Engineering

Studies

Preliminary Course

Term 1
2 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

me121121@hotmail.com 2006

Copyright me121121@hotmail.com. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify

this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any
later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-
Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.

The numerical values ad concept in problem 5.1 was taken from a text book. The solution
was written by me, the diagram was reproduced with subtle differences.

These notes do not follow the syllabus however they do provide some of the information that
is essential and or helpful to undertake NSW Engineering Studies. This document only covers
my 1st school term of Engineering Studies. So it only has a basic outline of less than rd of the
course. This document does not cover the kettle, which is studied in Module 1.

I wrote these notes for 1 purpose, to make me better at Engineering Studies. There is no
better way to study than to write a text book.

20 Pages
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 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 3

CONTENTS
1 FORCES........................................................................................................................................4
1.1 FORCE PROPERTIES .............................................................................................................4
1.2 DIAGRAMS .............................................................................................................................4
1.3 CONCURRENT & NON-CONCURRENT FORCES & TRANSMISSIBILITY...................................4
1.4 ADDITION OF FORCES ...........................................................................................................5
1.5 EQUILIBRIUM..........................................................................................................................8
1.6 MOMENTS ..............................................................................................................................8
2 MATERIALS .................................................................................................................................9
2.1 CLASSIFICATION ....................................................................................................................9
2.2 PROPERTIES ..........................................................................................................................9
2.3 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS ...............................................................................................10
2.4 ATOMIC STRUCTURE ...........................................................................................................10
2.5 CHEMICAL BONDS ...............................................................................................................11
2.6 JOINING OF METALS ............................................................................................................11
3 ELECTRICITY ............................................................................................................................12
3.1 BASIC PRINCIPALS ..............................................................................................................12
3.2 OHMS LAW ..........................................................................................................................12
3.3 ELECTRIC POWER ...............................................................................................................12
3.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS .............................................................................................................12
3.5 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS .......................................................................................................13
4 COMMUNICATION (DRAWINGS)..........................................................................................14
4.1 ORTHOGONAL DRAWINGS ...................................................................................................14
4.2 LINE TYPES .........................................................................................................................14
5 PROBLEMS................................................................................................................................15
5.1 FORCES 1 ............................................................................................................................15
5.2 POWER 1 .............................................................................................................................18
4 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

1 Forces
1.1 Force Properties
Graphical Representation:
Sense

Magnitude

Direction
Point of
Application

Figure 1.1-1 - A typical force drawn as a vector.

All forces have:

Point of Application
Magnitude
Direction
Sense

Mathematical Representation:

10 N 30

This represents a force of 10 Newtons in a direction of 30 from the horizontal.

When doing calculations we can convert the force in to a matrix.

1.2 Diagrams
Space Diagrams, Free Body Diagrams and Force Diagrams are the 3 main
diagrams used in vector problems.

Space Diagram
The problem is draw how it is seen in real life.
Free Body Diagram
In a free body diagram the forces are drawn in but in their actual position. And
the irrelevant information is left out, a.k.a. the objects.
Force Diagram
In a force diagram all the forces are drawn head to tail.

1.3 Concurrent & Non-Concurrent Forces &

Transmissibility
Concurrent forces all pass through the same point.
 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 5

Non-Concurrent forces may intersect at different points or be parallel.

Transmissibility of a force means that you can move the force along its line of
action freely.

1.4 Addition of Forces

There are 3 ways to add forces, analytically, geometrically and graphically.
The graphical solution involves drawing the forces to scale, head to tail, and
then the resultant is the forces from the starting point to the end point. (See
Figure 1.4-1)

A B C

A+B+C

Figure 1.4-1 - Graphical Solution of Vector Addition

The geometrical method involves taking the above force diagram and solving
angles and side lengths using geometry. Using things like the Sine and
Cosine rule.
6 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

A
b c

C B
a
In a triangle with sides a, b, c and their corresponding angles A, B, C
respectively, the sine and cosine rule state:
Sine Rule: Cosine Rule:
a
=
b
=
c a 2 = b 2 + c 2 2bc cos A
sin A sin B sin C b2 + c2 a2
cos A =
2bc

The other method is the Analytical solution. In this method you give each
vector an x component and a y component. Then the resultant x is the sum
of all the x s and the resultant y is the sum of all the y s. This better
explained by Figure 1.2.2 and Fig 1.2.3.

Force x Component y Component

A 0 1
B 1 1
C 1 -1
Sum 2 1
Fig 1.2.2 (Data from Fig 1.2.1)

Ax = 0
Ay = 1
Bx = 1
By = 1
Cx = 1
C y = 1
x = 2
y =1
Fig 1.2.3

However sometimes you do not have the x and y components, not to worry
they can be found by the following formulae.
 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 7

x = r cos
y = r sin
r = x2 + y2
y
= tan 1
x
where,
x = x coordinate
y = y coordinate
r = magnitude (distance)
= direction (angle)

Note: Modern calculators have Rec() and Pol() functions which can be used
instead of the above formulae.

Examples:
1. Sum the following forces.
Where:
A is 10N
A B is 7N @ 30 from the horizontal
B C is 5N

First define the basics:

Ar = 10 A = 90
Br = 7 B = 180 30 = 150
Cr = 5 C = 180

Next set up a table:

X Y
A 10 cos 90 = 10 0 = 0 * 10 sin 90 = 10 1 = 10
B 7 cos 150 6.1 7 sin 150 = 7 0.5 = 3.5
C 5 cos180 = 5 1 = 5 5 sin 180 = 5 0 = 0
-11.1 13.5

Now we can convert these x and y components back into magnitude and
direction.
r = 11.12 + 13.5 2 = 305.46 17.48 (2dp.)
13.5
= tan 1 = tan 1 1.22 50.66
11.1
The answer given by the calculator is a 4th quadrant angle but we know that
the point (-11.1, 13.5) is in the second quadrant. So why do we get a 4th

*
For all intensive purposes we can look at the force and see that it is going straight up, thus the x
component in zero. No need to the math.
8 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

quadrant answer on the calculator. The reason is that the result we get by
calculating 13.5 11.1 is the same result when we calculate 13.5 11.1 . So
the calculator gives only one of the 2 possible angles. So we must change this
4th quadrant angle into a 2nd quadrant angle. This can be done with a wide
variety of methods but the most reliable method is to change -50.66 to a
positive angle, 50.66 + 360 = 309.34 . Then subtract 180, 309.34 180 = 129.34 .
We now have a 2nd quadrant angle.

So the resultant force is approximately 17.48N at an angle of 129.34

1.5 Equilibrium
If a body is in equilibrium then all the forces add up to zero, and the sum of
the Moments is zero. The equilibrant force is the force needed to make the
forces add up to zero. On a Force diagram its the opposite force to the
resultant.

Three-force rule of Equilibrium:

If a body is in equilibrium and has three forces acting on it, those forces must
be concurrent or parallel.

1.6 Moments
 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 9

2 Materials
2.1 Classification
All materials can be classified into either element, compound, mixture or
solution.

Elements have only one type of atom.

Compounds have more than one type of atom, chemically combined in a
fixed ratio.
Mixtures have more than one type of atom, with no fixed ratio of distribution.
Solutions are when one substance dissolves into another.

The elements can then be further classified into metals and non-metals.

The metals can be classified into different types of metals;

Clad Metals;
are metals which are coated with a second metal.
Ferrous Metals;
contain iron.
Non-Ferrous Metals;
dont contain iron.
Sintered Metals;
are solid metals which join when heated.

The non-metals can also be classified;

Ceramics;
are inorganic, non-metallic solid processed at high temperatures.
eg. pottery, china, glass
Polymers;
are made from organic materials. eg. polyethylene, nylon, rubber
Composite Materials;
eg. particleboard, concrete
Biological Materials;
Materials that were once living. eg. bone, timber

2.2 Properties
Mechanical Properties:
Tensile Strength: The ability of a material to withstand applied loads without
failure.
Hardness: The ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion or
indentation.
Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to its original shape and
dimensions after being subjected to a load.
Stiffness: The ability of a material to resist elastic deformation under load.
Plasticity: The ability of a material to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture.
Malleability: The ability of a material to be hammered or rolled into thin
sheets.
10 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

Ductility: The ability of a material to be drawn out in to a thin wire.

Fatigue: Is the tendency of a material to break when subjected to repeated
cyclic loading where the induced stress is well below the elastic limit.
Notch Toughness: Is a measure of the amount of energy required to cause
failure.

2.3 Solidification of Metals

Figure 2.3-1 - Basic Cooling Curve

1. Above the melting point. Is a liquid.

2. Solidification begins with nucleation. (Atoms start to join. Cooling rate
stabilizes.)
3. At constant temperature atoms form dendrites.
4. Dendrites continue to grow.
5. Dendrites meet at grain boundaries forming grains.

2.4 Atomic Structure

Figure 2.4-1 - Structure of the Atom

The atom is made up of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, with electrons
orbiting around it in shells.
Protons are positively charged particles, Neutrons are uncharged particles
and Electrons are negatively charged particles.
 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 11

2.5 Chemical Bonds

An Ionic Bond is where the electrons transfer from one atom to another.
A Covalent Bond is where the atoms share electrons.
A Metallic Bond is where all of the atoms share their valence electrons.

Most materials involve some combination of these 3 primary bonds.

2.6 Joining of Metals

There are 2 categories of joining metals. (Just a few of the many joining
methods.)
Physical/Mechanical
o Nuts & Bolts
o Screws
o Rivets
Metallurgical
o Soft Soldering
o Brazing and Silver Soldering
o Welding
Spot welding
Electric ARC welding
Metallic Inert Gas welding
Tungsten Inert Gas welding
Plasma ARC welding
12 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

3 Electricity
3.1 Basic Principals
Electricity: may be defined as the flow of electrons through a system. Put
simply, more electrons mean a greater amount of electricity.

Current (I): is a measure of the quantity of electrons flowing per second. The
unit for current is the ampere or amp (A) and is one of the SI base units.
Current can be Direct Current (DC) or Alternating Current (AC). Batteries are
DC, mains power is AC.

Voltage (E): also known as potential difference or electromotive force (EMF),

this is a measure of the electrical pressure that is forcing the electrons
through a system. Voltage is measured in Volts (V).

Resistance (R): is the limiting of the flow of electric current. The unit for
Resistance is the Ohm ().
l
R=
a
R = resistance ()
= resistivity (m)
l = length (m)
a = cross sectional area (m2)

3.2 Ohms Law

V = IR
Voltage = Current Resistance

3.3 Electric Power

P = VI
P = Power (Watts)
V = Voltage (Volts)
I = Current (Amps)

3.4 Circuit Diagrams

Resistor

Cell

Capacitor

Diode
 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 13

Transistor

3.5 Circuit Components

Resistors restrict the flow of electricity.
Capacitors store electricity when there is a current and let is out when there
is no current flowing.
Diodes only allow electricity to flow in one direction.
Transistors act as electronic switches. They only allow electricity to flow
when there is electricity in a third wire.
Cells store electricity.
14 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

4 Communication (drawings)
4.1 Orthogonal Drawings

Figure 4.1-1 - Orthogonal Drawings

Orthogonal Drawings are when you draw a view using parallel projection lines.
And you cannot see more than one face at a time.

4.2 Line Types

 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 15

5 Problems
5.1 Forces 1
Determine the forces in the jib and the tie of the jib crane shown.

Figure 5.1-1 - Space Diagram

Firstly we assign some vectors. Lets call the Load L, the Tie T and the Jib
J.
We know the magnitude and direction of L.
L y = 900 9.8 = 8820 N
Lx = 0
We now need to find some angles. Lets take the triangle made by the 4.5m,
the Jib and the Tie. We know all the side lengths so we can find all the angles
using the cosine rule.
16 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

5 2 + 4.5 2 8.5 2
cos A =
2 5 4.5
cos A = 0.6
A = 12652'
We can use this to find the absolute angle of the Tie.
T = 12652' 90 = 3652'
Now find another angle:
4.5 2 + 8.5 2 5 2
cos B =
2 4.5 8.5
cos B = 0.88
B = 284'
We can use this to find the absolute angle of the Jib.
J = 90 284' = 6156'

Now we can draw a force diagram. If you draw it to scale using a ruler and
protractor then you can measure the forces off the diagram otherwise you
need to do some more maths.
 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 17

Figure 5.1-2 - Force Diagram

The third 25 angle was found by the fact that all the angles in a triangle add
up to 180. The load was already known. So you can now use the sine rule to
find the lengths of the tie and the jib to find the forces put on them.
8820 J
=
sin 25 sin 127
8820 sin 127
J=
sin 25
J = 16 667.44

8820 T
=
sin 25 sin 28
8820 sin 28
T=
sin 25
T = 9 797.82

So the force in Jib is 16.7kN, and the force in the Tie is 9.8kN.
18 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

5.2 Power 1
A 240V drill has a resistance of 112, what is the power of the appliance?
V = 240V
R = 112
P = ?W

V = IR
240 = I112
15
I=
7

P = VI
15
P = 240
7
P = 514.29W
 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes 19

INDEX

A I
AC, 12 Ionic Bond, 11
Analytical, 6
analytically, 5
M
B Magnitude, 4
Malleability, 9
Biological Materials, 9 Metallic Bond, 11
Brazing, 11 Metallic Inert Gas welding, 11
metals, 9
Mixtures, 9
C
Capacitor, 12
Capacitors, 13
N
Cell, 12 Neutrons, 10
Cells, 13 Non-Concurrent, 5
Ceramics, 9 Non-Ferrous Metals, 9
Clad Metals, 9 non-metals, 9
Composite Materials, 9 Notch Toughness, 10
Compounds, 9 nucleation, 10
Concurrent forces, 4 Nuts & Bolts, 11
cosine rule, 15
Cosine Rule, 6
Covalent Bond, 11 O
Current, 12 Ohms Law, 12

D P
DC, 12 Plasticity, 9
Dendrites, 10 Point of Application, 4
Diode, 12 Polymers, 9
Diodes, 13 Power, 12, 18
Direction, 4 projection lines, 14
Ductility, 10 Protons, 10

E R
Elasticity, 9 Resistance, 12
Electric ARC welding, 11 Resistor, 12
Electricity, 12 Resistors, 13
Electrons, 10 resultant, 5
Elements, 9 Rivets, 11
Equilibrium, 8

S
F
Screws, 11
Fatigue, 10 Sense, 4
Ferrous Metals, 9 sine rule, 17
Force Diagram, 4 Sine Rule, 6
Forces, 15 Sintered Metals, 9
Free Body Diagram, 4 Solutions, 9
Space Diagram, 4
G Stiffness, 9

geometrical, 5
geometrically, 5 T
graphically, 5 Tensile Strength, 9
Transistor, 13
H Transistors, 13
Transmissibility, 5
Hardness, 9
20 Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Notes

V W
Voltage, 12 Welding, 11