N90 -25543 17

111 o1 ,

SPACE ENVIRONMENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON

SPACE AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS

by

Henry B.Garrett
The JetpropulsionLaboratory
California
Institute
of Technology
4800 Oak Grove Dr.
Pasadena,CA,91109

possible. As anotherexample,spacecraft glow and

Automated and roboticsystemswillbe exposed
to)a varietyc& environmentalanomaliesas a result
of adverse interactionswith the space
environment. As an example, the couplingof
electricaltransientsintocontrolsystems,due to
EMI from plasma interactions and solar array
arcing,may cause spurious commands that could
be difficult
todetectand correct in time to prevent
damage duringcritical operations.Spacecraft glow
and space debriscould introducefalse imaging
informationinto opticalsensor systems. The
presentationprovidesa brief overview of the
primary environments (plasma, neutral
atmosphere,magneticand electric fields,
and solid
particulates) thatcause such adverse interactions.
The descriptions, while brief,are intended to
providea basisforthe otherpapers presentedat
thisconferencewhich detailthe key interactions
with automateu ano rot)oucsystems.,. _)Jvenme
growing complexityand sensitivity of automated
and roboticspace _,stems,an understandingof
adverse space environments will be crucialto
mitigatingtheireffects.
LN.TRODUCTION
The spaceenvironmentisfarfrom benignin its
effectson .spacesystems. Automated and robotic
systems, because of their complexity and
autonomy, will in particularbe threatenedby
environmentalanomaliesas a resultof adverse
interactionsin space. The couplingof electrical
transientsintocontrolsystems,due, for example,
to EMI resulting
from plasmainteractionsand solar
array arcing,may cause a variety of spurious
commands that could be difficult to detectand
correctin time to prevent damage during critical
operationswhere human Intervention mightnot be
:pace debris could introduce false imaging
information into optical sensor systems causing
guidance errors. This presentation will provide a
brief overview of the more critical of these adverse
environments (plasmas, neutral atmospheres,
fields, and solid particulates) that could cause such
interactions. Given the growing complexity and
consequent sensitivity of automated and robotic
space systems, an understanding of these
environmentsand theirinteractions willbe crucial
to mitigating theireffects.
Introduction
In this review of the ambient space
environment,8 environments willbe considered
The first, the neutral atmosphere,is primarily
responsiblefor drag.glow, and oxygen erosif)n.
The next2 environments,the Earth'smagneticand
electric
fields,areresponsibleformagnetictorques
ano lncluceo electrlc rlelUs. The mJru
electromagnetic environment to be discussed, the
UV/EUV radiationenvironment, is not only
responsible fortheformationoftheionospherebut
alsoforphotoelectrons and long term changes in
materialproperties.4 plasma environmentswill
be discussed: the InterplanetaryEnvironment,the
Plasmasphere/Ionosphere (responsible for
ram/wake effectsand solar array arcing),the
Plasmasheet(the primary region for spacecraft
charging)and itlow altitude
extensionthe Auroral
Zone, and the Radiation Belts (the source
environmentforradiation dosageeffects). Finally,
the particulateenvironment,both man-made and
meteoroid,willbe brieflydiscussed.The intentis
not to provide a detaileddescription of each of

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 these environments but rather to provide an atmosphere models are those of Jacchia [1972];
overview of their chief characteristics as they Jacchia [1977]; and Hedin [1987]). The thermal
apply to environmental interactions. temperature of the constituents varies
approximately exponentially from "I00 K at I00
Neutral Atmosphere km to 500-1500 K at I000 km depending on solar
cycle, latitude, and local time with excursions to
By far the major environmental factor at 2000 K during high levels of geomagnetic activity.
shuttle altitudes is the earth's ambient neutral As spacecraft between 100 and I000 km are
atmosphere, Whether it be through drag or the moving at about 7.8 km/s, the resulting impact
recently discovered interactions with atomic energy of the particles can reach values on the
oxygen (glow and oxygen erosion), the effect of the forward (orram) surfaceof the spacecraft well in
neutral atmosphere (predominately the neutral elcessof 5 eV (varyingfrom 4.6eV forN to I0.25
atomic oxygen) on spacecraft dynamics and eV for02). These ram energiesare sufficiently
surfacesgreatlyexceeds any of the other effects hightoinducechemicalreactions (including oxygen
that will be considered in this report, The 3 main erosion),Further,the largeratioof the directed
sources of data at these low altitudes have been velocity to thermal velocity means that
neutral mass spectrometers, accelerometers, and pronounced anisolropies existin the fluxto the
orbital drag calculations. Without going into vehicle.Thishas ledto grossasymmetriesin the
detail, most models attempt to fit the observations glow phenomenon--surface glow appearing
with an algorithm that includes the exponential fall primarilyon surfaceswhich face intothe vehicle
offof the neutraldensity, theeffects of increasing velocity vector.
solar activity (particularly in the ultraviolet), the
localtime,and geomagneticactivity. Of these,the 2 types of models are often used to compute
large variations associated with increasing vertical profiles such as presented in Fig.l, These
geomagneticactivity (and subsequent heatingof are the jaccl_ia family of models (i.e., Jacchia
the atmosphere)have eluded adequate modelling [I 972], Jacchia [I 972]) and the MSIS models (Hedin
by this fitting process, Unfortunately, it is clear et al. [1977a]: Hedin et al. [1977b]; Hedin [1987]).
from many sources that these varlatK)ns,
These models are readily available in computer
particularly indensityover the auroralzone,often format and have been well developed over the last
dominatetheneutralenvironmentand thatto date
decade. For comparison, the more recent MSIS
no adequatemethod of including these effectsin 1986 (Hedin [1987]) model and it companion,
the models has been devised (some recentvery Jacchia 1977 (Jacchia [1977]), which are based on
sophisticated theoretical computer models do hold in-situ spacecraft measurements, deviate by about
promise,however) Here.some of the dominate
20% from the older, drag based, Jacchia 1972
featuresofthevertical and horizontal variations in
values on the average--a relatively small value
density will be presented. given the much larger average uncertainties in the
modelsthemselves.These models,as illustrated in
Consider first the vertical variations in the
Figs. 2, 3. and 4 for the northern hemisphere and
neutral atmosphere. In Fig. I (Carrigan and 400 km, can also be used to investigate horizontal
Skrivanek [1974]), the variations of the neutral
variations ]n density_ temperaturel and
atmosphere at orbital altitudes between about I00
composition. As can be seen, there is typically a
km and 1000 km are plotted. This is, for example, two-fold increase in density from midnight to
the same regionin which vehicleglow has been
noon. Further, there is a pronounced shift by 2
observed, For purposesof thisreview and for hours of the peak in the density and temperature
most practical applications, the neutralatmosphere maxima away from local noon. This well know
can be consideredaccordingto Fig.l to consist phenomena results from the rotation of the Earth
mainly of atomicoxygen (note:atomic hydrogen and causes the peak in atmospheric heating to
can dominateoccassionally above 500 km forlow occurafterlocalnoon,
exospherictemperatures) with tracesof molecular
oxygen,molecularnitrogen, and atomichydrogen A typical shortcoming of the older, drag based
over the altitude range of interest. Helium,nitric models is that there are no clear
oxide,atomicnitrogen, and argon are alsopresent density/temperature features associated with the
below the one percent level (for general auroral zone. This is directly due to the averaging
de,,_.'riptions
of the upper atmosphere,seeWhitten techniques used in deriving models of this type
and Poppoff[I971J.Banks and Kockarts[1973]and which smooth out the density waves actually
references therein; widely used neutral observed over the auroral zone--the more recent

362
MSIS 1986 and Jacchia 1977 do demonstrate typically' less that .01 G so that even during a
auroral varfattons (tnese nave oeen mcorporatea severe geomagnetic st(,m, magnetic rluctuatlons
into a simple update of the Jacchia 1972 model by are small compared to the a'_'erage field--a marked
Slowey [1984]). An example of the variations at contrast with the atmospheric and ionospheric
120 km for the Jacchia substorm correction is environ mentsl
presented in Fig. 5. Such correction factors,
however, are only meaningful in an average sense- Besides magnetic torques (which are very
-actual substorm variations can be an order of system dependent), the earth's magnetic field can
magnitude larger instanteously. Even so, the induce an electric field/n a moving body by the
model results are useful in estimating the levels of vxB effect:
atmospheric drag, shuttle "glow", and surface
degradation.
Electromagnetic Environments E - 0.I (vxB) V/m - .3 V/m

Magnetic and Electric Fields at 400 Km

where:
Because of the rapid variations in the Earth's v - spacecraft velocty -
magnetosphere, the outer magnetic field beyond - 7.6 km/s
about 6 Re is not precisely modelled. The B-.3 G
approximate structure in the n(_)n-midnight
meridional plane is illustrated in Fig. 6 along with For the Shuttle, which is roughly 15 m x 24 m x
the major plasma regions that it delineates. In 33m, potentials of I0 V could be induced by this
contrast, the geomagnetic field below 6 Re and at effect. As systems grow to k m or large dimensions,
Space Station/Shuttle altitudes is pretty accurately the induced fields will grow accordingly.
known. It can be crudely modelled, for example, in
terms of a tilted (=II o from geographic north) The induced electric field for a vehicle of 900
magnetic dipole of magnitude 8xi025 G-cm3. inclination are much more complicated than those
Numerous, very accurate models of this field exist for an equatorial orbit and, as would be
such as the International Geomagnetic Reference anticipated, the largest electric fields are seen over
Field for 1985 (IGRF I19861}. As a typical ezample the polar caps. Typical absoJule values for a polar
of these models, consider the somewhat simpler (_'biting vehicle are presented in Fig. 8. In addition
Pt_30 magnetic field model (Knecht [1972]; Cain to these fields at polar latitudes, the ambient
and Langel [1968]) which is the basis of the environment can also produce strong electric fields
International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) and in the auroral regions. These fields can reach
various radiation models. As is characteristic of values of nearly I00 mV/m (Foster [1983])--a
most models of the near-Earth magnetic field, this sizable fraction of the induced field. The fields are
model is a straight forward expansion of fits to the also comparable to the fields necessary to defJect
Earth's magnetic field in terms of spherical charged particles in this environment as the
harmonics. As shown in Fig. 7 for 400 Kin, the particles have ambient energies of typically .I eV
field varies in this model from a minimum of .25 G (ram energies for the ions like oxygen can reach
near the equator to .5 G over the polar caps. 2 several eV, however) and thus must be taken into
peaks exist in the magnitude of the magnetic field account when studying ionospheric fluxes.
foyer the north pole, these are at 270OE and 90dE)
UVIEUV (and X-Rays}
and reflect the true complexity of the magnetic
field in the auroral/polar cap regions (note: if
Solar ultraviolet (UV). extreme ultraviolet
vector components are considered, the maximum
(EUV), and X-ray radiation are not only important
at 270 east longitude is the true "dip" magnetic
to atmospheric and ionospheric dynamics but,
pole). Likewise, there are two minima near the
through material surface changes and
equator--the largest of these, the so-called South
phot(_lectron emission, provide a major
Atlantic Anomaly--will be important in our
environmental factor for spacecraft at all altitudes.
discussions of the radiation belts. Finally. it should
By UV/EUV radiation, we mean here the
be noted that geomagnetic storm variations are
continuum and line spectrum between roughly I0
superimposed on this main field. These are
A and 4000 A. The energy in this spectral range is
represented by a solar flux between 107 and 1010
photonsl(cm 2 s) below I000 A. The flux rises

363
almost exponentially to 1016 photons/(cmZ s) the Earth's atmosphere--the Ionosphere or, above
between I000 A and 10000 A. The flux is not i000 km, the Plasmasphere. This cold plasma
constant but varies Jn time due to a number of environment is typical of the Space Station
factors, one of which is the solar cycle variability. environment. At higher latitudes and radial
This radiation spectrum is also a complex variable distance lies the Plasmasheet and its lower
of the atmospheric attenuation as a spacecraft boundary, the Auroral Zone, This is the hot plasma
moves in and out of the Earth's shadow (see primarily responsible for spacecraft charging. At
Garrett and Forbes [1981J). An average spectrum still higher latitudes lies the Polar Cap
is presented in Fig. 9 (Grard [1973]). environment, Normally this environment closely
resembles the Ionosphere/Plasmasphere
]'he shortest wavelengths, I0 A-100 A or less, environment--only during solar flare or proton
are referred to as X-rays. This spectral range events, when energetic particles can gain direct
contributes to the ionization of the E-region. The access to the polar caps along magnetic field lines
spectral region from about 100 A to 1000 A, called connected to the Solar Wind is this environment
EUV, is related to the photoionization processes of substantially different (here it will be considered a
OZ, NZ, and O in the ionosphere and to subset of the Ionospheric environment). Finally
thermospheric heating. UV radiation is the there is the very energetic Van Allen radiation
continuum and line spectrum between roughly belts that overlay the Plasmasphere and
I000 A and visible. This spectral region Plasmasheet. As these particles show significantly
contributes to photo-dissociatk)n, absorption, and different time variations than the other two
scattering processes in the mesosphere, plasma environments, they will be treated as a
stratosphere, and troposphere, The spectral range separate population here.
from 10-1750 A is absorbed in the lower
thermosphere and effects the production of oxygen Interplanetary Environment
atoms and their vertical distribution above the
mesopause. The Lyman-alpha line at 1216 A plays Sun

a major role in the mesosphere through the

disassociation of 02. H20, and CO2 and the ionization The source of virtually all space disturbances is
of nitric oxide. The spectral region between 1750 the Sun. Through a poorly understood process
to 2400 A leads to the dissociation of Oz and to deep within the Sun, strong magnetic fields,
ozone production in the mesosphere and thousands of times stronger than the Earth's
stratosphere, between z4oo A ana3,1oo A, the magnetic field, are generated and brought to the
solar irradiance is responsible for the solar surface. Material motions on or near the
disassociation of ozone and Other trace gases that solar surface twist and shear these fields,
play a role in the stratospheric budget. ultimately producing instabilities in them. The
fields in turn are responsible f-or the fundamental
Plasma Environments pr(_:esses which affect space operations. Although
the visible surface of the Sun is at a temperature of
Introduction abut 6{)00 K, the magnetic fields serve as a conduit
channelling energy into the outer solar
There are 6 plasma regions with distinct atmosphere. This outer atmosphere, the solar
characteristics tha{ normaily need to be considered corona visible during a solar eclipse or directly
in defining the Earth's magnetosphere or plasma observable from space, is therbv heated to
environment. These are illustrated in Fig. 6. First temperatures over I06 K. At this high temperature
there is the Solar Wind, a flowing magnetized the solar corona "boils" off into space at velocities
plasma emitted by the Sun, that is responsible for of about 500 kmls, carrying some of the imbedded
shaping the Earth's magnetosphere. During severe magnetic field with it. This "solar wind" is highly
geomagnetic activity, it has been observed within time variant with a complex magnetic structure.
geo_nchronous orbit but, typically is observed When the solar wind interacts with the Earth's own
outside of about 10 Re on the dayside, The region magnetic field some three to five days after it left
marking the transition between the Solar Wind and the Sun, space environmental problems are horn.
the Magnetosphere is called the Magnetosheath
lwe will not treat this region here but consider it A far more energetic process, and potentially
as a subset of the Solar Wind for interactions damaging situation, occurs when very strong
purposes). Within the Magnetosphere, at low magnetic fields Jn the solar corona reach a critical
latitudes and altitudes, is the ionized extension of

364
instability. On times scales of seconds the strong material must travel, are less complicated and
fields are unstable enough to "snap" thereby solar flare particles can more easily gain access to
adjusting and relaxing to remove the instability. A the earth's polar caps. Geomagnetic activity at the
considerable amount of energy, up to .1% of the Earth also shows this variation. Although the
total solar enery output or about 1032 ergs, is number of geomagnetic storms goes down during
released during this "flare". A solar flare typically minimums in solar activity, the level of a given
lasts from a rew minutes to a few hours an_ nears storm, even during the lowest levels of solar
the surrounding corona to temperatures in excess activity, can be among the highest ever seen.
of 2xi07 K. Associated with the heating, large
fluxes of atomic particles, electrons, neutrons, and Solar Wind
protons, are accelerated and expelled from the Sun.
There are also substantial radio bursts and X-ray The dominate environment in the Solar System
emissions. The X-ray emissions and radio bursts is that of the solar atmosphere or heliosphere--the
arrive at the Earth in 8 minutes and are the first Solar Wind--and, while it does not directly
evidence at the Earth that a solar flare has occured. contribute to Shuttle and Space Station
About an hour later the highest energy particles, interactions, it the primary energy source of
mostly neutrons, protons, and heavier atomic geomagnetic activity which does. As discussed, the
nuclei, arrive. However it is the flare blast wave or Solar Wind is the low density plasma
solar wind shock, consisting of charged particles (predominately hydrogen ions with some helium)
(electrons), and carrying with it portions of the that is being continuously emitted from the solar
tangled coronal magnetic field, arriving several corona at supersonic speeds. The plasma is
days later at the Earth which represents the most characterized by a residual magnetic field
serious hazard for space systems in Earth orbit (as (typically a few lO's of nT; I nT- I nano Tesla or I
opposed to systems in interplanetary space where gamma) and variable velocity and density. The
single event upsets due to the solar flare protons Solar Wind velocity vector js observed to be
are the most serious problem) as this shock can dominantly in a radial direction in the ecliptic
initiate a major geomagnetic storm and can lead to plane with a magnitude of 200 to 500 km/s. Since
pronounced enhancements of the radiation belts. the Sun rotates with a period of 27 days, the Solar
Wind takes on a spiral structure with the spirals
The Sun has a roughly periodic activity cycle. marked by regions of similar magnetic polarity
Due to pcx)rly understood phenomena deep within (Fig. II). At present, based on in-situ
the solar interior, solar magnetic field penetration measurements from the Pioneer spacecraft, we
and eruption through the solar surface has an know that this environment extends out to and
eleven year cycle. Although the solar wind is beyond the orbits of Pluto and Neptune where at
fairly constant during this cycle, solar flare related some point it terminates in the interstellar
phenomena occur far more frequently during solar medium. Typical plasma values for the Solar Wind
maximum (in terms of sunspot number). The are for distances corresponding to near Mercury 50
current solar cycle, which is particularly severe, is cm-3 and 50 eV, 2 cm-3 and I0 eV for the ions and
expected to peak in early 1990. There is some 50 eV for the electrons at the Earth, and .2 cm-3
evidence that changes in overall solar energy and I eV for the ions and I0 eV at Jupiter. The
output of up to I% are also associated with the Solar Wind represented by these values can be a
solar cycle. These variations are enough to affect significant source of spacecraft charging in the
global terrestrial weather patterns. The solar interplanetary medium. Finally, it should be noted
cyclesthemselves, whilefairlypredictable in time, that it is now accepted that there is a direct
have peak activitylevelswhich may vary by relationship betweent the direction of the Solar
factors offourfrom one maximum to thenext (Fig. Wind magnetic field and geomagnetic activity--
I0). Moreover,historical recordshave indicated when the Solar Wind field points southward, the
relatively longperiods, forexample,duringmost of likelihood of geomagnetic activity is greatly
the 18thcentury,when therewere no discernable enhanced. The reason for this connection is not
solarcycles. Itis,however, the effectsof solar completely understood but is generally believed to
flaresand geomagneticstorms that most impact be due to increased coupling and energy transfer
the Space Station and Shuttle environments. between the Solar Wind magnetic field and the
Althoughsolarflaresarefarlessfrequentduring Earth's geomagnetic field.
solarminimum, flarerelatedeffects can be greater
in the terrestrial magnetosphere because the
interplanetary fields,through which the flare

365
 PfasmaspherelIonosphere Reference Ionosphere (Rawer and Bradley [19871).
This computer model, based primarily on ground
Illustrated in Figs. 12 and 13 (Carrigail and based observations of the total electron content, is
Skrivanek 11974]) are various vertical profiles of the only readily available computer model that
the ionosphere. On the sunlit hemisphere of the gives both the electron and ion composition and
Earth. X-rays, EUV, and UV radiation penetrate the temperature as a function of longitude, latitude,
neutral atmosphere, ionizing and exciting the altitude (65 to I000 kin), solar activity (by means
molecules present. As the radiation penetrates, of the sunspot number, R),and time (year and
there is a balance between increasing neutral local). Althoughthe model islimited(itisconfined
density and increasing absorption that leads to the toR valuesof 100 or lesswhereas R valuesof 200
formation of ionized layers (principally the F layer may occurduringsolarmaximum), itisthe "best"
between 150 and I000 km, the E layer between availablecomprehensivemodel of the ionosphere.
I00 and I50 k m, and the D layer between 60 and AS an example (H"tileOutput,tilemoael prealcts
100 km) that gives rise to the mean structure that,unlikethe neutraltemperature, the electron
called the ionosphere (for general descriptions of temperature increasesby a factorof 2 in going
the upper ionosphere, see Whitten and Poppoff from the equator to the pole (Fig.14). The IRI
[1971], Banks and Kockarts [1973] and references computer simulationof the ionosphereshows a
therein; a widely used ionospheric model is the complex localtime variationwith the peal( in
International Reference Ionosphere--IRI-86; electrondensityon the day side and/or in the
Rawer and Bradley [1987]). These layers are the auroralzones. These variations in turn lead to
combined result of the absorption/increasing- pronounced variationsin the ram/wake structure
density process and complex chemical reactions of the Space Stationthat can cause interactions
within the atmosphere and ionosphere. As with systems operatingin and near the Space
illustrated by the horizontal profiles in Fig. 14 from Stationor a similar
largestructure.
the !RI model, the local time peak in the
ionospheric density parallels that of the neutral A major shortcomingof current ionopheric
density bulge--occurring approximately 2 hours (and atmosphericmodelsal_) istheirinability to
after local noon. The ionospheric composition properlymodel high latitude geomagneticeffects.
likewise follows that of the neutral atmosphere, As willbe discussed, above about 60o geomagnetic
varying roughly from NO+/O2)-dominated in the D latitude,theEarthissubjected to intensefluxesof
region, to O+-dominated in the E region, to H+- high energy electrons and ions from the
dominated in the F region (chemical reactions magnetosphereof theEarthand by directentryof
complicate the picture). Densities reach 106 cm-3 solar flare particles. These particles(typical
at the peak in the F region at about 300 km on the energiesbetween I00 eV and 10 KeV) generate
sunlit side. At night, the peak ion density can fall considerable ionizationthatcan easilyexcede the
belc)w 105 cm-3 and the composition change from UV/EUV levelsat these latitudes below I000 kin.
O+ to H+ above 500 km. Temperatures follow Unlike the fairlyconstantUV/EUV fluxes,these
roughly that of the neutral atmosphere--increasing corpuscular precipitationevents(asthey are some
exponentially from a few lO0 K at 50-60 km to times called)can vary greatly in tlme--often
2000-3000 K above 500 km (i.e., a few tenths of an occurringIn Jess than a I/2 hour. They are
eV). The electron temperature tends to be a factor intimatelyassociated with theauroraldisplaysthat
of two greater than that of the neutrals, with the are seen in the polarregionsand indeed they are
ion temperature falling in between. the cause, The ionization can increaseordersof
magnitude in a similarshorttime periodadding
In order to systematically evaluate the effects great complexity to the polar ionosphere.
of the ionosphere on automated and robotic Currently,onlya few very complex 'Thermosphere
systems, fairly detailed models of the Space Station General Circulation Models" (TGCMs) can
environment are required. At present relatively adequatelymodel these effects.As yet it very
few ionospheric models are available and most of hard to apply the resultsof these models to
these only predict electron densities--the most practical
examplesas theresults aretoocomplexto
readily measureable quantity by ground means readilyinterpret.
and the most important to radio propagation.
Unfortunately, the ionospheric composition is Aurora/Plasma Sheet
particularly critical to adequate modelling of the
Spa_ Station ram/wake. The principle ionospheric
model currently in use is the International

366
 Theflowof the magnetizedSolarWind plasma
past the Earth'smagnetic fieldcreatesa long
(perhaps1000'sofRe in length)magneticcavityin
the antisunwarddirection (seeFig.6). Insidethis
cavity, extending roughly from about
geosynchronousorbitto the magnetopause in the
sunward direction and from geosychronousalong
the lengthof the magnetictailin the ant/sunward
direction,isa thick"sheet"of warm plasma. This
plasma sheet,as itiscalled, isbelievedto extend
earthward from geosynchronousorbit along the
magneticfieldlinesthatmap intotheauroralzones
in the northern and southern hemispheres
(roughly between 550 and 750 depending on
geomagneticactivity). The "temperature"of the
plasma rangesbetween 100'sof eV to 10'sof keV
forthe electrons and 1000'sof eV to 10'sof keV
fortheions(primarily hydrogenionswith variable
concentrations of oxygen ions). The densityis
quitevariable, changingfrom lessthan 1 to 10'sof
particlesper cubiccentimeterIn minutes or less.
The spatiallocationof the inner plasma sheet
boundary Isroughlybetween .5and 8 Re--varying
greatly with geomagnetic activityand spatial
location.The plasma sheet Is marked by rapid
temporal fluctuations called geomagnetic
substorms(or,more precisely, "injection
events")
which compress itinward in the equatorial plane
_md increaseitsdensityand to a lessere,tentits
averageenergy. These eventshave been found to
correlatewith sharp increases in surfacecharging
on geo_nchronous spacecraftand representthe
major sourceof surfacechargingwithinthe Solar
System. The events are believedto manifest
themselves as aurora at lower altitudes--the
plasma sheet serves as a giant electronbeam
sourcewhich paintsthe Earth'supper atmosph,.-re
which then acts likean oscilliscope screen,the
aurorabeing the "trace".It is indeed these high
latitudeaurorawhich pose the greatestthreatto
low altitude,polar orbitingsystems. A typical
spectrumis presentedin Fig.15 (Gussenhovenet
at.[19851).
The most dramatic changes in the Earth's
environmentatSpaceStationaltitudes arebrought
about by geomagneticsubstorms. These changes
are reflectedin visibleauroraldisplaysand in
intenseparticleand fieldvariationsin the auroral
regionsdown to I00 kin.The precipitatingparticle
patterns(chieflyelectronsas theionsare typically
scatteredhigh in the atmosphere by various
processes)can be roughly dividedinto a broad,
diffusebackground and discrete features.Simple
auroralfluxmodels(Hardyetal.[I985]and Fuller-
Rowelland Evans [1987J)ofthediffuse populations
are available.They predicta .l-IkeV particle
367
population flowingdown alongmagneticfieldlines
intothe upper atmosphere. The patterncan be
approximatedby a simpleslnusoidal variation in
geomagneticlocaltime,a gaussianin latitude (the
peak occurring near 65-75),and a roughlylinear
increase in the geomagnetic Kp index.
Superimposed on thisare the so-called discrete
aurora characterized by latitud_onally narrow
features (some believed to be smaller than a kin)
and great longitudional extent (l O's of degrees).
The particles, again primarilyelectrons, have
energiesin the I key to I0 key range. Even
thoughthefluxof theseparticles can reach 10'sof
nA, the ambient flux due to the cold plasma
running Intothe Shuttleapproaches mA. Only
above about 700 km, and then rarely,can the
auroralfluxesexcedetheionospheric density.ItIs,
however,in the wake of the Shuttleor otherlarge
structureas it passes through the aurora that
problemscan occur.In the wake, as the ambient
ionospheric ionscan not penetrateeffectively (the
coldions,primarily0',have thermalvelocities of
only 2-3 km/s whereas the orbitalvelocityat
Space Stationaltitudes Ison the order of 7 kin/s)
and keep the cold electronsout, only the high
energy electronsassociated with the auroracan
penetrate.They thus determine the potential of
electricallyisolatedsurfacesinthewake.
Radiation
Introduction
The highenergyradiation environmentwillbe
assumed here to consist of electrons with energies
greaterthan I00 l_eV and protonswith energies
greaterthan I MeV but withenergiesbelow I BeV.
Above about 500 MeV energy,the particles are
typicallyconsideredsolarflareparticles or Cosmic
Rays--thesewillbe consideredseparately.Heavy
ionsassociated with solarflares willalsobe briefly
mentioned. It shouldalsobe noted that thereis
increasing evidencethat heavy ions,particularly
O',arecommon ifnot dominantcomponents of the
Earth'sradiation belts,but the measurements are
stillbeing evaluated. Currently,this radiation
regime isdefinedin terms of two setsof models--
the NationalSpace ScienceDataCenter(NSSDC)AE
and AP models (theseare furtherdivided into
versions at Solar Maximum--AE8MAX and
APMAX--and Solar Minimum--AE8MIN and
APgMII_L Therefore, ratherthan complicatethe
definitionofthisenvironmentwith a discussion of
the many variations typical of the regime, we will,
followinga description of the form of the AE/AP
models,definethe radiation environmentinterms
of them.
Trapped Particles
There are potentially many different ways to
model the Earths radiatlon environment.
Fortunately, the use of adiabaticinvariants, the
introduction oftheMcIlwain's B-L coordinates,and
the predominanceof the AE/AP seriesof radiation
models have produced a uniform setof practical
models. For the purpose of studyingradiation
effectson long durationspace missions,these
AE/AP modelsproducedby theNSSDC have proven
to be very useful.Here themajorcharacteristics of
the radiation environmentwillbe summarized in
terms of theseAE/AP typeof models. Itshouldbe-
i'emembered,however,thatthereareotherm(_dns
or representing theenvLronmentthatmay De more
appropriateforspecific uses. The AE/AP models
assume thatthefluxof particles can be given as a
functionof B and L coordinatesintegratedover
some energyinterval. Unitsaretypically "particles
per square centimeter per second" with the
integrated energy channel being from the stated
energy (typically 40 keV to 4 MeV forelectrons in
the AE electronmodelsand I to 400 MeV for the
AP protonmodels), A valuableattribute of these
models is that,in principle, it is possibleto
constructthis type of simple model by one
measurement of thefluxesat allpitchanglesas a
satellige moves away from the Earth in the
magneticequatorialplane. As modellingof the
Earth'sradiation environmentisa complex process
at best,the AE/AP do have some limitations--for
example,the effects of inadequatedata coverage
and the lack of recent data. The NSSDC has
recently issuedtheAE8/AP8 versionsof the model
which correct some of theseinadequacies.
The major difficulty in developing a model of
the Earths radiation belts is that both space and
time must be factored into the model. Although
the use of the adiabatic invariants and B-L
coordinates are very useful in _mplifying this task,
in reality asymmetries in the Earth's magnetic and
electric fieldsand theirtime variations introduce
significantcomplicationsinto the modelling
process.In particular, due tosucheffects as "shell-
splitting" (particles of the same energy but
differentpitch angles tend to follow slightly
different driftpaths around the Earth so that
particles observedtogetherat the equatoron one
sideof the Earthare separatedin radialdistance
on the other side),distortions in the Earth's
magnetosphere,and similareffects, force the
inclusion of time and local-time (or,lessprecisely,
iongitudional) variables. The AE/AP model fluxes,
forexample,canbe parametrically representedby:
368
J(,E,B,L,0,T) = N(>E.L)_>E,L,0 )G(B,L)
where J is the integralomnidirectional flux,>E
means forallenergiesabove E,0 isthe localtime.
and T is the epoch (or date). Data from many
differentsatellites
areaveragedindiscrete B and L
binstodeterminetheB-L variation G. inenergy,L,
and localtimeto determinethelocaltimevariation
(note:B variationswere ignoredbecause there
was often too littledata to allow simultaneous
bLnningin terms of B also),
and in energy and L
binstodeterminetheenergyvariations N.
Fig. 16 for I MeV electrons and I0 MeV protons
from the AE8 and AP8 models respectively
illustrates the basic structure of the radiation belts.
In particular, the electron contours show a dual
peak (the protons have a similar structure but the
division between the peaks is less obvious).
Typically, therefore, the radiation belts are divided
into "inner-zone" and "outer-zone" populations.
This division also roughly corresponds, for the
electrons, to an inner belt which is weakly affected
by geomagnetic storms and an outer belt which is
greatly affected by storms. The L-shell region up
to L'2.5 is termed the inner-zone while the region
beyond L-3 is considered to be the outer-zone with
a "slot" region of reduced density in between. The
inner-zone electrons peak around L = 1.45 to 1.5
(typical values at 1.45 are: >I0 s for E>_0.1MeV; >106
for E,=I MeV; >I05 for E,_2 MeV; integral,
omnidirectional fluJ in'units of cm-Z s-l). Little
variation with geomagnetic activity is seen below
L'I.6. The inner-zone protons are very stable,
varying inversely with atmospheric density (the
fluxes are lower at solar maximum when the
atmosphericdensityis highest).The protonflux
peaks near L = 1.45(typical values at 1.45 are:
,104forE:100 MeV and >103at 300 MeV). In the
outerzone,the peak L shellvarieswith energyfor
the electrons(typical values are:>10s for E:0.1
MeV, L = 6;>107for E>_lMeV, L - 5; >105forE>_4
MeV. L = 4:unitsareas above).Fluxincreases can
De as great as Io_ In less than a (Jay aurtng a
geomagnetic storm. The outer-zone protons do not
show as strong a division into an outer belt as the
electrons nor as much variation with geomagnetic
activity. Protons with E.,I MeV peak at about L = 3
while protons with E>_10MeV peak at about L = 2.5
(typical intensities are: >l 0s for Ek0. I MeV; >107 for
EI MeV; >105 for E>_I0 MeV; <I0Z for E>=I00 MeV:
units as above). (Note: all numbers are adapated
from Vampola [1989].)
GalacticCosmic Rays and Solar Flares typically too low to be of concern), because of their
high penetrating abilities and io_izing powers, are
The AEIAP models only describethe trapped known to induce single event upsets (SEU) and
electronand protonenvironments.Recently, with other malfunctions in digital microelectronics
increasingconcernover singleevent upsets,there devices even at Space Station altitudes. A series of
has been a need for models of the high energy, reports by J. Adams and his collaborators at Naval
high chargenumber ionsabove hydrogen in mass Research Laboratory (NRL) provide the relevant
that are primarilyassociatedwith solar flares, formulations and information on this important
These particles, generallyassociatedwith solar subject (Adams et al. [I<)81]; Adams et al. [1983];
flareprotoneventsand Galactic Cosmic Rays,can Tsao et al. [1984]; Adams et al. [1986]). In these
cause bitflipsin sensitiveelectronic
components reports, in addition to the Galactic Cosmic Ray
without damaging the components. These logic model, a worst-case solar flare model is developed
changes can seriously affecta satellite's
control based on the combined features of the two largest
systems ifpermittedto go uncorrected.As yet, solar flares ever observed (one in 1956 and one in
models capable of accuratelypredictingthe 1972). A comparison between the galactic cosmic
occurrence frequency of solar flares are not ray flux and the worst-case solar flare proton
reliable.Recentmodels by Feynman et al.[1989] event in 1972 is presented in Fig. 19. As shown,
of solarflareprotonevents,however,hold thekey the worst-case solar flare proton flux is -5 orders
to futureprogressin thisarea. Here,instead,the of magnitude larger than the galactic cosmic ray
physicalcharacteristicsof the events will be flux, but becomes "softer" above -I0 GeV.
presented.
In evaluating the effects of Galactic Cosmic Rays
ConsiderfirstGalacticCosmic Rays. Galactic and solar flare particles on spacecraft, one final
Cosmic Rays (GCR) are primarilyinterplanetary point needs to be considered. That is, for the low
protons and ionizedheavy nucleiwith energies Earth orbit environment, the geomagnetic field
from -I MeV/nucleon to higher than -I0IO provides shielding against incident Galactic Cosmic
GeV/nucleon. Electrons are alsoa constituent of Rays and solar flare particles as it can effectively
GCR, but their measured intensities at energies deflect (through the Lorentz force) the lower
above -100 MeV are at least 1 order of magnitude energy cosmic ray and solar flare particles.
smallerthan thatof the protonsand are usually Because of the approximate dipole nature of the
ignored.Experimentalstudiesindicate thatcosmic geomagnetic field, vertical particle velocities in the
ray ;'luxesare isotropic over the entireenergy polar regions are essentially parallel to the
range, suggestingthat they are galacticand/or magnetic field resulting in almost vanishing
e]tragalactic
in origin.Figs.17 and 18 displaythe Lorentz force so that the particles can gain direct
observed cosmic ray energy spectrum and access. At low inclinations, only particles with
abundance distribution forthe chemicalelements sufficiently high energy, or "rigidity", can penetrate
in the energy range of -I00 MeV/nucleon to -l through the magnetic shielding.
GeV/nucleon from hydrogen to the iron group
(Meyer etal.[1974]).Forcomparison,solarsystem Particulates
abundancesarealsoshown in thefigure.Note that
the two abundance distributions are strikingly Introduction
similar.
Aith(iugh the primary effect of the ambient,
In additionto GalacticCosmic Rays, hydrogen macroscopic particulate environment represented
and heavy nucleiin the -I MeVlnucleon to -I0 by space debris and interplanetary meteoroids is
GeV/nucleon energy range are ejectedduring a mechanical (i.e., impact craters), it can also
solarflare.Theirintensitiesaregenerallya few to indirectly change the EM characteristics of
severalordersof magnitude largerthan those of spacecraft systems in several ways. For instance,
GalacticCosmic Rays at these lower energies, penetration of insulation can result in "pinholes"
depending on the sizeof solarflare. Detailed that expose the underlying conductors to the
studiesof solarflaresarelimitedby a currentlack plasma environment. The subsequent current
of sufficient
data,particularlythatof the relative collection and related effects may seriously alter
elemental abundances, and their unpredictable the local surface fields. The ejecta cloud produced
occurrence frequency. Solar flare particles by an impact can be partially ionized, causing
(GalacticCosmic Rays also,but theirfluencesare charging and/or an electromagnetic pulse. Also,
 cumulative erosion effects will eventually result in Meteoroids as defined by the NASA documents
failure of exposed insulation, solar array surfaces, are solid particles orbiting in space that are either
and wiring. The sources of these particulates in of cometary or asteroidal origin. The spatial
Earth orbit are both extraterrestrial--comets=-and volume of interest ranges from 0.I to 30.0
terrestrial--waste products and the remains of astronomical units (AU). The mass range is from
previous satellites. Given that the manmade debris 10 -12 to I02z g. Knowledge of these particles is
is already pervasive in low Earth orbit, it will be based primarily on Earth-based observations of
considered as part of the "natural", or pre-existing, meteors, comets, asteroids, the zodiacal light, and
environment. Each of these particulate in-situ rocket and spacecraft measurements. In all
environments will be separately considered. cases, the flux versus mass of the particles, the.
basic quantity required to model the meteoroid
Interplanetary Meteoroid Environment environment, is not directly measured but must be
inferred (e,g,, from light intensity, crater
The close of the decade of the 60_s saw the distributions, etc.). The ground-based
completion of three definitive NASA design criteria measurements consist principally of photographic
documents on the meteoroid environment and its and radar observations.These yield fluxesfor
effects on spacecraft systems. As of this date, the massesfrom I0-3g or largerand 10-6to IO-Z g
models presented in those documents still respectively, Observations ofthezodiacal lightand
represent the official NASA meteoroid directin-situ measurements cover a much smaller
environment despite more recent data on the in- mass--typically 10-13 to 10-6 g. At the other
situ envlronment, The three documents are: extreme, telescopic observations of asteroids and
planetary and lunar crater counts are used to
l.) "NASA Space Vehicle Design Criteria determine the distribution from 50 km and up. As
(Environment): Meteoroid Environment Model should be obvious, there are large data gaps in the
{Near Earth to Lunar Surface}", NASA SP-8013 assumed distribution. Of most concern to the Space
[1969]. Station is the range from about 10-3 to I0 g as
these particles pose the major threat of
2.) "NASA Space Vehicle Design Criteria catastrophic failure to crew modules. Of more
(Environment); Meteoroid environment Model concern for pinholes, the major problem for EMC, is
(Interplanetary and Planetary}", NASA 5P-8038 the mass range from 10-3 down to I0 =9 g as these
119701. particles will have sufficient flux to erode surfaces
and sufficient energy to penetrate protective
3.) "NASA Space Vehicle Design Criteria coatings. Meteorites fall in this range but due to
(Structures); Meteoroid Damage Assessment", the infrequency of actual observed impacts and the
NASA SP-8042 [I 9701. difficulty of relating the final mass to the original
mass, little data are available. Sufficient
The first document defines the meteoroid information does exist to justify dividing the
environment between the Earth's surface and the observations into two groups: those of 'cometary
Moon and is the primary model used for the origin (average density around 0.5 g-cm-3) and
interplanetary meteoroid flux. It provides working those of asteroidal origin (average density around
definitions of the three principle quantities needed 3.5 g-cm-3), however, it is the cometary meteoroids
to define the meteoroid environment: their mass which predominate near Earth.
versus number density, their velocity distribution,
and their composition. Included in the document Cometary Meteoroids
are listing_ of interplanetary meteor streams and
the Earth-based meteor observations on which the Cometary meteoroids in the mass range of
models are basedl The second document presents interest (<I0 g) are believed to be the solid
an extrapolation c)f the Earth-based observations to remains of large water-ice comets that have long
interplanetary space for meteoroids of both since evaporated or broken up due to collisions.
c()metary and asteroidal origin. The final The remaining silicate or chondritic material is of
document outlines ground studies of high velocity very low density (0.16 to 4 g-cm-3) with an
impacts, methods of modeling meteoroid assumed value of 0.5 g-cm-3 for the NASA model.
penetration, and techniques for limiting meteoroid The primary flux of meteoroids inside 1.5 AU is
damage. Of the three documents, the first is the made up of these cometary meteoroids as the
primary sources of the material to be presented denser asteroidal meteoroids are concentrated in
here and will be discussed in more detail. the asteroid belts and peak at 2.5 AU. The

370
 cometary integral mass distribution, derived from the purpose of ihis section to briefly review the
the observations discussed previously and basis of the existing debris model for spacecraft in
assumed in the NASA Cometary Model, is plotted in low Earth orbit and to illustrate how debris impact
Fig. 20. The velocity distribution relative to a calculations are carried out.
massless Earth is presented in Fig. 21 for several The main sources of orbital debris are orbiting
different models (Morgan et al. 11988]) with the spacecraft, fragments from exploded boosters or
equivalent NASA model results plotted as a solid spacecraft, metal oxides and particulates from solid
line ("massless Earth" means that the data have rocket motors, and ejected items from previous
been corrected for the gravitational pull of the missions. These in turn collide with each other
Earth). creating further debris--the Shuttle Challenger had
one of its windows pitted by a debris particle,
NASA 8013 describes the total cometary meteor clearly illustrating the reality of such collisions.
flu] at Earth by the following: There are currently several sets of observational
data for this growing threat. First, there are
Iogl0 Fc = -14.37 - 1.213 Jogl0 m ground based optical and radar observations that
form the bulk of the information. These are
for I 0-6<m<l primarily from the US Space Command orbital
element sets for objects of I0 cm diameter and
logl0 Fc =-14.339 -1.584 logl02 m -.063 (Iogl02 m) larger, from optical measurements by MIT for
objects 2 cm in diameter and larger, and from
for I 0- IZ<_m<_l
0-6 debris particle albedo measurements using an IR
where Fc is the number of cometary meteoroid telescope at ATMOS/MOTIF, US Space Command
Impacts or mass m grams or larger per square radars, and NASA and Space Command telescopes.
meter per second. The gravitationally focused, Second, for particles between 10 `8 and 10-3 cm in
unshielded flux, Fc, must be multiplied by a diameter, in-situ measurements are available from
defocusing factor for Earth, GE, as well as a sample surfaces retrieved from the Solar Maximum
shielding factor, E. Mission (Laurance and Brownlee [I 986]) at 500 km
altitude. The NASA model and these observations
The defocusing factor which corrects for the are compared as a function of height in Fig. 22.
gravitational enhancement at a given distance from Data from IRAS and other in-situ experiments are
the Earth's center may be expressed as: expected to further expand the debris data base in
the near future,
GE = 0.568 + 0.432 (Re/r)
Kessler (Kessler et al. 11989]) estimates the
The correction due to the physical presence of cumulative flux of debris on orbiting spacecraft to
the Earth itself, which shields the spacecraft be given by:
(randomly oriented) is expressed as:
F_d,h,i,t,S) - k _h,S) _J(i) (Fl(d) g)(t), F2(d)
E = 0.5 + 0,5 (I - (Re/r)) 5 gzld))

Multiplying by eta has the effect of subtracting out where:

the flux within the solid angle subtended by the
shielding body. F = Flux in impacts per square meter of surface
area per year
where: k = 1 for a randomly tumbling surface; must be
calculated for a
Re - the Earth's radius alrectlona| surface
r = the distance of the spacecraft from the d = Debris diameter (cm)
center of the Earth t = Time (years)
h - Altitude (km); h < 2000 km
Space Debris S - 13-month smoothed 10.7 cm wavelength
solar flux (104 Jy);
Increasing spaceflight operations in the Earth's retarded by l year from t
vicinity have led to the creation of an artificial i - Inclination (degrees)
shell of debris around the Earth. This shell of
and
debris poses an impact threat greater than the
natural meteoroid environment within 2000 km of
the Earth's surface. The Earth debris impact threat _h,S) - _|(h.Sl/(_p)(h,S) + I)
is credible and requires careful consideration. It is

371
 Banks, P.M., and G. Kockarts, "Aeronomy, Parts A
)_i(h,S)- i0 )h/200 -_/140-1.5)
and B", Academic Press, New York, 1973.

Fl(d) = i.05xi0-5 d-Z.5

Cain, J.C., and R.A. Langel, "The Geomagnetic Survey
by the Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observatories
F2(d) = 7x10 lo (d + 700)-.6 ego-2 and Ogo-4, 1965-1967", GSFC REP X-613-68-
502, Greenbelt, MD, 1968.

gl(t) = (I + 2 p)(t-19sS) Carrigan, A.L., and R.A. Skrivanek, "The Aerospace

Environment", AFCRLChart, 1974.

g2(t)-(I + p)(t-1985)
Daly, E.J., "The Evaluation of Space Radiation
Environments for ESA Projects", ESA Journal, 12,
p = Annual growth rate of mass in orbit = 0.05 229-247, 1988.

Fig. 20 (Kessler et al. [1989]) compares the debris
flux predicted by this model and the NASA SP-
8013 [1969] meteoroid flux at an altitude of 500
kin.
CONCLUS|ON
Feynman, J., T. Armstrong, L. Dao-Gibner, and S.
Silverman, "A New Interplanetary Proton Fluence
Model", to appear in J. SPACECRAFT,1989.
Foster, J.C., "An Empirical Electric Field Model
Derived from Chatanika Radar Data", j. GEOPHYS.
RF_g.,88, 981-987, 1983,

This paper has reviewed the key ambient

Fuller-Rowell, T,J,, and D.S. Evans, "Height-
environments that could potentiallycause
Integrated Pedersen and Hall Conductivity Patterns
operationalanomaliesor damage to automatedand
I_erred From the TIROS-NOAA Satellite Data", J.
roboticsystems. These environmentscover large GEOPHYS.RES., 02, 7606-7618, 1987.
portionsof theelectromagneticand kineticenergy
._pec_rum. As a result, these environments are
Garrett. H.B., and Forbes. JM., "A Model of Solar
dlfficultto protect against and will require
Flux Attenuation During Eclipse Passage and Its
mitigationtechniques.In many situations, these Effects on Photoelectron Emission from Satellite
protectionmethods have yet to be determined. Surfaces", Planet. Space Sci., 29, pp. 601-607, 198 I.
Ultimately,theinformationpresentedherewillbe
critical
to the developmemnt of these methods.
Grard, R.J.L., "Properties of the Satellite
IIopefully,
thisreview willprove to be a userful Photoelectron Sheath Derived from Photoemission
startingpointinthisprocess,
Laboratory Measurements". J. Geophys. Res., 78, pp.
2885-2906, 1973b.
"The research described in this paper was carried
out by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Gussenhoven, M.S., D.A. Hardy, F. Rich, w.J. Burke,
Institute of Technology, under a contract with the
and H.-C. Yeh, "High Level Spacecraft Charging in
National Aeronautics and Space Administration."
the Low Altitude Polar Environment", J. GEOPHYS.
REFERENCES RES.,90,I1009,1985.

Adams, J.H., Jr., R. Silberberg, and C.H. Tsao, "Cosmic Hardy, D.A., and M.S. Gussenhoven, "A Statistical
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Newton, N.W. Spencer, D.C. Kayser, D. Alcayde, P.
Adams, J.H., Jr., J.R Letaw, and D.F. Smart, "Cosmic Bauer, L. Cogger, and J.p.McClure, "A Global
Ray Effects on Microelectronics, Part It: The Thermospheric Model based on Mass Spectrometer
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5099, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, I}C and Temperature", J. GEOPHYS. RE<_.,82, 2139-
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Hedin, A.E., Jr., C.A. Reber, G.P. Newton, N.W.
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Microelectronics, Part IV". NRL Memorandum Global Thermospheric Model based on Mass
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Revision 1985", EOS, 523-524, 17 June, 1986. T_efLe___trdolJ_vents,Report UAS-28, Part IIIi World
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from it0 to 2000 kin", in CIRA 1972, Akademie-
Verlag, Berlin, pp. 225-328, 1972. Sawyer, D.M., and J.J. Vette, "AP8 Trapped Proton
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Ke._sler, D.J., R.C Reynolds, and P.D. Anz-Meador,
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26 Sept., 1972. Vampola, A.. "Solar Cycle Effects on Trapped
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Satellites in Low Earth Orbit", NATURE, 323, pp. Zone Electrons at Solar Minimum and Solar
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AE5, AE6, and AEI7" (see NSSDCreports 72-06, 72-
Meyer, P., R. Ramaty, and R. Webber, "Cosmic Rays 13 (AE-4), 72-10 (AE5), and 76-04 (AE6), 1986.
Astronomy with Energetic Particles", PHYSICS
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Morgan, TH., Zook, H.A., and Potter, A.E., "Impact
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CAPTIONS
Driven Supply of Sodium and Potassium to the
Atmosphere of Mercury", to appear in ICARUS,
I. Neutral atmosphere vertical density profile in
1988.
units of n#/cm -3 (adapted from Carrigan and
Skrivanek [1974]).
NASA SP-8013, "NASA Space Vehicle Design
Criteria iEnvironment); Meteoroid Environment
Model - 1969 [Near Earth to Lunar Surface]", 1969. 2. Polar view of the northern hemisphere. Polar
coordinates are employed such that the radial
distance is in intervals of equal latitude (0o is the
NASA SP-8038. "NASA Space Vehicle Design
Criteria (Environment); Meteoroid Environment equator) while the angular coordinate is east
Model 1970 [Interplanetary and Planetary[", longitude. Neutral atmosphere conditions for Kp=6,
1970. Fi07-220, Day No#-357.5, and height-400 km as
computed by the Jacehia 1972 model are shown.
NASA SP-8042, "NASA Space Vehicle Design
Criteria (Structures); Meteoroid", 1970. 3. Neutral temperature for the Jacchia 1972 model
in K (same conditions as Fig. 2).
Rawer, K. (Chairman). "International Reference
Ionosphere--lRI 79 (edited by J.V. Lincoln and R.O. 4 Number density of Oxygen for the Jacchia 1972
model in non/cm -3 (same conditions as Fig. 2).
Conkright), World Data Center A, Rpt. UAG-82, Nov.,
1981
5. Northern hemisphere view of percentage
Ra,_'er, K., and P.A. Bradley, editors, "International deviation of neutral density (N2) and temperature
Reference Ionosphere-Status 1986/87", The from the Jacchia 1972 model for a geomagnetic
Committee on Space Research, Pergamon Press, storm of Kp-6o.(after Slowey [1984]). "ST" means
New York, 1987. storm conditions; "QT" means normal Jacchia 1972
prediction
373
 17. Comparison between relativeabundances of
6. Meridional cross section of the Earth's me elements from nyarogen to me irongroup
magnetosphere showing the dominate plasma normalizedto carbon (C=IO0) for Cosmic Rays
regk)ns and the magnetic field configuration for a (heavy line)and forthe SolarSystem (light
line).
noon-midnight cut. From Meyer et al.]1974L

7. Polar view of the northern hemisphere at 400 18. The energy spectra of Cosmic Ray protons (line)
km as in Fig. 2 for the total magnetic field and electrons (points) as measured near the Earth.
amplitude as predicted by the POGO magnetic field From Meyer et al. [1974].
model, [)nits are G.
19. Comparison of the August 1972 solar flare
8.Polarview ofthe northernhemisphere as in Fig. proton event fluxes with the Galactic Cosmic Ray
2 fortheabsolutevzB inducedelectric
fieldat 400 fluxes for 1972 (Reagan et al, [1973]).
km. The PO(.,O magneticfieldand a 90o orbital
inclination
were assumed. 20. Comparison between the predicted debris Hux
from Kessler et al. [19891 and the natural
9. Solar photon flux density spectrum at the Earth
(after Grard [ 1973]). meteoroid flux from NASA SP8013 at 500 km.
21. Cometary meteor velocity distribution as
I0, The Zurich smoothed sunspot number variation measured by different groups at I AU (from
between 1950 and 1988. Superimposed on the Morgan et al. [1988]).
figure are the fluences for the individual large
solar flare proton events during the same period 22, Debris flux as a function of altitude as
Ifrom Daly [1988l). measured by the U,S. Space Command and as
predicted by the debris model (Kessler et al,
II. Structure of the Solar Wind magnetic field [1989]) for I0 cm objects in January 1987. An
background and that associated with a high speed orbital inclination of 60 o is assumed. From Kessler
solar stream showing the effects of compression et al, [1989].
and shock. Also shown is the hypothesized
lOP0
termination shape for the Solar Wind beyond the
orbit _f Pluto.
9OO
R I
12. Representativemidlatitutdedaytime and 800 :" I\I, -- oi
nightime electron density profiles(top) and m_-- 02

temperature profiles (bottom) for sunspot -,,i\!. ---.,

maximum (--) and sunspotminimum (....... \I i,l ..... Ar
);Carriganand Skrivanek[1974l. \ '-iPl .1
....
500 \ _ l)i He
...........
13. Representative m/dlatitutde daytime and,
- \N_,, l _ ---- Total
nJghtime ion composition profiles for daytime (top) < 400
and nighttime(bottom)for sunspot minimum;
3o0
Carriganand Skrivanek[1974L
200
14.Northernhemisphere view (coordinates
as in
Fig.
2)oftheelectronenvironmentat400 km fora 100
sunspotnumber of lO0 as predictedby the IRI
0
model, a) electron density; b) electron 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020
102 104 108 108
temperature.
Number Density, cm - 3

15. Representative differential electron flux

FIGURE I.
spectrum for an auroral arc (Gussenhoven et al.
[1985]).

16. Constant flux contours (after Daly [1988J) for

protons and electrons as predicted by the AE8/AP8
radiation models (Vette et al. [1986]; Sawyer and
Vette [ 1976]).

374
 PNeulrQl(g'cm'_/10"15
Joc_la 72 Model
Nor_em Heentsphem

T_. b
F._I.,L_E 2 % p (N2)
JACCHIA T:_IELOWEY
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

TNeulm0 (*KJ
Jacckia 72 Medel
Norlhem Hemlwhere

24O

NOTE: 270"

.. (s____,).
1.
Kp _ 60
% TI'K)
JACCHIA ?2/SLOWEY
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE KI,

IS0"

180"

210

120 km

240*

270"

375 FiGi.RE 5
 L

SOLAR
WIND

zTo
o

FIGURE 8,

PLASMA- PLASMA- VAN ALLEN

_PHERE SHEET BELTS 1019 I I I I I I.
FIGL'RE 6. i I I iI

10_8

_,_ 1017

1016
N

_ 015

l I 1] 11 [ ] l I I ] !
E 78910 20 30 40 50 6070
z;oo w(_
4OO
KM

PlOLr, tE _J

iOII I 1 I I I I'1-Ti'T-V_I- l I I I I I i i ; I I "T I I

AuI_ 19"/2AI ftate ! ir>_eiv

i
_i
Z

FIGURE 7 t! , :
_m !,i_:
,i i!!
I ,*| ,iii, _i_
i I
,!i,_
lo,
"1
II '
I
il, _" N

FIGURE 10.

376
 SOLARWIND DAY/NIGHTTIME [irCTRON CONCO4TRATIONS

, , i_,, \ _ '
8O0
, ,,\\
', ',,_, \
".. "..'x,,\
.,o,-,.,_"' _7.-"
__'
_'--_...."/ ,,,,(
J
'.. (o,_,ME
,:f
100

8O
-_ I I I
6O
10 d lo3 io( l_ ll#
rieClltoN CONCWTRATION Icnl'3i

MkGNEI"ICHELIOSPHERE F[('lt.R[ 12[',

DAYTIME POSITIVE ION COMPOSITION

WYIiSI_LL JMI Igl_DIMIg

lO00i i i +I I + ' +ll ) : 4

rot- A "/\tl o _, tOTAL
,ON

F
_= -ME,.o..<
._ J)
>i50 km

km

6C _m'T ! 1 i i REGION
FIGURE 11. 10 iO2 103 104 - 105 105 50-fflira

ION CONCENTRATIONIcm "3)

NIGHTTIME POSITIVE ION COMPOSITION

100l
Ill ' kii' 'IX + ' '
OAYTIME TEMPERATURES

".,_._ L TOTAL tO
N

t. i tj. j'7"'_t - .."

-400_ , , /i _ e /- -- NO
! "" il ( ...'T.
I ; l_-_--"" = tON_
>].50 km
___b ; -"" r
REGION

tI ion 8( Y P'/_"
REGION'S'/2 L85-D]_0km

II""ION$i REGiON
/ . t.- eLectnON L 1 l

l I I I I I J l
lo d l_ lo( l_ lit $0-95 km

ION CONCENTRATIONIcm "3)

TEMPERATUREIKI
FIGI.'RE L3
FIGURE IZA.

377
 NELECTRON
{n- m"3i!105

IRI MODEL
NORTH(RNH[MISPHERE
i.0

1.0

=)
APON]I_ PROTON FLUXES (rJ'2,sec "l) Ibow I0 VeV

TELECTRO
N _oK)
i .o z.o 3.Q
IRt MODEL I I I _to _,(..)
NORTHERNHEMISPHERE 270
_(Ie)
5.0
o

Z.S

EZZI2_ 1_

b)
-Z.!

FI*3LRE ; i
AEgMAI ELECTRONFLUXES (ce'2.sec "1) d_ove I IleV
IO-L_
Z.S 5.0 1.5 iO.O
, x(Jt,)

10- 27 Electrons
11/26/83
49843 UT

10_2 9

!0_3 0

i 10_31

!0- 32 -

10-_ _ L ! [_ I

0 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Energy in eV

,rt_Z. [,',E ,'5.

378
 IP

1o*
t

i N

10-1

/
Ice.I

1o-I

|0-,

1o-i

! i i |

N!JCLEAR CHARGE NUMBER Z

ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY

379
 _-. IO'
ga .... $OUTHWORTH AND SEKANINA

A 49 = 12.9 knVs)
4 AUGUST
ltd.\ -- tn ICKSON
1SOS UT 06' ///"X ,_ - ISO_,_
] ! "_ ..... OOHNAN*I
04. :7i "" '"'""
AR PROTONS
. 08-
02' IL/
oo_
i ........ +'I ......... i ......... i ......... i' ........ i" ......
0 I0 20 ,10 4o 50

VELOCITY, knv'$

FIG_RE 2 [
-41

"I

++'+'::27:' Modd en ir meT+ "

lOG0 10.000
PARTICLE ENERGY (MeV) ,g

+. +., +-.. ++

,.o" 0 800 %000 _800 iiO00

Altitude Ikm]
,o" _ I ' ' I ' ' I ' ' I ' ' l ' ' I ' '
Predicted debri, Ilu, sL : h:500 kin, t_l_l$,
,.o" - k=l.0, i=30", s_g<LO ru.,. :,E22
,+'-t (, '+ "T,

'-- _\4 --.--'m'--- NASA SPI_I3 meteoroid flux

pL, --

,o"
io" Lo+ lo" *o' ,o" Lo' _o" IJ'
Disrr_t er Icm+

F!'3{ }'E 2(_

380