as a poet of lofty enthusiasm or strong
imagination with passionate sense of the beauties of nature and
deep insight into the workings of insight into the workings to
human heart."
But the modern critics like Tillotson and Eliot have made a fresh
appraisal of Pope's poetry. As Eliot says. Pope makes poetry out
of the most polished drawing room manners.
4. In what sense is the 18th century called an age of prose and
reason?
Ans: The period in English literary history extending from 1702
to 1798 cover the ages of Dryden, Pope and Dr. Johnson is
variously called the classical age or neo- classical age or the
pseudo classical age. In this period, the 18th century is very
remarkable for the rise of prose and fiction. Though poetry
dominates the chief glory of English literary in every age, there
is an exception to this general trend in this age. The chief interest
of this age lies not only in poetry but also in various types of
prose writings, novels, magazines and periodicals.
In the history of English literature the 18th century is remarkable
for English prose. The 18th century is the age of prose of
scholarly, thought provoking argumentative and entertaining
types, The age is comprehensively addressed as the age of "prose
and reason' as both these elements are found to Dr. Johnson's
scholarly criticism and dictionary, Addison and Steele's elegant
essay, Defoe's adventurous tales, Swifts satires, Gibbons history,
Burkes story and ordinary novels of Richardson, and Fielding.
There was a great change in the trend of the age as the party
spirit and the parliamentary debate social studies and political
rights become the chief attractions of the age. Man's intellectual
and moral life was specially emphasized in a very reasonable and
argumentative manner. A rational explanation for human rights
and wrongs and the relationship between human beauty and
virtues tried to be established. Not only prose was manifested in
56
some literary works but in pamphlets, magazines, newspapers,
periodicals essays, various tapes of journals criticism, letters
fiction, oratory, philosophical as well as biography writings.
Jonathan swift is recognized as one of the most prolific writers
of the age particularly in the field of satire writing. It is needless
to speak that in the field of satire writing, Swift is not only
unparallel but also unbeaten as well. His contribution to the
development in English prose is praise worthy as well as
admirable. He is remembered for a number of works including
"The Battle of Books, "The Tale of Tub", and most prominently
Gulliver's Travels. It goes without saying that Gulliver's
Travels is rightly addressed as the master piece of Swift.
Daniel Defoe is also an outstanding literary figure in the history
of English Literature. According to some critics, Defoe is
considered to be the first novelist in English literature because of
his outstanding writing Robinson Crusoe, an adventurous
writing. "Captain Singleton" "Captain George "Carlton",
Colonel Jack" and Roxana are also his remarkable writings.
Dr. Samuel Johnson is acclaimed as a formidable name in the
history of English literature. He was deemed as a versatile genius
as he was a critic, essayist, journalist, editor and poet. He is
rightly addressed as the Literary dictator" of the age. He is also
the first lexicographer in English. Preface to Shakespeare is
called the masterpiece of Johnson.
James Boswell is another unforgettable in the arena of English
literature. He was a close friend of Dr. Johnson. He is famous for
his biographical writing. "Life of Dr. Johnson' is called a
pioneering success and a source of inspiration for English
biographical writing.
Edmund Burke is regarded as a great orator in English literature.
He was in fact a great political figure who had a deep insight in
upcoming event in politics. His great speeches 'Speeches on
American Taxation", "On Conciliation with America', and
"Reflections on the French Revolution" are the treasured
possessions of English literature.
Edward Gibbon was a famous historical writer of this period. His
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" combines well
historical as well political imagination. Joseph Addison and
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Richard Steele are two most prominent literacy figures in this
age. They showed interest in Journalism. "The Spectator" by
Addison and "The Tattler" by Steele are two immortal
periodicals.
Apart from these, some writers inclined to show interest in the
form of letter writing. Burkes Letter to the Sheriffs is a
blazing example of letter writing. Besides above mentioned
writers there were some other writers who also showed interest
in writings. Henry Fielding had also written some brilliant novels
like "Tom Jones" and "Joseph Andrews."
To conclude, it can be said that the age is the age of reason,
understanding and thoughts. Most of the prose writers of the age
are found to be inspired by logic and arguments. So the age is
undoubtedly called the age of prose and reason.
5. The 18th century is called an age of satire". Elucidate with
reference to the prominent satirists of the New- classical age.
Ans. Satire is a literary attack in verse or prose on the follies and
vices of an individual or a society in order to rectify them
through laughter and ridicule. It is universally acknowledged that
the 18th century or the Neo- classical age in the history of
English literatures is rightly addressed as an age of satire as the
age witnessed the rise of a group of outstanding satirists of
English literature. The political unrest particularly the gruesome
quarrel between Whigs and Tories and religious feuds were
congenial enough to the popularization of satire which reached
its ultimate climax in the hands of John Dryden and in the hands
of John Dryden and Alexander Pope.
In the history of satirical writings in English literature John
Dryden is uncompromisingly an unforgettable rams. In the vast
arena of satire John Dryden is rightly acclaimed as a splendid
artist. It can be safely said that Dryden's towering greatness and
popularity mainly lies in his satirical writing. Almost all his
famous and great literary works reach the peak of popularity as
they directly in the contact of his satire. "Absalom and
Achitophel" is rightly addressed the masterpiece of Dryden
which is universally recognized as a powerful political satire. A
keen study of the book shows us that he has taken the Bible story
of David and Absalom. By presenting the story of David and
56
Absalom he has ridiculed the Whig party and revenged upon his
enemies. The poem contained enormous political influences and
contradictions which placed Dryden in the opinion of his
contemporaries. "Mac Flecknoe" is one of most famous satirical
writings of Dryden which contains his personal satire to
Shadwell, a poet belonging to Whig party. An attentive study of
this great writing shows us that there is a severe lampoon by
Dryden to Shadwell. The Hind and the Panther and Religio
Medici are also two great works which contain satire on
religion.
Alexander Pope is another outstanding satirist belonging to the
Neo- classical Age who recalls himself as the spokesman of his
age. The Rape of the lock The Dunciad and Essay on Man
are three magnificent creations of Pope in which he has appeared
as a satirist of the age he belonged to. "The Rape of the Lock' is
addressed as the master piece of Pope which presents a
fashionable, artificial snobbish English society of his time. In
this remarkable writing, Pope attempts to expose the follies and
absurdities of the royal English society in witty manner. Through
the presentation of Belinda as his heroine he exposes the follies
and vices of the aristocratic ladies in a satirical wary. He also
presents the degeneration of the society in a satirical way.
'Epistole to Dr. Arbuthnot' is also another important satirical
writing in which he personally attacks on the poets and critics.
Besides these two great satirists, there are some other minor
satirists who wrote prose satires. In this regard "The True Born
Englishman' is a great prose satire in prosaic but clear and
energetic verse in which author showed how the English nation
was itself made up of the most diverse elements. Jonathan Swift
is regarded as one of the most prominent prose satirists of the
18th century. No other great writer is so charged with the spirit
of satire as Swift. "The Battle of Books A Tale of a Tub",
"Gulliver's Travels", "The Drapier's Letter' are the most
remarkable and farmers satirical writings of swift.
Gulliver's Travels' is considered to be finest of all works of
Jonathan Swift. Here in this famous book he satirizes English
polities, religion, profession and above all the social systems of
England.
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"The spectator and The Rambler written by Joseph Addison
and Steele present satiric pictures o the age. Through these great
writings they have presented different sides, views activities,
norms of the 18th century in a satirical manner. Besides these,
even the novels and the plays of Neo- classical age contain the
strain of satire. Henry Fielding's "Tom Jones' and 'Joseph
Andrews' are also written in satirical way as they present a satiric
portrait of the society. Smollett has also written some of his
famous novels namely 'Roderick Random' 'Humphrey Clinker'
and 'Peregrine Pickley' in satirical manner Dr. Samuel Johnson
satiric writing. His 'London' and 'Vanity of Human Wishes' are
two famous writings which contain satirical tone.
It should also be noted that the satiric strain penetrates through
the plays of the age. In this context we can refer two formidable
names Sheridan and Goldsmith as their plays have directed to
satire to the society of the age. Their plays like 'She Stoops to
Conquer" The Good Natured Man The Rivals and The
School for Scandal contain satiric tone.
From the discussion mentioned above it can be easily said that
the 18th century is the age of satire, as most of the prominent
writers wrote based on satire to the society and the people of the
society. Though their satiric writings they successfully presented
the society before the readers.
6. Make an account of the contribution of Dr. Samuel Johnson
in the eighteenth century English Literature.
Ans. It is needless to speak that Dr. Samuel Johnson is an
unforgettable name in the history of English literature as he has
myriad contribution and influence on the literary works and
literary men of the age he belonged to. He was one of the few
who became a writer at an early age. He was one of the towering
figures in English literature who was basically a moralist,
essayist and lexicographer. His literary contribution to his age is
so massive that his age is frequently termed as the age of
Johnson.
Dr. Johnson is rightly addressed a versatile genius. He is a poet,
critic, novelist essayist, biographer, editor and Journalist. He is a
great significance on all most all kinds of writings. The first
phase of Johnson's literary career may be seen as extending up to
56
1747. It is found that he was started his literary carrier with his
tragedy Irene which war completed by 1737. After completing
it he wanted to stage it by some producers but he was in vain.
Then his satirical poem London came out in 1938. In this
famous poem, he describes the corruptions of the day and praises
the innocence and quietude countryside. Here in this remarkable
poem he has depicted London as the dismal haunt of vice and
corruption.
'The Vanity of Human' is the next outstanding poem of Dr.
Johnson which appeared in 1749. It is more original and mature
in comparison to "London". It also paved the way to his renown.
One of the most outstanding contribution to Johnson's literary
career is his Dictionary' which was published in 1755. He has
taken a strong place in English literature as the first
lexicographer of English. Dr. Johnson has also shown his literary
craftsmanship in writing novel. 'Rasselas' is the only novel
written by Dr. Johnson. It is about on imaginary Abyssinian
Prance. 'Rasselas' is more like a series of reflective, moral essays
than a novel. It deals with Christian stoicism and renunciation. In
this novel the prince describes his Journey.
Johnson's greatness lies in his extra ordinary contribution to
journalistic writings. It is evidently found that his early work
consists of journalistic writing. His journalistic works are quite
voluminous and they comprise a greater part of his literary
career. He wrote articles for the "Gentleman's magazine" very
frequently. One of the most popular writings of Dr. Johnson in
this connection is a feature called 'Debates is the Senate of to
Lilliput the 'Rambler' and the Tattler" are the two remarkable
periodicals written by Dr. Johnson some critics have compared
the 'Rambler' to the 'Spectator' written by Addison. Some of
Johnson's essays appeared in 'Adventure.'
'The lives of the poets' is considered to be one most wonderful
achievement of Dr. Johnson through which he has emerged as a
great critic of literature. It shows his power and faults as a critic
of poetry. It was published in three volumes in the period 1779-
81. 'The lives of the Poets' is loaded with biographical and
critical elements in which he appreciates those critics and writers
who belong to his school of thoughts. At the same time, he has
also admired Pope and Dryden and denounced Milton, Gray and
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Swift. He has criticized that Milton's 'Lycidas' and Paradise Lost
are unfair and biased.
Dr. Samuel Johnson had a great contribution to Shakespeare. His
"Preface to Shakespeare is a magnificent achievement of
Johnson in which he has evaluated the merits and demerits of
Shakespeares writings. Frank Raymond leavis remarks.
"Johnson's criticism, most of it belongs with the living classics it
can be read afresh every year with unaffected pleasure and new
stimulus. It is alive and life giving." 'Preface of Shakespeare' is
also a blazing example in the field of English literary criticism.
In this significant achievement, Johnson shows due veneration to
Shakespeare's long continued popularity. In this preface he has
shown the faults and merits of Shakespeares writing. He has
universalized Shakespeare pointing out that he not only belongs
to any particular country but also belongs to the whole world. He
also tries to find out some faults of Shakespeare of lacking
morality.
In fine, it can be firmly affirmed that Dr. Samuel Johnson is
rightly called as the literary Dictator of his age. His influence
pervades not only on the writers and readers of his own age but
also he is fallowed by the later writers and readers ardently.
7. Describe the silent features of Neo-Classical age in English
literature.
Ans: The period in English literary history extending from 1702
to 1798 covering the ages of Dryden, Pope and Dr. Samuel
Johnson is variously called the classical age or Neo- classical age
or the pseudo -classical age. The Literary span of Neo-
classicism in the history of English literature pertains to the
period after the restoration of royalty in 1660. It is considered to
be one of the most remarkable periods in English literature as it
produced some grand achievements in English literature. Rise of
satire, influence of classical trends, in influence of Greek and
Latin writers, arrival of world famous writers, literature based on
social life, rise of periodicals and Journalistic writing, trend of
navel writings, arrival of great prose writers are some of the most
prominent literary features in the Neo- classical age.
In order to expound the salient characteristics of the 18th century
or Neo- classical age, we should have a subtle look on the
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previous ages. After the tremendous growth of romantic
literature, under the profound influence of Renaissance, there
was a general reaction against the excessive impact of
romanticism. Though in the Elizabethan there was a general
improvement in drama, this travel of drama was imposed by the
introduction of novel. A new literary trend was innovated in
English literary namely Neo- classicism which was mainly
dominated by classical trends by classical trends as well as
France, Spain and Germany of that time.
Rise of satire or satirical writing is one of the prominent literary
trends in the Neo- classical age. In this regard we cannot but
refer to the name of Dryden and Alexander Pope as both of them
were the greatest satirists in the Neo- classical age. In this
respect it can be said that the satirical writers are greatly
influenced by Horace and Juvenal. How ever in the satirical
literature of England Dryden remained unparallel. He has given
the highest place in England on satirical writing. His Absalom
and Achitophel Mac Flecknoe The Medal and Achitophel
Mac Flecknoe are some of the remarkable satirical writings.
Alexander Pope and Jonathan swift are also two prominent
names in the field of satirical writing.
A clear analysis over the Neo-classical Age, it is found that the
writers of this age are strictly stuck to classical trends of
literature. Correctness of literature and grand style are the two
important arts of their writings. It is said that Pope is a correct
poet all through.
There is no defective trend and improper technique in Popes
writings. His predecessor Dryden was also very cautions about
the correctness and grand style of writings.
The literature of this period is a reaction to the boundless
imagination and enthusiasm which were the predominant
features o the Elizabethan period. The prominent writers of this
age were deeply dictated not by imagination but by reason. By
nature they wanted to understand human nature. The images of
Neo-classical poets are different from the images of the
Romantic age. The images of the Neo-classical poets strike the
mind as the projections of the other minds in immediate contact
with social realities.
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One of the most important literary features of the Neo-classical
age is the development of prose. It is comprehensively said that
the 18th century is the age of prose and reason. It is firmly said
that the 18th century has recorded "the Triumph of English
prose". Dr. Samuel Johnson, Edmund Burke, Jonathan Swift,
Daniel Defoe, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele are the great
prose writers in the age. Swifts 'Gulliver's Travels" Defoe's
Robinson Crusoe, Johnson's 'Preface of Shakespeare, Addison's'
'The spectator ', Burke's 'Speeches on American Taxation' are
some of the prominent prose writing of this age.
The Neo- classical age is also famous in English literature for the
outstanding development of English novel. The English novel, in
its true form, is supposed to have come only in the eighteen
century. 'Pamela' is considered to be the first novel of English
Literature. It was written by Richardson and published in 1740.
Henry Fielding has also contributed a lot to the development of
English novel by composing some remarkable novels namely
Joseph Andrews, Tom Jones etc. Tobias Smollett is one of
the prominent novelists in the 18th century who wrote some
famous novels such as "Roderick Random," Peregrine" and "The
Expedition of Humphrey Clinker".
In fine, it can be easily said that the Neo-classical age is blessed
with many new trends.
8. Write a note on the precursors of Romanticism in the
eighteenth century.
Ans: It is needless to speak that the eighteenth century is
comprehensively described as an age of prose and reason. It is
the age of Dr. Johnson's scholarly criticism and dictionary,
Addison and Steele's elegant essays, Defoe's adventurous tales.
Swifts satires, Gibbon's history and Burke's political thoughts.
Poetry in this age is marked as satirical and instructive, artificial
and social without any keen interest in nature. The greatest poet
of the age is Alexander Pope who did not show any interest in
broad humanism or love for nature like the Elizabethan poetry.
The correct use of formalities and correctness are the
characteristics of these poems. Their attitude to poetry banished
nature and sentiment from poetry. The poets of the age seem to
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believe and practice the dictum "The proper stay of mankind is
man.
But a strong reaction against this artificial classical is found in
the remarkable works of some subsequent poets. Those pacts are
rightly addressed as the pre-cursors of romanticism as they
belonged to an intense love for natural beauty, a profound
sympathy for man, a keen interest in golden past and an
emotional subjectivity. These poets are responsible enough to
revive romanticism in English poetry. Thomson, Young, Crabbe,
Goldsmith, Collins Gray and Blake are the important figures in
the eighteen century literature. These poets were talented enough
to claim English poets. These prominent figures of poetry are
also called transitional poets as they stood between classicism
and romanticism and made poetry free from the classical school
of poets. They revived the lyric and elegy. They wrote mainly in
the heroic couplet but many of them revived Miltonic blank
verse and Spenserian stanza.
James Thomson is a formidable name in the arena of transitional
poets who is called a pre-cursor of romanticism in the eighteenth
century poetry. Though he war not a great poet but historically
his position is very important. "The Seasons" and "The Castle of
Indolence' are considered to be the most remarkable poems of
Thomson. His seasons' occupies a permanent position in the
history of English literature. Nature has been depicted as an
extraordinary way in this poem. No doubt Thomson is a poet of
imagination and he belongs to an intense love for nature. The
poem The Seasons deals with the beautiful scenes of different
nature and it is written in blank verse. "The seasons" comprises
four long poems on different seasons such as Winter (1726),
Summer (1727), Spring (1728), Autumn (1730). "The Castle of
Indolence" is written in Spenserian imitation and it refers to the
atmosphere of the lotus land to which many souls may seek
shelter.
Edward Young is another poet in the eighteenth century literature
who has made the spirit of nature immortal through his poems.
"Night Thoughts' is regarded his famous poem which contains a
note of melancholy. In this poem he has expresses his personal
depression amid nightly darkness and silence. Humanism is an
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evident element of romantic poetry clearly felt in Night
Thoughts.
Thomas Gray is a distinguished poet in the late eighteenth
century literature though his contribution to poetry is scanty. He
is found to bring elegiac note to poetry. A philosophic
melancholy is the predominant source of his poetic inspiration.
Like the Romantics, however, his main interest is in nature and
the people living close to nature. Most of his poems including
elegy have settings in nature. The characters of his poems are
also common people who live in the lap of nature. "Elegy
Written in a country church yard" in which his intense love for
ration is considered to be his famous poem and genuine interest
in common people is deeply felt. "Ode on a Distant Prospect of
Eton College Hymn to Adversity" 'To spring" "The Bard' and
"The Progress of Poesy" are also remarkable poems which are
filled with the new conception of the poet as an inspired singer
rather than an accomplished artist. Some times he is addressed as
a classicist because of his using gaudy style and conventional
phraseology, rhetoric of the classical school.
William Cowper is one of the most prominent poets in the arena
of romanticism in the 18th century literature. He wrote a
considerable volume of verse but it is mostly mediocre "John
Gilpin" "Epitaph of a Hare" "On the Receipt of my Mother's
Picture" "The Castaway" are the most remarkable poems of
William Cowper. A note of sadness, tenderness and pathos is
found in his verses. Like Words-worth and Shelley Cowper has
love for his country and he disdains for cities. Cowper was
mainly a didactic poet but his poetry proves him as a poet of
nature.
William Collins and George Crabbe had also a conspicuous role
in the transitional movement. It is noted that these two poets
made a great stride in the transitional movement. "The Village".
"The Parish Register" is two remarkable poems of George
Crabbe. These two poems are very significant as they represent
naturalism in literature. In these poems he has described the
rustic poor with uncompromising realism.
The real trend of romanticism is felt in the poetry of Burns and
Blake. It is said they are the romantics rather than pre cursors of
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romanticism. Blake is not only a poet but also he is a great artist.
Through his poetry he has depicted nature in an exquisite way.
Robert Burns belongs to spontaneous power of genius and
unrivalled gift of song, "The Cotter's Saturday Night", "To a
Mouse" "To a louse" "The two dogs" 'The Holy Fair" "Scotch
Drink" are the most remarkable poems of Burns. Blake's
distinguished literary works are 'Songs of Innocence" and 'Songs
of Experience". Blake in these two sections of works expresses
two contrary sides of human mind.
9. Make a brief note on the contribution of Addison to the
development of eighteenth century literature with special
reference to 'The Spectator".
Ans: Joseph Addison is regarded as the most distinguished
literary figure in the arena of the Eighteenth century literature in
English literature. He is rightly addressed as one of the masters
of English prose and as one of the greatest prose stylists. Indeed
he is also an outstanding essayist in the history of English
literature. His contribution to the history of English literature in
the field of journalism is commendable. Journalism, a distinct
literary style, finds its fullest bloom in the hand of Joseph
Addison. In this arena of Journalism Addison is second to none.
Journalism is considered to be an important type of literary
expression. The name o Joseph Addison is closely connected to
the rise of English Journalism. The development and perfection
of periodical press and essay has been accelerated because of the
strenuous endeavors of some great prose writers in the
eighteenth century and among them the name of Joseph Addison
is permanent and prominent as well. "The Spectator' and 'The
Tattler' are two remarkable periodical essays in the eighteenth
century. The complete development in journalism and
periodicals emerged in the eighteenth century literature with the
publication of these two immortal periodicals. "The Tattler" was
published in 1709 and Addison had a role in composing it . The
Spectator" was in 1709 and 1711 by Joseph Addison.
"The Spectator" composed by Joseph Addison is regarded as the
masterpiece of the author retaining a permanent place in English
literature. It is written in comprehensive and effective form and it
is an enduring and impressive work because of Addisons literary
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scheme. It is a censor of social and moral lapses and a purifier of improve their way of occupying their time. It is noted that
public taste with regard to literature and fashions. Further it Addison has tried his most to bring about a revolution of taste
made a special business to get the attention of the females in the and to create an interest in reading and improving one's
society and to change their modes of living and fashions and knowledge instead of spending hours upon trivialities of fashion,
thinking. The aim of the spectator' is very clear as he wants to dress and coquetry.
teach people through it. Addison and Steele to were moralists at In fine, it can be said that Addison worked with a deliberate aim
heart and they composed it refine and reform the tastes of of reforming the social and literary taste of the people. His
contemporary society. The subjects of this great wonky are contribution to the development of English essays and
closely connected with various aspects of social life and the periodicals is really commendable. There is the aim of bringing
essays centre round London. about an association between wit and morality through his
Addison also wrote some poems and dramas. But his poems and writings on different subjects. The contents of his writings
dramas are not well known and he is not famous as a poet or especially 'The Spectator' may not be of the profoundest order
dramatist now a days. The critics remark that his poetry was intellectually speaking but its value both to the society of the day
never great at any time rather they are graceful scholarly and and to the history of literature cannot be as negligible.
facile. The Campaign is poem of Joseph Addison. It was
written on the battle of Blenheim, "Cato" is a tragedy composed
by Addison which is a famous play. Besides these writings,
Addison also wrote some political tracts and few hymns. "The
lord my pasture shall prepare" and "The spacious firmament on
high are his writings.
Addison's contribution to the vast development of English
journalism is beyond dispute. The Tattler" and the Spectator' bear
testimony to the extra-ordinary genies and literary craftsmanship
of Addison. He is addressed as a master of journalistic writing in
English literature and he knows how to make dull periodicals
charming. The free lance Journalism is largely indebted to its
genesis to the technique of Joseph Addison as the maker and
master of journalistic writings.
A very important part of the function of the spectator was to
criticize and cultivate a taste for literature. We may not agree
with the opinions expressed in these essays but we cannot ignore
their value for having tried to build up an interest in the public to
appreciate their great literature. One of the most important
purposes of "The Spectator" was to change the attitude of the
people towards woman. As a social reformer, Addison wanted to
improve the position of women in a male dominated society.
There are a good number of papers of 'The Spectator" which we
are addressed to the women folk of the society and seek to