Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Gestational Conditions
Chapte r
23
ROBIN WEBB CORBETT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the pathophysiology of preeclampsia Compare and contrast placenta previa and
and eclampsia. abruptio placentae in relation to signs and
Differentiate the management of the woman symptoms, complications, and management.
with mild preeclampsia from that of the woman Discuss the diagnosis and management of dis-
with severe preeclampsia. seminated intravascular coagulation.
Identify the priorities for management of Differentiate signs and symptoms, effects on
eclamptic seizures. pregnancy and the fetus, and management dur-
Describe HELLP syndrome, including appropri- ing pregnancy of common sexually transmitted
ate nursing actions. infections and other infections.
Explain the effects of hyperemesis gravidarum Explain the basic principles of care for a preg-
on maternal and fetal well-being. nant woman undergoing abdominal surgery.
Discuss the management of the woman with Discuss implications of trauma on the mother
hyperemesis gravidarum in the hospital and at and fetus during pregnancy.
home. Identify priorities in assessment and stabiliza-
Differentiate among causes, signs and symp- tion measures for the pregnant trauma victim.
toms, possible complications, and management
of miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, incompetent
cervix, and hydatidiform mole.
715
716 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
Additional information related to the content in Chapter 23 can be found on
the companion website at or on the interactive companion CD
http://evolve.elsevier.com/Lowdermilk/Maternity/ NCLEX Review Questions
NCLEX Review Questions Case StudyPreeclampsia
Case StudyPreeclampsia Plan of CarePlacenta Previa
WebLinks Plan of CareMild Preeclampsia: Home Care
S
Plan of CareSevere Preeclampsia: Hospital Care
ome women experience significant tion remains U-shaped, with women younger than 20 years
problems during the months of gesta- of age and older than 40 years of age having the highest rates
tion that can greatly affect pregnancy of occurrence of hypertension. Maternal race also influences
outcome. Some of these conditions de- the rate of pregnancy-associated hypertension, with the high-
velop as a result of the pregnant state; others are problems est rates seen in Native American (49.7 per 1000) and African
that could happen to anyone, at any time of life, but occur American (40.2 per 1000) women. Hispanic women have an
in this case during pregnancy. This chapter discusses a vari- intermediate rate (25.9 per 1000), and Asian or Pacific Is-
ety of disorders that did not exist before pregnancy, all of lander women have the lowest rate for hypertension com-
which have at least one thing in common: their occurrence plicating pregnancy (19.6 per 1000) (Martin et al., 2005). In
in pregnancy puts the woman and fetus at risk. Hyperten- the United States, preeclampsia ranks second only to em-
sion in pregnancy, hyperemesis gravidarum, hemorrhagic bolic events as a cause of maternal mortality and accounts
complications of early and late pregnancy, surgery during for almost 15% of these deaths (National High Blood Pres-
pregnancy, trauma, and infections are discussed. sure Education Program Working Group on High Blood
Pressure in Pregnancy [Working Group], 2000). Hyperten-
HYPERTENSION IN PREGNANCY sion (chronic and gestational) complicating pregnancy in-
creases the womans risk for a cesarean birth.
Significance and Incidence Preeclampsia predisposes the woman to potentially lethal
Hypertension is the most common medical complication of complications, including eclampsia, abruptio placentae, dis-
pregnancy (Martin et al., 2005). A significant contributor to seminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), acute renal fail-
maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality, preeclamp- ure, hepatic failure, adult respiratory distress syndrome, and
sia complicates approximately 9% to 22% of all pregnancies cerebral hemorrhage (Working Group, 2000). Preeclampsia
not ending in first-trimester miscarriages (American College occurs primarily after the second trimester of pregnancy and
of Obstetricians and Gynecologists [ACOG], 2002; Martin contributes significantly to intrauterine fetal death and peri-
et al., 2005). The rate has risen steadily by about 30% to 40%, natal mortality (Working Group, 2000). Causes of perinatal
since 1990, though it has been essentially unchanged since death related to preeclampsia are uteroplacental insufficiency
2000 for all age, racial, and ethnic groups. The current rate and abruptio placentae, which lead to intrauterine death,
is 37.4 per 1000 live births (Martin et al., 2005). In addition, preterm birth, and low birth weight (Roberts, 2004).
rates for chronic hypertension have increased moderately Eclampsia (characterized by seizures) from significant
(8.4 per 1000), whereas the rate for eclampsia has declined to cerebral effects of preeclampsia is the major maternal haz-
(4.0 per 1000 live births) (Martin et al., 2005). Age distribu- ard. As a rule, maternal and perinatal morbidity and mor-
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 717
tality rates are highest among cases in which eclampsia is seen tension may occur independently or simultaneously. The
early in gestation (before 28 weeks), maternal age is greater diagnosis and differentiation between gestational hyper-
than 25 years, the woman is a multigravida, and chronic hy- tension and preeclampsia is made in the postpartum period.
pertension or renal disease is present (Mattar & Sibai, 2000). If the woman has not developed preeclampsia and her BP
The fetus of the eclamptic woman is at increased risk for hy- returns to normal values by 12 weeks after birth, the woman
pertension pregnancy, preterm birth, intrauterine growth re- is diagnosed with transient hypertension. If BP values remain
striction (IUGR), and acute hypoxia (Gilbert & Harmon, elevated, then the diagnosis of chronic hypertension is made
2003). (ACOG, 2002; Working Group, 2000).
Classification Preeclampsia
The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy encompass a vari- Preeclampsia is a pregnancy-specific condition in
ety of conditions featuring an elevation of maternal blood which hypertension develops after 20 weeks of gestation in
TABLE 23-1
Classification of Hypertensive States of Pregnancy
TYPE DESCRIPTION
Modified from Gilbert, E., & Harmon, J. (2003). Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery (3rd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby; Cunningham, F.,Leveno, K., Bloom,
S., Hauth, J., Gilstrap, L., Wenstrom, K. (2005). Williams obstetrics (22nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
718 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
TABLE 23-2
Differentiation between Mild and Severe Preeclampsia
MILD PREECLAMPSIA SEVERE PREECLAMPSIA
MATERNAL EFFECTS
Blood pressure (BP) BP reading >140/90 mm Hg 2, 4-6 hr Rise to 160/110 mm Hg on two sepa-
apart rate occasions 4-6 hr apart with
pregnant woman on bed rest
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) >105 mm Hg >105 mm Hg
Proteinuria
Qualitative dipstick Proteinuria of 300 mg in a 24-hr Proteinuria of 2.0 grams in 24 hr or
Quantitative 24-hr analysis specimen; 1+ on dipstick 2+ on dipstick
Reflexes May be normal Hyperreflexia 3+, possible ankle
clonus
Urine output Output matching intake, 30 ml/hr or <20 ml/hr or <400-500 ml/24 hr
<650 ml/24 hr
Headache Absent or transient Persistent or Severe
Visual problems Absent Blurred, photophobia, blind spots on
funduscopy
Irritability or changes in affect Transient Severe
Epigastric pain Absent Present
Serum creatinine Normal Elevated, >1.2 mg/dl
Thrombocytopenia Absent Present, <100,000/mm3
AST elevation Normal or minimal Marked
Pulmonary edema Absent Present
FETAL EFFECTS
Placental perfusion Reduced Decreased perfusion expressing as
IUGR in fetus; FHR: late decelera-
tions
Premature placental aging Not apparent At birth placenta appearing smaller
than normal for duration of preg-
nancy, premature aging apparent
with numerous areas of broken
syncytia, ischemic necroses (white
infarcts) numerous, intervillous
fibrin deposition (red infarcts)
AST, Aspartate aminotransferase; FHR, fetal heart rate; IUGR, intrauterine growth restriction.
Sources: ACOG (2002). Diagnosis and management of preeclampsia and eclampsia. AGOG Practice Bulletin number 33, Washington DC: AGOG;
Cunningham, F., Leveno, K., Bloom, S., Hauth, J., Gilstrap, L., Wenstrom, K. (2005). Williams obstetrics (22nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
More accurate readings are obtained with use of an appro- rest. It may also be manifested as a rapid weight gain of more
priate size cuff (1.5 times longer than the upper arm cir- than 2 kg in 1 week. Edema frequently occurs in pregnancy
cumference) and with a mercury sphygmomanometer and is no longer considered diagnostic of preeclampsia
(ACOG, 2002). Women who demonstrate an increase of (ACOG, 2002; Working Group, 2000).
30 mm Hg systolic or 15 mm Hg diastolic should be closely
monitored if the BP elevation occurs with proteinuria and
hyperuricemia (uric acid of 6 mg/dl or more) (ACOG, 2002; Severe preeclampsia
Working Group, 2000). See Box 23-1 for instructions for Severe preeclampsia is the presence of any one of the fol-
measuring BP. lowing in the woman diagnosed with preeclampsia: (1) sys-
Proteinuria is defined as a concentration of >30 mg/dl tolic BP of at least 160 mm Hg or diastolic BP of at least
in a random urine or more in at least two random urine spec- 110 mm Hg; (2) proteinuria of greater than 2 g protein ex-
imens collected at least 6 hours apart. In a 24-hour specimen, creted in a 24-hour specimen, or greater than 2+ on two ran-
proteinuria is defined as a concentration of 300 mg/24 dom dipstick measurements taken at least 4 hours apart;
hours. Due to the discrepancies between a random urine and (3) oliguria, of less than 500 ml over 24 hours; (4) cerebral
a 24 hour urine protein, the 24 hour urine is preferred for or visual disturbances, such as altered level of consciousness
diagnosis (Working Group, 2000). Pathologic edema is a clin- (LOC), headache, scotomata, or blurred vision; (5) hepatic
ically evident, generalized accumulation of fluid of the face, involvement, including epigastric pain; (6) thrombocy-
hands, or abdomen that is not responsive to 12 hours of bed topenia with a platelet count less than 100,000/mm3; (7) pul-
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 719
BOX 23-2 circulation. This theory seems compatible with the high in-
Risk Factors Associated with the cidence of preeclampsia among women exposed to a large
Development of Preeclampsia mass of trophoblastic tissue as seen in twin pregnancies or
Chronic renal disease
hydatidiform moles.
Chronic hypertension Genetic predisposition may be another immunologic fac-
Family history of preeclampsia tor. Dekker (2001) reported a greater frequency of preeclamp-
Multifetal gestation sia and eclampsia among daughters and granddaughters of
Primigravidity or new partner with multiparous woman women with a history of eclampsia, which suggests an
Extremes of maternal age <19 years or >40 years autosomal recessive gene controlling the maternal immune
Diabetes response. Paternal factors are also being examined
Rh
incompatibility
(Cunningham et al., 2005; Robillard, 2002).
Obesity Diets inadequate in nutrients, especially protein, calcium,
African-American ethnicity sodium, magnesium, and vitamins E and C, may be an eti-
Insulin resistance ologic factor in preeclampsia. Some practitioners prescribe
Limited sperm exposure with same partner high-protein diets (90 mg supplemental protein) without
Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy caloric restriction and moderate sodium intake in the pre-
Pregnancies after donor insemination, oocyte dona-
vention and treatment of this disorder. However, data are
tion, embryo donation
Maternal infections
limited regarding the association between diet and
Data from: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). preeclampsia.
(2002). Diagnosis and management of preeclampsia and eclampsia. ACOG Preeclampsia progresses along a continuum from mild dis-
Practice Bulletin no. 33. Washington, DC: ACOG; Gilbert, E., & Harmon, J.
(2003). Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery (3rd ed.). St. Louis: ease to severe preeclampsia, HELLP syndrome, or eclamp-
Mosby; Sibai, B., Dekker, G., & Kupferminc, M. (2005). Preeclampsia. Lancet, sia. The pathophysiology of preeclampsia reflects alterations
365(9461) 785-799.
in the normal adaptations of pregnancy. Normal physiologic
adaptations to pregnancy include increased blood plasma
volume, vasodilation, decreased systemic vascular resistance,
Immunologic factors may play an important role in the elevated cardiac output, and decreased colloid osmotic pres-
development of preeclampsia (Roberts, 2004; Sibai, sure (Box 23-3).
2002). The presence of a foreign protein, the placenta, or Pathologic changes in the endothelial cells of the
the fetus may be perceived by the mothers immune sys- glomeruli (glomeruloendotheliosis) are uniquely character-
tem as an antigen. This may then trigger an abnormal im- istic of preeclampsia, particularly in nulliparous women. The
munologic response. This theory is supported by the in- main pathogenic factor is not an increase in BP but poor per-
creased incidence of preeclampsia or eclampsia in first-time fusion as a result of vasospasm. Arteriolar vasospasm di-
mothers (first exposure to fetal tissue) or to multiparous minishes the diameter of blood vessels, which impedes blood
women pregnant by a new partner (Cunningham et al., flow to all organs and raises BP (Working Group, 2000).
2005; Li & Wi, 2000). Preeclampsia may be an immune Function in organs such as the placenta, kidneys, liver, and
complex disease in which the maternal antibody system is brain is decreased by as much as 40% to 60%. The patho-
overwhelmed from excessive fetal antigens in the maternal physiologic sequelae are shown in Fig. 23-2.
BPvasospasm
Activation of Intravascular
Vasoconstriction coagulation fluid
cascade redistribution
IUGR
Uteroplacental arteriole lesions Abruptio placentae
Increased uterine contractility
Decreased placental perfusion
Increased Proteinuria
Increased plasma uric acid
thromboxane to and creatinine
Placental production of Glomerular damage
prostacyclin/ Oliguria
endothelin increased sensitivity Increased sodium retention
(a substance toxic to to angiotensin II
endothelial cells)
Decreased nitric oxide Visual edema of face,
hands, and abdomen
Generalized edema Pitting edema after
Vasospasms
Fluid shifts from 12 hours of bed rest
intravascular to
intracellular space
(Decreased plasma volume) Headaches
Endothelial (Increased hematocrit) Cortical brain spasms Hyperreflexia
cell damage Seizure activity
Increased endothelin-1
Pulmonary edema Dyspnea
Intravascular
coagulation Retinal arteriolar spasms Blurred vision
Scotoma
Fig. 23-2 Pathophysiology of preeclampsia. (Modified from Gilbert, E., & Harmon, J. [2003].
Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery [3rd ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
It is important to note whether the woman is having un- not obvious, the pregnant woman is asked whether it was
usual, frequent, or severe headaches; visual disturbances; or present when she awoke. Edema may be described as de-
epigastric pain. Abnormal amount and pattern of weight pendent or pitting.
gain and increased signs of edema may be present even Dependent edema is edema of the lowest or most de-
though they may not be specifically diagnostic signs of pendent parts of the body, where hydrostatic pressure is
preeclampsia. greatest. If a pregnant woman is ambulatory, this edema may
first be evident in the feet and ankles. If the pregnant woman
Physical examination is confined to bed, the edema is more likely to occur in the
Personnel caring for pregnant women need to be con- sacral region.
sistent in taking and recording BP measurements in the stan- Pitting edema is edema that leaves a small depression or
dardized manner (see Box 23-1). Electronic BP devices are pit after finger pressure is applied to the swollen area. The
less accurate in high flow states such as pregnancy or in hy- pit, which is caused by movement of fluid to adjacent tis-
pertensive or hypotensive states. sue away from the point of pressure, normally disappears
Observation of edema in addition to hypertension war- within 10 to 30 seconds. Although the amount of edema is
rants additional investigation. Edema is assessed for distri- difficult to quantify, the method shown in Fig. 23-3 may be
bution, degree, and pitting. If periorbital or facial edema is used to record relative degrees of edema formation.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 723
A B C D
2 mm 4 mm 6 mm 8 mm
Fig. 23-3 Assessment of pitting edema of lower extremities. A, +1; B, +2; C, +3; D, +4.
Symptoms reflecting central nervous system (CNS) and An important assessment is determination of fetal status.
visual system involvement usually accompany facial edema. Uteroplacental perfusion is decreased in women with
Although it is not a routine assessment during the prenatal preeclampsia, placing the fetus in jeopardy. Daily fetal move-
period, evaluation of the fundus of the eye yields valuable ment counts are obtained. The fetal heart rate (FHR) is as-
data. An initial baseline finding of normal eye grounds as- sessed for baseline rate and variability and accelerations,
sists in differentiating preexisting disease from a new disease which indicate an intact, oxygenated fetal CNS. Abnormal
process. The woman will also be assessed for epigastric pain baseline rate, decreased or absent variability, and late de-
and oliguria. Respirations are also assessed for crackles, which celerations are indications of fetal intolerance to the in-
may indicate pulmonary edema. trauterine environment. Biophysical or biochemical moni-
Deep tendon reflexes (DTRs) are evaluated if preeclamp- toring such as nonstress tests (NSTs), contraction stress
sia is suspected. The biceps and patellar reflexes and ankle testing, biophysical profile (BPP), and serial ultrasonography
clonus are assessed, and the findings recorded. are used to assess fetal status.
Doppler flow velocimetry studies are used for evaluating
NURSE ALERT The evaluation of DTRs is especially im- maternal and fetal well-being (see Chapter 21). Uteropla-
portant if the woman is being treated with magnesium cental perfusion is assessed by measuring the velocity of
sulfate; absence of DTRs is an early indication of im- blood flow through the uterine artery, umbilical arteries, or
pending magnesium toxicity. both. Abnormal uterine artery Doppler flow is associated
To elicit the biceps reflex, the examiner strikes a down- with risk of IUGR in women with HELLP syndrome (Bush,
ward blow over the thumb, which is situated over the biceps OBrien, & Barton, 2001). Currently, this diagnostic test is
tendon (Fig. 23-4, A). Normal response is flexion of the arm not recommended as a general screening test for preeclamp-
at the elbow, described as a 2+ response (Table 23-3). The sia (Sibai, 2002).
patellar reflex is elicited with the womans legs hanging freely Uterine tonicity is evaluated for signs of labor and abrup-
over the end of the examining table or with the woman ly- tio placentae. If labor is suspected, a vaginal examination for
ing on her left side with the knee slightly flexed. A blow with
a percussion hammer is dealt directly to the patellar tendon,
inferior to the patella. Normal response is the extension or TABLE 23-3
kicking out of the leg (Fig. 23-4, B). To assess for hyperac- Assessing Deep Tendon Reflexes
tive reflexes (clonus) at the ankle joint, the examiner supports
GRADE DEEP TENDON REFLEX RESPONSE
the leg with the knee flexed (Fig. 23-4, C ). With one hand,
the examiner sharply dorsiflexes the foot, maintains the po- 0 No response
sition for a moment, and then releases the foot. Normal 1+ Sluggish or diminished
(negative clonus) response is elicited when no rhythmic os- 2+ Active or expected response
cillations (jerks) are felt while the foot is held in dorsiflex- 3+ More brisk than expected, slightly hyper-
active
ion. When the foot is released, no oscillations are seen as the
4+ Brisk, hyperactive, with intermittent or
foot drops to the plantar flexed position. Abnormal (posi- transient clonus
tive clonus) response is recognized by rhythmic oscillations
of one or more beats felt when the foot is in dorsiflexion From Seidel, H., Ball, J., Dains, J., Benedict, G. (2003). Mosbys guide to
and seen as the foot drops to the plantar flexed position. physical examination (5th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
724 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
A B C
Fig. 23-4 A, Biceps reflex. B, Patellar reflex with patients legs hanging freely over end of ex-
amining table. C, Test for ankle clonus. (From Seidel, H., Ball, J., Dains, J., Benedict, G. [2003].
Mosbys guide to physical examination [5th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
cervical changes is indicated (see Table 23-8 for signs of appear suddenly and without warning in a seemingly stable
abruptio placentae). woman with only minimum BP elevations (Sibai, 2004).
During the physical examination, the pregnant woman Seizures may recur within minutes of the first convulsion,
is examined for signs of progression of mild preeclampsia to or the woman may never have another. During the seizure,
severe preeclampsia or eclampsia. Signs of worsening liver the mother and fetus are not receiving oxygen, so eclamp-
involvement, renal failure, worsening hypertension, cerebral tic seizures produce a metabolic insult to both the mother
involvement, and developing coagulopathies must be as- and fetus.
sessed and documented. Respirations are assessed for crack-
les or diminished breath sounds, which may indicate pul- Laboratory tests
monary edema. Noninvasive assessment parameters include Blood and urine specimens are collected to aid in the di-
LOC, BP, hemoglobin oxygen saturation (pulse oximetry), agnosis and treatment of preeclampsia, HELLP syndrome,
electrocardiographic findings, and urine output. Eclampsia and chronic hypertension. Baseline laboratory test infor-
is usually preceded by various premonitory symptoms and mation is useful in cases of early diagnosis of preeclamp-
signs, including headache, severe epigastric pain, hyper- sia because it can be compared with later results to evalu-
reflexia, and hemoconcentration. However, convulsions can ate progression and severity of disease (Table 23-4). An
TABLE 23-4
Common Laboratory Changes in Preeclampsia
NORMAL NONPREGNANT PREECLAMPSIA HELLP
Sources: Cunningham, F. et al., (2005). Williams obstetrics (22nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Dildy, G. (2004) Complications of preeclampsia. In G. Dildy, M. Belfort, G. Saade, J. Phelan, G. Hankins, & S. Clark (Eds.), Critical care obstetrics (4th ed.)
Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. Roberts, J. (2004). Pregnancy-related hypertension. In R. Creasy, R. Resnik, & J. Iams (Eds.), Maternal-fetal medicine: Prin-
ciples and practice (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
*LDH values differ according to the test/assays being done.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 725
initial blood specimen is obtained for the following tests to Expected Outcomes of Care
assess the disease process and its effect on renal and hepatic Expected outcomes for care of women with hypertensive
functioning: disorders of pregnancy include that the woman will do the
Complete blood cell count (including a platelet count) following:
Clotting studies (including bleeding time, PT, PTT, and
fibrinogen) Recognize and immediately report signs and symp-
toms indicative of worsening condition
Liver enzymes (lactate dehydrogenase [LDH], AST,
ALT) Adhere to the medical regimen to minimize risk to her-
self and her fetus
Chemistry panel (blood urea nitrogen [BUN], creati-
nine, glucose, uric acid) Identify and use available support systems
Type and screen, possible crossmatch and antibody Verbalize her fears and concerns to cope with the con-
dition and situation
screen
The hematocrit, hemoglobin, and platelet levels are mon- Develop no signs of eclampsia and its complications
itored closely for changes indicating a worsening of patient Give birth to a healthy infant
status. Because hepatic involvement is a possible compli- Develop no adverse sequelae from her condition or its
management
cation, serum glucose levels are monitored if liver function
tests indicate elevated liver enzymes. Once the platelet count Plan of Care and Interventions
drops below 100,000/mm3, coagulation profiles are needed Nursing actions are derived from medical management,
to identify developing DIC (Sibai, 2002). health care provider directives, and nursing diagnoses. The
Urine output is assessed for volume of at least 30 ml/hr most effective therapy is prevention. Early prenatal care,
or 120 ml/4 hr. Proteinuria is determined from dipstick test- identification of pregnant women at risk, and recognition
ing of a clean-catch or catheterized urine specimen. A read- and reporting of physical warning signs are essential com-
ing of 2+ or 3+ on two or more occasions, at least 6 hours ponents for optimizing maternal and perinatal outcomes.
apart, should be followed by a 24-hour urine collection. A The nurses skills in assessing the woman for factors and
24-hour collection to test for protein and creatinine clear- symptoms of preeclampsia and educating her about re-
ance is more reflective of true renal status. Renal laboratory porting symptoms cannot be overestimated.
assessments include monitoring trends in serum creatinine The goals of therapy are to ensure maternal safety and to
and BUN levels. As renal function becomes compromised,
deliver a healthy newborn as close to term as possible. At or
renal excretion of creatinine and other waste products, in-
near term, the plan of care for a woman with preeclampsia
cluding magnesium sulfate, decreases. As renal excretion de-
is most likely to be induction of labor, preceded, if neces-
creases, serum levels of creatinine, BUN, uric acid, and mag-
sary, by cervical ripening. When preeclampsia is diagnosed
nesium increase. Proteinuria is usually a late sign in the
in a woman at less than 37 weeks of gestation, however, im-
course of preeclampsia (ACOG, 2002; Working Group,
mediate birth may not be in the best interest of the fetus.
2000).
In this situation the initial intervention is usually a thorough
Protein readings are designated as follows: evaluation of both the maternal and fetal condition. This
0 negative
evaluation may be done in the high risk clinic or the physi-
Trace trace
cians office. A multidisciplinary plan of care is then devel-
1+ 30 mg/dl oped, based on the assessment findings.
2+ 100 mg/dl
3+ 300 mg/dl
4+ 1000 mg (1 g)/dl
Nursing diagnoses for the woman with hypertensive dis-
orders in pregnancy may include the following:
Emotional and psychologic support is essential in assisting return to the physicians office or high risk clinic for as-
the woman and her family to cope. Their perception of the sessment as scheduled.
disease process, the reasons for it, and the care received will The fetal condition also is closely monitored to allow ad-
affect their compliance with and participation in therapy. ditional time for fetal growth and maturation. An evaluation
The family needs to use coping mechanisms and support sys- of fetal growth by ultrasound should be obtained every
tems to help them through this crisis. A plan of care specif- 3 weeks. Fetal movement is counted daily. Other fetal assess-
ically designed for the woman with preeclampsia must be su- ment tests include an NST once or twice a week and a BPP as
perimposed on the nursing care all women need during labor needed. Fetal jeopardy as evidenced by inappropriate growth
and the birth process. or abnormal test results necessitates immediate interventions
for birth (ACOG, 2002; Sibai, 2002; Working Group, 2000).
Mild preeclampsia and home care Activity restriction. Bed rest in the lateral re-
If the woman has mild preeclampsia (e.g., BP is stable, cumbent position is a standard therapy for preeclampsia and
urine protein is less than 300 mg in a 24-hour collection, and may improve uteroplacental blood flow during pregnancy.
woman has no subjective complaints), she may be managed Bed rest has been shown to be beneficial in decreasing BP
expectantly, usually at home. The maternal-fetal condition and promoting diuresis. However, recommendations for bed
must be assessed two to three times per week. Many agen- rest for all high risk pregnant women is becoming more con-
cies are available to provide this assessment in the home. troversial. Maloni and Kutil (2000) and Maloni (2002) doc-
Arrangements for this service may be made, depending on
the womans insurance coverage. If home nursing care is
not an option, the woman may be asked to perform self- Critical Thinking Exercise
assessment daily, including weight, urine dipstick protein de-
Preeclampsia
terminations, BP measurement, and fetal movement count-
Demetria is a 16-year-old pregnant African-American,
ing. She will be instructed to report the development of any
primigravida who is 33 weeks of gestation. Her medical
subjective symptoms immediately to her health care history is positive with type 2 diabetes mellitus and she
provider (Patient Instructions for Self-Care box) and to has a maternal history of hypertension. Her preconcep-
tual weight is 263 and she is 63 inches tall. A baseline BP
is not noted. She is admitted from the local health de-
PATIENT INSTRUCTIONS partment to the hospital with elevated BPs and DTR of 3+
FOR SELF-CARE blood pressures ranging from 150/92164/96 while lying
on her left side.
Assessing and Reporting Clinical Her obstetric provider orders:
Signs of Preeclampsia V.S. every 4 hours
Report to your health care provider immediately any in- FHR every shift
crease in your blood pressure, protein in urine, weight Regular diet
gain greater than 1 lb/wk, or edema. Heplock
Take your blood pressure on the same arm in a sitting CBC, chem. 14, liver panel, platelets and uric acid
position each time for consistent and accurate readings. NST on admission
Support arm on a table in a horizontal position at heart 24-hour urine for total protein and creatinine
level. Bed rest with bathroom privilege maintain side
Weigh yourself using the same scale, wearing the same lying position
clothes, at the same time each day, after voiding, be- Daily weights
fore breakfast, for reliable daily weights. 10 mg of hydralazine IV now and recheck BP in 10 min-
Dipstick test your clean-catch urine sample to assess utes with manual cuff
proteinuria; report frequency of or burning on urina- External fetal monitoring
tion. Betamethasone 12 mg IM now, repeat in 24 hours
Report to your health care provider if proteinuria is 2+ 1 Is there sufficient evidence to draw conclusions about
or more or if you have a decrease in urine output. her diagnosis and preferred treatment?
Assess your babys activity daily. Decreased activity 2 What assumptions can be made about the following
(four or fewer movements per hour) may indicate fe-
items:
tal compromise and should be reported.
a. Possible diagnoses
It is important to keep your scheduled prenatal ap-
b. Physical assessment, laboratory tests, and diag-
pointments so that any changes in your or your babys
condition can be detected. nostic procedures that have been ordered or will be
Keep a daily log or diary of your assessments for your ordered
home health care nurse, or bring it with you to your c. Factors contributing to her high blood pressure in
next prenatal visit. pregnancy
Report to your health care provider immediately any 3 What implications and priorities for nursing care can
headache, dizziness, blurring of vision or muscular ir- be drawn at this time?
ritability (seizures) 4 Does the evidence objectively support your conclusion?
5 Are there alternative perspectives to your conclusion?
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 727
umented adverse physiologic outcomes related to complete of bowel function, and a sense of well-being (Maloni &
bed rest, including cardiovascular deconditioning; diuresis Kutil, 2000; Maloni, 2002). Relaxation techniques can help
with accompanying fluid, electrolyte, and weight loss; mus- reduce the stress associated with the high risk condition and
cle atrophy; and psychologic stress. These changes begin on prepare the woman for labor and birth.
the first day of bed rest and continue for the duration of ther- Diet. Diet and fluid recommendations are much the
apy. Sibai (2002) recommends rest at home, rather than strict same as for healthy pregnant women. Diets high in protein
bed rest, and allows a woman hospitalized with mild pre- and low in salt have been suggested to prevent preeclamp-
eclampsia to be out of bed. sia; however, the efficacy of this has not been proven. Sibai
Women with mild preeclampsia feel reasonably well; (2004) recommends a regular diet with no restriction of salt.
boredom from activity restriction is therefore common. Di- The exception may be the woman with chronic hyperten-
versionary activities, visits from friends, telephone conver- sion that was successfully controlled with a low-salt diet
sations, and creation of a comfortable and convenient en- before the pregnancy. Adequate fluid intake helps maintain
vironment are ways to cope with the boredom (Patient optimum fluid volume and aids in renal perfusion and fil-
Instructions for Self-Care box). Gentle exercise (e.g., range tration. The nurse uses assessment data regarding the wo-
of motion, stretching, Kegel exercises, pelvic tilts) is im- mans diet to counsel her in areas of deficiency, as needed
portant in maintaining muscle tone, blood flow, regularity (Patient Instructions for Self-Care box).
QUESTIONS FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS Have a portable phone bedsideschedule appoint-
Clarify with your health care provider: What is bedrest? ments by phone, parent teacher conferences.
Question your activity level, positioning, driving, bathroom Have available:
privileges, working inside the home, child care activities, Post-it notes
personal hygiene, mobility, stairs, diet, visitors, and sexual Cups with lids and flexible straws
activity. Paper plates
When should I contact my OB provider? Plastic forks, spoons, and knives
How often will I need to see my OB provider and what Baby monitor or walkie talkies
tests will be required and why? Wet wipes
If my pregnancy does not go to term, where will I give Big trashbasket
birth and who will be my doctor and the babys Notebook to record questions for providers, phone
doctor? numbers, to-do lists
Will I need to take any medications at home? If so, Rollable cart or easily moved crate to keep items
why? organized
Will I have any home monitoring equipment or health Pillows and more pillows (body pillow)
care providers making home visits? Eggcrate mattress
What symptoms would require me to go to the hospital? Envelopes and stationery
Take-out menus
SURVIVING BED RESTTIPS FOR HOME Telephone answering machine or service
Stock mini-fridge or cooler with healthy snacks and Reading materials
beverages. Movies/CDs
Develop a schedule and followpay bills on Monday, Plan for family timevisits and interaction, particularly
make a grocery list on Tuesday. with small children
Contact post office and delivery companies to allow If possible, hire:
them to leave packages with specific neighbors or Housecleaning
ask that signature requirement be waived and pack- Lawn care
age left at door. Child care assistance
Have computer available at bedside or use a laptop. Share/trade magazines with friends.
Use for communication with friends, to conduct Explore your interest in a new hobbyneedlework, new
business, and to shop as necessary. Also use to com- reading content area.
municate with Internet support groups and obtain in- Track your medicinerecording type/times/amount to
formation. minimize errors.
Order supplies, such as stamps by Internet or phone. Monitor and record a daily fetal movement count.
Have a TV and CD with remote, and record programs to Question your OB provider regarding the availability of a
watch when bored. physical therapist to minimize bed rest complications
Delegate responsibilitieslaundry, pick up groceries, Identify relaxation exercises and activities (music) and
dry cleaning, meet repair people, child care, organize implement.
meals.
Continued
728 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
Drink 6-8 glasses of water a day and eat foods high in Share/trade magazines with friends and other antepartal
fiber. Ask your health care provider if you may have a patients
prenatal vitamin with a stool softener. If possible bring laptop with DVD capabilities to allow
you to watch movies.
SURVIVING BED RESTTIPS FOR HOSPITAL Ask friends to bring healthy food and snacks when visit-
Clarify with your health care provider: What is bed rest. ing rather than flowers.
Question your activity level, positioning, bathroom Explore your interest in hand-held games.
privileges, childrens visits, activities, personal hygiene, Explore your interest in a new hobbyneedlework, new
mobility, diet, and visitors. reading area.
In addition to survival tips for the home, the following Work with staff regarding schedulingOB provider ex-
may be useful in the hospital setting. ams, vital signs, nursing assessments, etc.
Bring your own pillow, shampoo, and conditioner. Bring earplugs to block the hospital noise.
Wheelchair for outside visits or visiting other antepartal Ask for a room with a view.
patients Have a large calendar and clock for easy viewing. Record
significant events on the calendar.
http://fpb.cwru.edu/Bedrest
http://www.momsonbedrest.com
Source: Maloni, J. (2002). Astronauts & pregnancy bed rest: What NASA is teaching us about inactivity. AWHONN Lifelines, 6(4), 318-323.
Maloni, J., & Kutil, R. (2000). Antepartum support group for women hospitalized on bed rest. MCN American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, 25(4), 204-210.
PATIENT INSTRUCTIONS 2004; Working Group, 2000). Recognition of the clinical and
FOR SELF-CARE laboratory findings of severe preeclampsia or HELLP syn-
Nutrition
drome is important if early, aggressive therapy is to be ini-
tiated to prevent maternal and perinatal mortality. An un-
Eat a nutritious, balanced diet (60 to 70 g protein,
favorable (uneffaced and undilated) cervix resulting from
1200 mg calcium, and adequate zinc, magnesium, and
vitamins). Consult with registered dietitian on the diet gestational age, the aggressive nature of this disorder, and the
best suited for you as an individual. associated perinatal mortality support cesarean birth for these
There is no sodium restriction; however, consider lim- women.
iting excessively salty foods (luncheon meats, pretzels, The administration of magnesium sulfate as prophylaxis
potato chips, pickles, sauerkraut). against seizures and an antihypertensive agent if diastolic
Eat foods with roughage (whole grains, raw fruits, and BP is higher than 100 mm Hg to 110 mm Hg are impor-
vegetables).
Drink six to eight 8-oz glasses of water per day. tant components of management. The woman with severe
Avoid alcohol and tobacco, and limit caffeine intake. preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome has multiple problems,
and nursing care must focus on both the mother and
fetus.
Hospital care. Antepartum care focuses on sta-
bilization and preparation for birth. The woman may be
Successful home care requires the woman to be well ed- admitted to an antepartum or a labor and birth unit, de-
ucated about preeclampsia and motivated to follow the plan pending on the hospital. If the womans condition is se-
of care. She must also be reliable about keeping appoint- vere, she may be placed in a medical intensive care unit
ments. The effects of illness, language, age, culture, beliefs, for hemody-namic monitoring (ACOG, 2002). Maternal
and support systems must be considered. The womans sup- and fetal surveillance, patient education regarding the dis-
port systems must be mobilized and involved in planning ease process, and supportive measures directed toward the
and implementing her care (Plan of Care). woman and her family are initiated. Assessments include
review of the cardiovascular system, pulmonary system, re-
Severe preeclampsia and nal system, hematologic system, and CNS. Monitoring uri-
HELLP syndrome nary output is critical because magnesium is excreted by
If the womans condition worsens or she already has se- the kidneys. Fetal assessments for well-being (e.g., NST,
vere preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome and is critically ill, BPP, fetal movement counts) are important because of the
she should receive appropriate management (usually in a ter- potential for hypoxia related to uteroplacental insuffi-
tiary care center), ranging from immediate birth to conser- ciency. Baseline laboratory assessments include metabolic
vative management of the pregnancy (ACOG, 2002; Sibai, studies for liver enzyme (AST, ALT, LDH) determination,
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 729
NURSING DIAGNOSIS Risk for injury related to Encourage verbalization of fears to decrease intensity of emo-
signs of preeclampsia tional response.
Expected Outcomes Woman will demonstrate abil- Involve woman and family in the management of her pre-
complete blood count with platelets, coagulation profile woman cope physically and psychologically with the side ef-
to assess for DIC, and electrolyte studies to establish re- fects of immobility and an environment limited in stimuli
nal functioning. and support. Thromboembolic events, a risk factor during
Weight is measured on admission and every day thereafter normal pregnancy, pose an even greater risk with preeclamp-
at the same time. An indwelling urinary catheter facilitates sia (Plan of Care).
monitoring of renal function and effectiveness of therapy but Intrapartum nursing care of the woman with severe
is used only in women with severe preeclampsia, eclampsia, preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome involves continuous
or HELLP syndrome. If appropriate, vaginal examination monitoring of maternal and fetal status as labor progresses.
may be done to check for cervical changes. Abdominal pal- The assessment and prevention of tissue hypoxia and hem-
pation establishes uterine tonicity and fetal size, activity, and orrhage, both of which can lead to permanent compromise
position. Electronic monitoring to determine fetal status is of vital organs, continue throughout the intrapartum and
initiated at least once a day. The nurses skill in implementing postpartum periods (Sibai, 2004).
the techniques described here can be reassuring to the Magnesium sulfate. One of the important goals
woman and her family. The womans room must be close of care for the woman with severe preeclampsia is preven-
to staff and emergency drugs, supplies, and equipment. tion or control of convulsions. Magnesium sulfate is the drug
Noise and external stimuli must be minimized. Seizure pre- of choice in the prevention and treatment of convulsions
cautions are taken (Box 23-4). caused by preeclampsia or eclampsia (ACOG, 2002;
Bed rest or restricted activity is commonly ordered, al- Cunningham et al., 2005; Nick, 2004). The routine use of
though there is a lack of scientific evidence to support the magnesium sulfate is indicated for severe preeclampsia,
efficacy of these restrictions (ACOG, 2002; Enkin et al., HELLP syndrome, or eclampsia. However, no data support
2001). The nurses ingenuity may be called on to help the the routine use of magnesium sulfate for women diagnosed
730 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
being added to the solution to reduce injection pain), and warmth, flushing, and nausea. Symptoms of mild toxicity in-
can be repeated at 4-hour intervals. Z-track technique should clude lethargy, muscle weakness, decreased DTRs, and
be used for the deep IM injection, followed by gentle mas- slurred speech. Increasing toxicity may be indicated by ma-
sage at the site. ternal hypotension, bradycardia, bradypnea, and heart block
Magnesium sulfate interferes with the release of acetyl- (Nick, 2004).
choline at the synapses, decreasing neuromuscular irritabil-
ity, depressing cardiac conduction, and decreasing CNS ir-
ritability. Because magnesium circulates in a free state and NURSE ALERT Loss of patellar reflexes, respiratory de-
unbound to protein and is excreted in the urine, accurate pression, oliguria, and decreased level of consciousness
recordings of maternal urine output must be obtained and are signs of magnesium toxicity. Actions are needed
monitored. Diuresis is an excellent prognostic sign; however, to prevent respiratory or cardiac arrest. If magnesium
toxicity is suspected, the infusion should be discontin-
if renal function declines, all of the magnesium sulfate will
ued immediately. Calcium gluconate, the antidote for
not be excreted and can cause magnesium toxicity.
magnesium sulfate, may also be ordered (10 ml of a
Because magnesium sulfate is a CNS depressant, the 10% solution, or 1 g) and given by slow IV push (usu-
nurse assesses for signs and symptoms of magnesium toxicity. ally by the physician) over at least 3 minutes to avoid
Serum magnesium levels are obtained on the basis of the undesirable reactions such as arrhythmias, bradycardia,
womans response and if any signs of toxicity are present. and ventricular fibrillation (Cunningham et al., 2005;
Expected side effects of magnesium sulfate are a feeling of Nick, 2004; Sibai, 2002).
BOX 23-5
Care of Patient with Preeclampsia Receiving Magnesium Sulfate
DTRs, Deep tendon reflexes; FHR, fetal heart rate; AST, aspirate aminotransferase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase.
732 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
NURSE ALERT Because magnesium sulfate is also a to- ticonvulsant (e.g., diazepam) may be administered (Roberts,
colytic agent, its use may increase the duration of labor. 2004). With adequate blood magnesium levels, the eclamp-
A preeclamptic woman receiving magnesium sulfate tic woman will rarely continue to have seizures. Approxi-
may need augmentation with oxytocin during labor.The
mately 20% of women with eclampsia do not follow the pro-
amount of oxytocin needed to stimulate labor may be
gression from mild disease to convulsion with the abrupt
more than that needed for a woman who is not re-
ceiving magnesium sulfate. onset of seizures (Sibai, Dekker, & Kupferminc, 2005). How-
ever, diazepam is not without fetal and neonatal effects. The
Control of blood pressure. For the severely hy- FHR loses variability. In the neonate there is depressed suck-
pertensive preeclamptic woman, antihypertensive medica- ing ability, hypotonia, and decreased respirations (Weiner &
tions may be ordered to lower the diastolic BP. Initiation of Buhimschi, 2004). The convulsions that occur in eclampsia
antihypertensive therapy reduces maternal morbidity and are frightening to observe. Increased hypertension and tonic
mortality rates associated with left ventricular failure and contraction of all body muscles (seen as arms flexed, hands
cerebral hemorrhage. Because a degree of maternal hyper- clenched, legs inverted) precede the tonic-clonic convulsions
tension is necessary to maintain uteroplacental perfusion, an- (Fig. 23-5). During this stage, muscles alternately relax and
tihypertensive therapy must not decrease the arterial pres- contract. Respirations are halted and then begin again with
sure too much or too rapidly. The target range for the long, deep, stertorous inhalations. Hypotension follows, and
diastolic pressure is therefore less than 110 mm Hg and the coma ensues. Nystagmus and muscular twitching persist for
systolic pressure less than 160 mm Hg (ACOG, 2002; a time. Disorientation and amnesia cloud the immediate re-
Cunningham et al., 2005; Sibai, Dekker, & Kupferminc, 2005). covery. Oliguria and anuria are notable. Seizures may recur
IV hydralazine remains the antihypertensive agent of within minutes of the first convulsion, or the woman may
choice for the treatment of hypertension in severe pre- never have another. Eclamptic seizures can result in tissue
eclampsia (ACOG, 2002; Cunningham et al., 2005). IV la- damage to the woman during the convulsion, especially if
betalol hydrochloride, nifedipine, verapamil, and oral she is in a bed with unpadded side rails. During the con-
methyldopa are also used (ACOG, 2002; Cunningham et al., vulsion the pregnant woman and fetus are not receiving oxy-
2005). The choice of agent used depends on patient response gen, so eclamptic seizures produce a marked metabolic in-
and physician preference. Table 23-5 compares antihyper- sult to both the woman and the fetus (Cunningham et al.,
tensive agents used to treat hypertension in pregnancy. 2005; Sibai, Dekker, & Kupferminc, 2005).
Magnesium sulfate does not seem to affect FHR in a Immediate care. The immediate care during a con-
healthy term fetus. Neonatal serum magnesium levels ap- vulsion is to ensure a patent airway and maintain oxygena-
proximate those levels of the mother (Cunningham et al., tion (Emergency box). When convulsions occur, the
2005). Magnesium sulfate dosage levels adequate to prevent woman is turned onto her side to prevent aspiration of vom-
maternal seizures have been determined to be safe for the itus and supine hypotension syndrome. After the convulsion
fetus with neonatal levels nearly equal with maternal levels ceases, food and fluid are suctioned from the glottis or tra-
(Cunningham et al., 2005). Toxic levels in the newborn can chea, and oxygen is administered by face mask. The drug of
cause neonatal depression and occur with severe hyper- choice, magnesium sulfate (e.g., 2 to 4 g) is given via IV push
magnesemia at birth (Cunningham et al., 2005). Although and repeated every 15 minutes with a maximum of 6 g.
rarely needed, calcium and exchange transfusion with me- Alternatively another anticonvulsant other than magnesium
chanical ventilation can be used to treat infants with hy- sulfate such as diazepam may be given (ACOG, 2002;
permagnesmia. Long-term effects of magnesium adminis- Cunningham et al., 2005; Sibai, Dekker, & Kupferminc,
tration on mothers and infants is under study (Magpie Trial 2005). If an IV is not already infusing then one is begun with
Follow-Up Study Management, 2004). at least an 18-gauge needle. Time, duration, and description
of convulsions are recorded, and any urinary or fecal in-
Eclampsia continence is noted. The fetus is monitored for adverse ef-
If eclampsia develops after the initiation of magnesium fects. Transient fetal bradycardia, decreased FHR variability,
sulfate therapy, additional magnesium sulfate or another an- and compensatory tachycardia are common.
TABLE 23-5
Pharmacologic Control of Hypertension in Pregnancy
EFFECTS
ACTION TARGET TISSUE MATERNAL FETAL NURSING ACTIONS
Aspiration is a leading cause of maternal morbidity and dilated because the uterus becomes hypercontractile and hy-
mortality after eclamptic seizure. After initial stabilization pertonic; and birth may be imminent. If not, once a
and airway management, the nurse should anticipate orders womans seizure activity and BP are controlled, a decision
for a chest radiograph and possibly arterial blood gases to should be made regarding whether birth should take place.
rule out the possibility of aspiration. The target levels for blood pressure management are a sys-
A rapid assessment of uterine activity, cervical status, and tolic blood pressure between 140 mm Hg and 160 mm Hg
fetal status is performed after a convulsion. During the con- and a diastolic between 90 mm Hg and 110 mm Hg. Blood
vulsion, membranes may have ruptured; the cervix may have pressure may be managed with hydralazine (10 mg doses) or
734 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
NURSE ALERT The woman is at risk for a boggy uterus perimposed preeclampsia, and an increased perinatal death
and a large lochia flow as a result of the magnesium sul- rate (threefold to fourfold) (Cunningham et al., 2005). Fe-
fate therapy. Uterine tone and lochial flow must be mon- tal effects include fetal growth restriction and small-for-
itored closely. gestational-age (SGA) infants (Cunningham et al., 2005;
The preeclamptic woman is unable to tolerate excessive Livingston & Sibai, 2001; Roberts, 2004). Ideally, women
postpartum blood loss because of hemoconcentration. Oxy- with chronic hypertension should be screened preconcep-
tocin or prostaglandin products are used to control bleed- tionally. Medications that may be teratogenic, such as an-
ing. Ergot products (e.g., Ergotrate, Methergine) are con- giotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, should be reviewed
traindicated because they can increase BP. The woman is (Peters & Flack, 2004). Women who are at high risk are usu-
asked to report symptoms such as headaches and blurred vi- ally managed with antihypertensive therapy and frequent as-
sion. The nurse assesses affect, LOC, BP, pulse, and respi- sessments of maternal and fetal well-being. Methyldopa (Al-
ratory status before an analgesic is given for headache. Mag- domet) is usually the drug of choice, although beta-blockers
nesium sulfate potentiates the action of narcotics, CNS and calcium channel blockers are also used (Chan & John-
depressants, and calcium channel blockers; these drugs must son, 2006; Cunningham et al., 2005; Working Group, 2000).
be administered with caution. The woman may need to con- Women at low risk for complications may be monitored
tinue an antihypertensive medication regimen if her diastolic closely, and antihypertensive therapy used as needed. As for
BP exceeds 100 mm Hg at hospital discharge. any individual with hypertension, lifestyle changes are rec-
The womans and familys responses to labor, birth, and ommended. These changes include limiting sodium intake,
the neonate are monitored. Interactions and involvement in performing exercise as appropriate, ingesting a balanced diet,
the care of the neonate are encouraged to the extent that the limiting caffeine intake, and avoiding alcohol and tobacco
woman and her family desire. In addition, the woman and (Gilbert & Harmon, 2003). Women at low risk may be in-
her family need opportunities to discuss their emotional re- duced at approximately 40 weeks of gestation. In contrast,
sponse to complications. The nurse provides information women at high risk are followed closely, and method and
concerning the prognosis. There is a sevenfold increase timing of birth are dependent on maternal and fetal status.
in the risk of recurrence of preeclampsia and eclampsia in Postpartally, women with chronic hypertension are at risk for
women who developed preeclampsia or eclampsia in their complications such as renal failure, pulmonary edema, and
first pregnancy (Duckitt & Harrington, 2005). heart failure. In addition, BP should be closely evaluated at
the 6-week postpartal visit to ascertain need for antihyper-
Prevention tensive therapy. As all antihypertensive medications are
Early prenatal care for identification of women at risk and found in breast milk, the drug of choice for women desir-
early detection of development of preeclampsia is the best ing to breastfeed primarily is methyldopa.
prevention because there is no known etiology for pre-
eclampsia. There have been numerous clinical trials study- Evaluation
ing various methods for prevention. These interventions in- Evaluation of the effectiveness of care of the woman with
cluded the use of low-dose aspirin, antioxidants, calcium, high blood pressure in pregnancy is based on the expected
magnesium, zinc, and fish oil dietary supplementation, pro- outcomes.
tein or sodium restriction, heparin or low molecular weight
heparin administration and antihypertensive medications in HYPEREMESIS GRAVIDARUM
women with chronic hypertension (Sibai, Dekker, &
Kupferminc, 2005). Continued research is necessary to iden- Nausea and vomiting complicate approximately 70% of all
tify strategies to reduce the incidence or severity of pre- pregnancies beginning typically at 4 to 6 weeks of gestation
eclampsia in healthy pregnant women. Nurses should be and are generally confined to the first trimester or the first
aware of what strategies are being studied and use the most 16 to 20 weeks of gestation, peaking from 8 to 12 weeks of
reliable evidence about the results so that they can counsel gestation (Cunningham et al., 2005; Scott & Abu-Hamda,
pregnant women about interventions that are evidenced 2004). Although these manifestations are distressing, they are
based and likely to be beneficial Enkin et al., 2001). One ex- typically benign, with no significant metabolic alterations or
cellent resource for evidence-based care is the Cochrane Preg- risks to the mother or fetus. Theories include increasing lev-
nancy and Childbirth Database (Callister & Hobbins- els of estrogens, human chorionic gonadotropin, transient
Garbett, 2000). maternal hyperthyroidism, stress and interrelated psy-
chosocial components (Davis, 2004; Meighan & Wood,
Chronic hypertension 2004; Scott & Abu-Hamda, 2004).
Chronic hypertension occurs in up to 5% of pregnant When vomiting during pregnancy becomes excessive
women, with the incidence higher in African-American enough to cause weight loss of at least 5% of prepregnancy
women and in women older than 40 years of age (Livingston weight and is accompanied by dehydration, electrolyte im-
& Sibai, 2001). Chronic hypertension in pregnancy is asso- balance, ketosis, and acetonuria, the disorder is termed
ciated with increased incidence of abruptio placentae, su- hyperemesis gravidarum. The estimated incidence varies
736 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
from 3.3 to 10 per 1000 births (Scott & Abu-Hamda, 2004). The assessment should include frequency, severity, and
Approximately 1% of women require hospitalization. Hy- duration of episodes of nausea and vomiting. If the woman
peremesis gravidarum usually begins during the first 10 weeks reports vomiting, then the assessment should also include
of pregnancy. Hyperemesis gravidarum has been associated the approximate amount and color of the vomitus. Other
with women who are nulliparous, have increased body symptoms such as diarrhea, indigestion, and abdominal pain
weight, have a history of migraines, are pregnant with twins or distention are also identified. The woman is asked to re-
(Davis, 2004; Scott & Abu-Hamda, 2004), or hydatifiform port any precipitating factors relating to the onset of her
mole (Berman, Di Saia, & Tewari, 2004). In addition, an in- symptoms. Any pharmacologic or nonpharmacologic treat-
terrelated psychologic component has been associated with ment measures should be recorded. Prepregnancy weight and
hyperemesis and must be assessed. (Cunningham et al., documented weight gain or loss during pregnancy are im-
2005; Scott & Abu-Hamda, 2004). The effects of hyper- portant to note.
emesis gravidarum on perinatal outcome vary with the sever- The womans weight and vital signs are measured and a
ity of the disorder. Women with hyperemesis gravidarum complete physical examination is performed, with attention
have a decreased risk of miscarriage (Scott & Abu-Hamda, to signs of fluid and electrolyte imbalance and nutritional
2004). status. The most important initial laboratory test to be ob-
tained is a dipstick determination of ketonuria. Other lab-
Etiology oratory tests that may be ordered are a urinalysis, a complete
The etiology of hyperemesis gravidarum remains obscure. blood cell count, electrolytes, liver enzymes, and bilirubin
Several theories have been proposed as to the cause, although levels. These tests help rule out the presence of underlying
none of them adequately explains the disorder. Hypereme- diseases such as pyelonephritis, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, and
sis gravidarum may be related to high levels of estrogen or hepatitis (Cunningham et al., 2005). Because of the recog-
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and may be associ- nized association between hyperemesis gravidarum and hy-
ated with transient hyperthyroidism during pregnancy. Some perthyroidism, thyroid levels may also be measured (Scott
research has found a woman who has severe nausea and vom- & Abu-Hamda, 2004).
iting has a 1.5 increased chance of carrying a female infant, Psychosocial assessment includes asking the woman about
supporting the association between increased estrogen ex- anxiety, fears, and concerns related to her own health and
posure and hyperemesis gravidarum (Cunningham, et al., the effects on pregnancy outcome. Family members should
2005; Davis, 2004). Esophageal reflux, reduced gastric motil- be assessed both for anxiety and with regard to their role in
ity, and decreased secretion of free hydrochloric acid may providing support for the woman.
contribute to the disorder.
Psychosocial factors also may play a part in the de- Initial care
velopment of hyperemesis gravidarum for some women. Initially, the woman who is unable to keep down clear
Ambivalence toward the pregnancy and increased stress may liquids by mouth will require IV therapy for correction of
be associated with this condition (Cunningham et al., 2005; fluid and electrolyte imbalances. She should be kept on
Davis, 2004; Scott & Abu-Hamda, 2004). Conflicting feel- nothing-by-mouth (NPO) status until dehydration has been
ings regarding prospective motherhood, body changes, and resolved and for at least 48 hours after vomiting has stopped
lifestyle alterations may contribute to episodes of vomit- to prevent rapid recurrence of the problem. In the past,
ing, particularly if these feelings are excessive or unre- women requiring IV therapy were admitted to the hospital.
solved. Today, however, they may be, and often are, successfully
managed at home, even if on enteral therapy. Medications
Clinical Manifestations may be used if nausea and vomiting are uncontrolled. The
The woman with hyperemesis gravidarum usually has sig- most frequently prescribed drugs include pyridoxine (B 6)
nificant weight loss and dehydration. She may have a de- (25 mg to 75 mg daily) alone or in combination with doxy-
creased BP, increased pulse rate, and poor skin turgor (Scott lamine (Unisom) (25 mg), promethazine (Phenergan), and
& Abu-Hamda, 2004). She frequently is unable to keep metoclopramide (Reglan) (ACOG, 2004a; Cunningham et
down even clear liquids taken by mouth. Laboratory tests al., 2005; Weiner & Buhimschi, 2004). Other less commonly
may reveal electrolyte imbalances. used drugs include meclizine (Antivert), dimenhydrinate
(Dramamine), diphenhydramine (Benadryl), prochlorper-
Collaborative Care azine (Compazine), and ondansetron (Zofran) (Cunningham
Whenever a pregnant woman has nausea and vomiting, the et al., 2005). Corticosteroids (methylprednisolone [Medrol])
first priority is a thorough assessment to determine the sever- may also be used to treat refractory hyperemesis gravidarum
ity of the problem. In most cases the woman should be told (Cunningham et al., 2005). Lastly, enteral or parenteral nu-
to come immediately to the health care providers office or trition may be used for women nonresponsive to other med-
to the emergency department, because the severity of the ill- ical therapies (Cunningham et al., 2005). In addition to med-
ness is often difficult to determine by phone conversation. ical management, some women can also benefit from
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 737
psychotherapy or stress reduction techniques (Scott & Abu- vomiting recur. Complications accompanying severe
Hamda, 2004). Once the vomiting has stopped, feedings are hyperemesis gravidarum include esophageal rupture, and
started in small amounts at frequent intervals, and the diet deficiencies of vitamin k and thiamine with resulting Wer-
is slowly advanced as tolerated until the woman can con- nicke encephalopathy (central nervous systerm involvement)
sume a nutritionally sound diet. (Cunningham et al., 2005).
Nursing care of the woman with hyperemesis gravidarum A few women will continue to experience intractable nau-
involves implementing the medical plan of care, whether this sea and vomiting throughout pregnancy. Rarely, it may be
care be given in the hospital or home setting. Interventions necessary to maintain a woman on enteral, parenteral, or to-
may include initiating and monitoring IV therapy, adminis- tal parenteral nutrition to ensure adequate nutrition for the
tering drugs and nutritional supplements, and monitoring the mother and fetus (Cunningham et al., 2005). Many home
womans response to interventions. The nurse observes the health agencies are able to provide these services, and
woman for any signs of complications such as metabolic aci- arrangements for service may be made depending on the
dosis (secondary to starvation), jaundice, or hemorrhage and womans insurance coverage.
alerts the physician should these occur. Monitoring includes The woman with hyperemesis gravidarum needs calm,
assessment of the womans nausea, retching without vomit- compassionate, and sympathetic care, with recognition that
ing, and vomiting as the two symptoms while related are the manifestations of hyperemesis can be physically and
separate. A standardized assessment tool such as the PUQE emotionally debilitating to the patient and stressful for the
(pregnancy-unique quantification of emesis and nausea) al- family. Irritability, tearfulness, and mood changes are often
lows quantification of the presence and severity of the nau- consistent with this disorder. Fetal well-being is a primary
sea and vomiting and promotes accurate monitoring (Davis, concern of the woman. The nurse can provide an environ-
2004). ment conducive to discussion of concerns and assist the
Accurate measurement of intake and output, including woman and family in identifying and mobilizing sources of
the amount of emesis, is an important aspect of care. Oral support. The family should be included in the plan of care
hygiene while the woman is receiving nothing by mouth, whenever possible. Their participation may help alleviate
and after episodes of vomiting, helps allay associated dis- some of the emotional stress associated with this disorder.
comforts. Assistance with positioning and providing a quiet,
restful environment, free from odors, may increase the HEMORRHAGIC COMPLICATIONS
womans comfort. When the woman begins responding to
therapy, limited amounts of oral fluids and bland foods such Bleeding in pregnancy may jeopardize both maternal and fe-
as crackers, toast, or baked chicken are begun. The diet is pro- tal well-being and is the second leading cause of pregnancy-
gressed slowly as tolerated by the woman until she is able related death (Chang et al., 2003). Ectopic pregnancy rup-
to consume a nutritional diet. Because sleep disturbances ture and abruptio placentae being responsible for most
may accompany hyperemesis gravidarum, promoting ade- maternal deaths. Maternal blood loss decreases oxygen-
quate rest is important. The nurse can assist in coordinating carrying capacity, which predisposes the woman to increased
treatment measures and periods of visitation to provide op- risk for hypovolemia, anemia, infection, preterm labor, and
portunity for rest periods. preterm birth and adversely affects oxygen delivery to the
fetus. Fetal risks from maternal hemorrhage include blood
Follow-up Care loss or anemia, hypoxemia, hypoxia, anoxia, and preterm
Most women are able to take nourishment by mouth af- birth. Hemorrhagic disorders in pregnancy are medical emer-
ter several days of treatment. Women should be encouraged gencies. The incidence and type of bleeding vary by
to eat small, frequent meals consisting of low-fat, high- trimester. In the first trimester, most bleeding is a result of
protein foods; to avoid greasy and highly seasoned foods; miscarriage and ectopic pregnancy. Approximately 50% of
and to increase dietary intake of potassium and magnesium. bleeding in the third trimester is caused by placenta previa
Herbal teas such as ginger, chamomile, or raspberry leaf may and abruptio placentae.
decrease nausea (Nursing 2006; Jewell & Young, 2003; Smith,
Crowther, Willson, Hotham, & McMillian, 2004; Tiran & Early Pregnancy Bleeding
Mack, 2000). Many pregnant women find exposure to cook- Bleeding during early pregnancy is alarming to the woman
ing odors nauseating. Having other family members cook and of concern to the health care provider and nurse. The
may lessen the womans nausea and vomiting, even if only common bleeding disorders of early pregnancy include
temporarily. Dietary instructions include ingestion of dry, miscarriage, incompetent cervix, ectopic pregnancy, and
bland foods, high protein foods, small, frequent meals, cold hydatidiform mole (molar pregnancy).
foods, of a snack before bedtime, drinking liquids from a cup
with a lid, and tea or water with lemon slices, and avoidance Miscarriage
of high fat or spicy foods (Davis, 2004). The woman is coun- Miscarriage is a pregnancy that ends before 20 weeks of
seled to contact her health care provider if the nausea and gestation. Twenty weeks of gestation is considered the point
738 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE
Advisability of Routine Bed Rest for Multiple Pregnancy
OBJECTIVES LIMITATIONS
The reviewers goals were to determine the effects of the The small number of studies and small sample sizes limit
intervention (routine hospitalization for bed rest of the power of the study to draw conclusions. Four of the
women with multiple pregnancies) on the outcomes of trials took place in Zimbabwe, and all the trials are more
preterm birth, perinatal death, perinatal morbidity, and than a decade old, further limiting their generalizability.
womens satisfaction with care. There were some randomization problems. No informa-
tion about costs was reported.
METHODS
Search Strategy CONCLUSIONS
The reviewers searched the Cochrane database. Search There is no evidence that supports recommending a pol-
keywords were hospital, pregnancy, multiple preg- icy of routine hospitalization for bed rest for women with
nancy, twin pregnancy, triplet pregnancy, and combina- multiple pregnancies.
tions of these words.
Six randomized, controlled trials met the selection crite- IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
ria. The trials represented 600 women and 1400 babies A policy of routine hospitalization for bed rest for women
from Zimbabwe, Finland, and Australia and were con- with multiple pregnancies may, in fact, cause harm by in-
ducted from 1985 to 1991. creasing the risk of very preterm births in twins.There was
some evidence of beneficial effects for triplets, but it could
Statistical Analyses not be determined if the effects were attributable to
Similar data were pooled. Reviewers calculated relative chance alone. Some women found the hospitalization dis-
risks for dichotomous (categoric) data, and weighted tressing. When women are hospitalized because of mul-
mean differences for continuous data. Results outside the tiple gestation, nurses can support them and help them
95% range were accepted as significant differences. deal with the inactivity and boredom that occur. Families
can be included. The woman and her family need to be
FINDINGS kept informed of the condition of the fetuses.
Routine hospitalization for bed rest for women with mul-
tiple pregnancies did not result in a decrease in preterm IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
birth.There was equivocal evidence of a trend toward de- Important long-term developmental outcome of the in-
creased low birth weight. There were no differences in fants remains unknown. Only one trial addressed the psy-
very-low-birth-weight (less than 1500 g) infants between chosocial effects of hospitalization, yet it is very disrup-
groups.The hospitalized group did not have a lower rate tive to the family, leaving other family members to not
of low Apgar score (less than 7), need for admission to only care for the woman, but also perform the family du-
the neonatal unit, or a stay of 7 days or more. Some ties she cannot perform. Hospitalization frequently puts
equivocal evidence showed a decreased risk of hyper- a financial burden on the family because of medical costs
tension in hospitalized women. One trial measured psy- and lost income. Any future research should include these
chosocial outcomes and reported that 6% appreciated burdens and costs in their outcomes.
admission, whereas 18% found it distressing.
Reference: Crowther, C. (2001). Hospitalization and bed rest for multiple pregnancy (Cochrane Review), In The Cochrane Library, Issue 2, 2004. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 739
of viability, or when the fetus is able to survive in an ex- (such as antiphospholipid antibodies), infections (such as
trauterine environment. A fetal weight of less than 500 g may bacteriuria and Chlamydia trachomatis infection), systemic dis-
also be used to define miscarriage (Cunningham et al., 2005). orders (such as lupus erythematosus), and genetic factors
A spontaneous abortion results from natural causes. Mis- (Gilbert & Harmon, 2003; Hill, 2004).
carriage is the term frequently used with women and their A late miscarriage (pregnancy loss between 12 and 20 weeks
families, as the term abortion may be perceived as an elec- of gestation) usually results from maternal causes, such as ad-
tive, induced abortion despite the definition and may there- vancing maternal age and parity, chronic infections, prema-
fore be objectionable to the family. In this text, the term mis- ture dilation of the cervix and other anomalies of the repro-
carriage is used to refer to a natural pregnancy loss, and ductive tract, chronic debilitating diseases, poor nutrition, and
abortion is used when discussing therapeutic or elective, in- recreational drug use (Cunningham et al., 2005). Little can
duced abortion (see Chapter 6). be done to avoid genetically caused pregnancy loss, but cor-
Incidence and etiology. Approximately 15% of rection of maternal disorders, immunization against infec-
all clinically recognized pregnancies end in miscarriage tious diseases, adequate early prenatal care, and treatment of
(Simpson, 2002). The majoritygreater than 80% of mis- pregnancy complications can do much to prevent miscarriage.
carriagesoccur before 12 weeks of gestation (Cunningham Types. The types of miscarriage include threatened,
et al., 2005). Of all clinically recognized pregnancy losses, inevitable, incomplete, complete, and missed. Miscarriages
50% to 60% result from chromosomal abnormalities (both early and late) can recur; all but the threatened mis-
(Cunningham et al., 2005; Hill, 2004; Simpson, 2002). An carriage can lead to infection (Fig. 23-6).
early miscarriage is defined as pregnancy loss before 8 weeks Clinical manifestations. Signs and symptoms of
of gestation. The causes of early miscarriage include en- miscarriage depend on the duration of pregnancy. The pres-
docrine imbalance (as in women who have luteal phase de- ence of uterine bleeding, uterine contractions, and uterine
fects or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus with high blood pain are ominous signs that must be considered a threatened
glucose levels in the first trimester), immunologic factors miscarriage until proven otherwise.
A B
C E
D
If miscarriage occurs before the sixth week of pregnancy, hCG is produced by the syncytiotrophoblast, and the beta
the woman may report a heavy menstrual flow. Miscarriage subunit of hCG (-hCG) can be detected in maternal plasma
that occurs between the sixth and twelfth weeks of pregnancy and urine 7 to 9 days after ovulation if the woman is preg-
causes moderate discomfort and blood loss. After the twelfth nant. In early pregnancy, the concentration of -hCG should
week, miscarriage is typified by more severe pain, similar to double every 2 days until about 60 to 70 days of gestation,
that of labor, because the fetus must be expelled. Diagno- with peak levels (100,000 milliinternational units/ml) at ap-
sis of the type of miscarriage is based on the signs and symp- proximately 8 to 10 weeks of gestation (Cunningham et al.,
toms present (Table 23-6). 2005). From 10 to 12 weeks of gestation, hCG levels begin
Symptoms of a threatened miscarriage (see Fig. 23-6, A) to decrease, with a nadir at approximately 20 weeks of ges-
include spotting of blood but with the cervical os closed. tation (Cunningham et al., 2005). Before 8 weeks of gesta-
Mild uterine cramping may be present. tion, if a miscarriage is suspected, two serum quantitative -
Inevitable (see Fig. 23-6, B) and incomplete (see Fig. 23- hCG levels are drawn 48 hours apart. If a normal preg-
6, C ) miscarriages involve a moderate to heavy amount of nancy is present, the -hCG level doubles within that time.
bleeding with an open cervical os. Tissue may be present Ultrasonography can then be used to determine the pres-
with the bleeding. Mild to severe uterine cramping may be ence of a viable fetus within a gestational sac. With consid-
present. An inevitable miscarriage is often accompanied by erable or persistent blood loss, anemia is likely (hemoglobin
rupture of membranes (ROM) and cervical dilation; passage level less than 11 g/dl). If infection is present, the white blood
of the products of conception will occur. An incomplete mis- cell (WBC) count is greater than 12,000 cells/mm 3.
carriage involves the expulsion of the fetus with retention The following nursing diagnoses are appropriate for the
of the placenta (Cunningham et al., 2005). woman experiencing miscarriage:
In a complete miscarriage (see Fig. 23-6, D), all fetal tis-
sue is passed, the cervix is closed, and there may be slight
bleeding. Mild uterine cramping may be present.
Anxiety or fear related to
unknown outcome and unfamiliarity with med-
The term missed miscarriage (see Fig. 23-6, E) refers to a ical procedures
pregnancy in which the fetus has died but the products of
conception are retained in utero for several weeks. It may be
Deficient fluid volume related to
excessive bleeding secondary to miscarriage
diagnosed by ultrasonic examination after the uterus stops
increasing in size or even decreases in size. There may be no
Anticipatory grieving related to
unexpected pregnancy outcome
bleeding or cramping, and the cervical os remains closed.
Recurrent early (habitual) miscarriage is the loss of two
Situational low self-esteem related to
inability to successfully carry a pregnancy to term
or more previable pregnancies, though some providers still gestation
define recurrent miscarriage as the loss of three or more preg-
nancies before 20 weeks of gestation (Cunningham et al., Medical management. Medical management (see
2005). Recurrent pregnancy loss is associated with the de- Table 23-6) depends on the classification and on signs and
velopment of placental abruptions and hypertensive disor- symptoms. Traditionally, threatened miscarriages have
ders (Sheiner, Levy, Katz, & Mazor, 2004). been managed with bed rest and supportive care. Though
Miscarriages can become septic, although this is not a commonly prescribed for women with early vaginal bleed-
common occurrence. Symptoms of a septic miscarriage in- ing, bed rest in pregnancy is controversial (Maloni, 2002).
clude fever, abdominal tenderness, and vaginal bleeding, Follow-up treatment depends on whether the threatened mis-
which may be slight to heavy and is malodorous. carriage progresses to actual miscarriage or symptoms sub-
Collaborative care. Whenever a woman with vagi- side and the pregnancy remains intact. Dilation and curet-
nal bleeding early in pregnancy seeks treatment, a thorough tage (D&C) is a surgical procedure in which the cervix is
assessment should be performed (Box 23-6). Information to dilated and a curette is inserted to scrape the uterine walls
be obtained includes pain, bleeding, and date of last men- and remove uterine contents. A D&C is commonly per-
strual period (LMP) to determine approximate gestational formed to treat inevitable and incomplete miscarriage. The
age. Pain must be thoroughly assessed; type, location, du- nurse reinforces explanations, answers any questions or con-
ration, and precipitating and palliative factors are rated. The cerns, and prepares the woman for surgery.
initial database should also include vital signs (a temperature Dilation and evacuation, performed after 16 weeks of ges-
higher than 38 C may indicate infection), previous preg- tation, consists of wide cervical dilation followed by in-
nancies, previous pregnancy losses, quantity and nature of strumental removal of the uterine contents.
the vaginal bleeding, allergies, and emotional status. It is not Before either surgical procedure is performed, a full his-
uncommon for the woman and her family to be anxious and tory should be obtained and general and pelvic examinations
fearful about what may happen to her and to her pregnancy. should be performed. General preoperative and postopera-
Laboratory evaluation of hCG levels, a placental hor- tive care is appropriate for the woman requiring surgical in-
mone, is used in the diagnosis of pregnancy and pregnancy tervention for miscarriage. Analgesics or anesthesia appro-
loss. Low levels of hCG are characteristic of miscarriage. priate to the procedure are used.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 741
TABLE 23-6
Assessing Miscarriage and the Usual Management
TYPE OF AMOUNT OF UTERINE PASSAGE CERVICAL
MISCARRIAGE BLEEDING CRAMPING OF TISSUE DILATION MANAGEMENT
From Cunningham, F.,Leveno, K., Bloom, S., Hauth, J., Gilstrap, L., Wenstrom, K. (2005). Williams obstetrics (22nd ed.). NewYork: McGraw-Hill; Gilbert, E.,
& Harmon, J. (2003). Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery (3rd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
742 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
BOX 23-6 muscularly every 4 hours, may be given if the woman is nor-
Assessment of Bleeding in Pregnancy motensive. A 25-mg dose of carboprost may be given in-
tramuscularly every 15 to 90 minutes for a total of as many
INITIAL DATABASE
as eight doses (Cunningham et al., 2005). Side effects asso-
Chief complaint
ciated with the use of carboprost include diarrhea, hyper-
Vital signs
Gravidity, parity tension, vomiting, fever, and tachycardia (Cunningham et
Date of last menstrual period and estimated date of al., 2005). Antibiotics are given as necessary. Analgesics, such
birth as antiprostaglandin agents, may decrease discomfort from
Pregnancy history (previous and current) cramping. Transfusion therapy may be required for shock or
Allergies anemia. The woman who is Rh negative and is not isoim-
Nausea and vomiting munized is given an IM injection of Rho(D) immune glob-
Pain (onset, quality, precipitating event, and location)
ulin within 72 hours of the miscarriage (Cunningham et al.,
Bleeding or coagulation problems
Level of consciousness 2005).
Emotional status Psychosocial aspects of care focus on what the pregnancy
loss means to the woman and her family. Women experience
EARLY PREGNANCY feelings of grief and loss after a miscarriage; they may have
Confirmation of pregnancy more intense feelings for a longer time than do men
Bleeding (bright or dark, intermittent or continuous)
(Abboud & Laimputtong, 2003; Broen, Moum, Bodtkery, &
Pain (type, intensity, persistence)
Ekeberg, 2004). Discussions with the family must also be
Vaginal discharge
sensitive to the cultural beliefs of the mother and father spe-
LATE PREGNANCY cific to childbearing and grief. Explanations are provided re-
Estimated date of birth garding the nature of the miscarriage, expected procedures,
Bleeding (quantity, associated pain) and possible future implications for childbearing.
Vaginal discharge As with the other fetal or neonatal losses, the woman and
Amniotic membrane status her family should be offered the option of seeing the prod-
Uterine activity
ucts of conception. They may also want to know what the
Abdominal pain
Fetal status and viability
hospital does with the products of conception or whether
they need to make a decision about final disposition of fe-
tal remains. Procedures for disposition of the fetal remains
vary by agency and by state. The nurse should be familiar
with the agency-specific procedures to minimize misun-
For late incomplete or inevitable miscarriages and missed derstandings and increased discomfort for the family.
miscarriages (16 to 20 weeks of gestation), prostaglandins Home care. The woman will usually be discharged
may be administered into the amniotic sac or by vaginal home postoperatively after a suction D&C when her vital
suppository to induce or augment labor and cause the prod- signs are stable, vaginal bleeding is minimal, and she has re-
ucts of conception to be expelled. IV oxytocin may also be covered from anesthesia. Discharge teaching should em-
used. phasize the need for rest. If significant blood loss has oc-
Nursing care. Immediate nursing care focuses on curred, iron supplementation may be ordered. Teaching
physiologic stabilization. Typical orders to be followed includes information about normal physical findings, such
would be initiation of an IV line, request for blood testing as cramping, type and amount of bleeding, resumption of
of hemoglobin and hematocrit, blood type and Rh, and in- sexual activity, and family planning. Frequently, the woman
direct Coombs screen. An ultrasound examination is per- and her family want to know when she may become preg-
formed for diagnostic confirmation. nant again. Although this is dependent on the cause of the
Nursing care is similar to the care for any woman whose pregnancy loss, most health care providers suggest waiting
labor is being induced (see Chapter 24). Special care may be approximately 2 to 3 months before becoming pregnant again,
needed for management of side effects of prostaglandin, such dependent upon the provider and the woman. This time al-
as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. If the products of con- lowance facilitates physical and emotional healing. Follow-
ception are not passed in entirety, the woman may be pre- up care should assess the womans physical and emotional
pared for manual or surgical evacuation of the uterus. recovery (Armstong, 2004). Referrals to local support groups
After evacuation of the uterus, 10 to 20 units of oxytocin should be provided as needed (Teaching Guidelines box).
in 1000 ml of IV fluids may be given to prevent hemorrhage. Follow-up phone calls after a loss are important. The
For excessive bleeding after the miscarriage, ergot products woman may appreciate a phone call on what would have
such as ergonovine or a prostaglandin derivative such as car- been her due date. These calls provide opportunities for the
boprost tromethamine may be given to contract the uterus. woman to ask questions, seek advice, and receive informa-
Three or four doses of ergonovine, 0.2 mg orally or intra- tion to help process her grief.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 743
TEACHING GUIDELINES
Discharge Teaching for the Woman after Early Miscarriage
Advise woman to report any heavy, profuse, or bright red Acknowledge that the woman has experienced a loss and
bleeding to health care provider. that time is required for recovery. She may have mood
Reassure woman that a scant, dark discharge may per- swings and depression.
sist for 1 to 2 weeks. Refer the woman to support groups, clergy, or profes-
To reduce the risk of infection, remind the woman not to sional counseling as needed.
put anything into the vagina until bleeding has stopped Advise woman that attempts at pregnancy should be
(e.g., no tampons, no vaginal intercourse). She should postponed for at least 2-3 months to allow body to re-
take antibiotics as prescribed. cover dependent upon health care provider.
Source: Gilbert, E., & Harmon, J. (2003). Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery (3rd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
TABLE 23-7
Differential Diagnosis of Ectopic Pregnancy
ECTOPIC RUPTURED
PREGNANCY APPENDICITIS SALPINGITIS OVARIAN CYST MISCARRIAGE
Pain Unilateral cramps Epigastric, peri- Usually in both Unilateral, be- Mild uterine
and tenderness umbilical, then lower quad- coming general cramps to se-
before rupture right lower rants with or with progres- vere uterine
May be colicky quadrant pain, without re- sive bleeding, pain
after rupture tenderness bound dull cramping
Sudden sharp localizing at Mild to severe
abdominal McBurneys pelvic pressure
pelvic pain point, rebound
Abdominal tenderness
tenderness
Nausea and Occasionally Usual, precedes Infrequent Rare Almost never
vomiting before, fre- shift of pain to
quently after right lower
rupture quadrant
Menstruation Some aberration, Unrelated to Hypermenorrhea, Period delayed, Amenorrhea then
missed period, menses metrorrhagia, then bleeding, spotting, then
spotting or both often with pain brisk bleeding
Temperature, 37.2-37.8 C, 37.2-37.8 C, 37.2-40 C, pulse Not over 37.2 C, To 37.2 C
pulse, and pulse variable, pulse rapid elevated in pro- pulse normal Signs of shock re-
blood pressure normal before portion to fever unless blood lated to obvi-
and rapid after loss marked, ous bleeding
rupture, BP then rapid
after rupture
Pelvic Unilateral tender- No masses, rectal Bilateral tender- Tenderness over Cervix open or
examination ness, especially tenderness high ness on move- affected ovary, closed, uterus
on movement on right side ment of cervix no masses slightly en-
of cervix, crepi- No vaginal dis- Purulent dis- larged, irregu-
tant mass on charge charge larly softened,
one side or in tender with in-
cul-de-sac; dark fection, vaginal
red or brown bleeding
vaginal dis-
charge
Laboratory WBC to WBC 10,000- WBC 15,000- WBC normal to WBC normal
findings 15,000/mm3 18,000/mm3 30,000/mm3 10,000/mm3 Pregnancy test re-
Pregnancy test re- (rarely normal) Pregnancy test re- Pregnancy test sult is positive
sult is positive Pregnancy test re- sult is negative result is nega-
Ultrasound to rule sult is negative tive unless also
out pregnancy pregnant
after 6 weeks Ultrasound will
show ovarian
cyst
Modified from Gilbert, E., & Harmon, J. (2003). Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery (3rd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
WBC, White blood cell.
ultrasound (Sepilian & Wood, 2004). Methotrexate therapy level is less than 15 milliinternational units/mL (Kumtepe
avoids surgery and is a safe, effective, and cost-effective way & Kadanali, 2004; Sepilian & Wood, 2004). A repeat dose
of managing many cases of tubal pregnancy. Management of methotrexate may be necessary if -hCG titers do not
is almost always accomplished on an outpatient basis. The drop to 25% by day 7, with approximately 20% of women
woman is informed of how the medication works, possi- requiring a second injection. Multiple dose regimens may
ble side effects, whom to call if she has concerns or if prob- also be given. During that time, the woman is instructed
lems develop, and the importance of follow-up care. After to put nothing in her vagina (e.g., no tampons or douches,
receiving the single methotrexate injection, the woman will no intercourse) and to avoid sun exposure because the
need to return at least weekly for follow-up laboratory stud- drug may cause photosensitivity (Weiner & Buhimschi,
ies and for an average of 2 to 8 weeks or until the -hCG 2004).
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 747
NURSE ALERT The woman on methotrexate therapy potential for malignant transformation is 5% to 10%
who consumes alcohol and takes vitamins containing (Cunningham et al., 2005).
folic acid (such as prenatal vitamins) increases her risk
Clinical manifestations. In the early stages, the
of experiencing side effects of the drug or exacerbating
clinical manifestations of a complete hydatidiform mole can-
the ectopic rupture.
not be distinguished from those of normal pregnancy. Later,
Home care. Future fertility should be discussed. Any vaginal bleeding occurs in almost 95% of cases. The vaginal
woman who has been diagnosed with an ectopic pregnancy discharge may be dark brown (resembling prune juice) or
should be told to contact her health care provider as soon bright red and either scant or profuse. It may continue for
as she suspects that she might be pregnant, because of the only a few days or intermittently for weeks. Early in preg-
increased risk for recurrent ectopic pregnancy. These wo- nancy the uterus in approximately 50% of affected women
men may need referral to grief or infertility support groups. is significantly larger than expected from menstrual dates.
In addition to the loss of the current pregnancy, they are Anemia from blood loss, excessive nausea and vomiting
faced with the possibility of future pregnancy losses or in- (hyperemesis gravidarum), and abdominal cramps caused by
fertility. uterine distention are relatively common findings.
Preeclampsia occurs in approximately 12% of cases, usually
between 9 and 12 weeks of gestation, but any symptoms of
Hydatidiform mole preeclampsia before 20 weeks of gestation may suggest hy-
Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) includes disor- datidiform mole. Hyperthyroidism and pulmonary em-
ders that arise from the placental trophoblast. It includes hy- bolization of trophoblastic elements occur infrequently but
datidiform mole and gestational trophoblastic neoplasia are serious complications of hydatidiform mole. Partial
(GTN). A hydatiform mole may be further categorized as a
complete or partial mole. GTN refers to persistent tro-
phoblastic tissue that is presumed to be malignant (Berman
Di Saia, & Tewari, 2004; Gilbert & Harmon, 2003). Metasta-
tic trophoblastic neoplasia is commonly staged as low risk, Empty 46,XX
intermediate risk and high risk GTN (ACOG, 2004b). Once
almost invariably fatal, because of early diagnosis and treat- A
ment, GTN is the most curable gynecologic malignancy
(Berman, Di Saia, & Tewari, 2004). 23,X
moles cause few of these symptoms and may be mistaken Placenta Previa
for an incomplete or missed miscarriage. Lastly, women may In placenta previa, the placenta is implanted in the lower
pass vesicles from the uterus which are frequently avascular uterine segment near or over the internal cervical os. His-
edematous villi (Berman, Di Saia, & Tewari, 2004) torically, the degree to which the internal cervical os is cov-
Collaborative care. Nursing assessments during ered by the placenta has been used to classify four types of
prenatal visits should include observation for signs of mo- placenta previa; total, partial, marginal and low -lying (Fig.
lar pregnancy during the first 24 weeks. If hydatidiform mole 23-12). With a total previa the internal os is entirely covered
is suspected, ultrasonography and serial -hCG im- by the placenta. Partial placenta previa implies incomplete
munoassays are used to confirm the diagnosis. The sono- coverage of the internal os. Marginal placenta previa indi-
graphic pattern of a molar pregnancy is characterized by a cates that only an edge of the placenta extends to the mar-
diffuse snowstorm pattern. The -hCG titer will remain gin of the internal os. The term low-lying placenta has been
high or rises above normal peak after the time at which it used when the placenta is implanted in the lower uterine seg-
normally drops (70 to 100 days) (Cunningham et al., 2005). ment but does not reach the os (Cunningham et al., 2005).
Although most moles abort spontaneously (around 16 Clark (2004) suggests that this classification has become ob-
weeks of gestation), suction evacuation (curettage) offers solete due in part to better ultrasound diagnosis of placenta
a safe, rapid, and effective method of evacuation of hy- previa. Clark offers a more descriptive classification that in-
datidiform mole if necessary (Cunningham et al., 2005; cludes placenta previa (in the third trimester, the placenta
Gilbert & Harmon, 2003). Induction of labor with oxy- covers the internal os) and marginal placenta previa (the dis-
tocic agents or prostaglandins is not recommended because tance of the placenta is 2 to 3 cm from the internal os and
of the increased risk of embolization of trophoblastic does not cover it). When the exact relationship of the os to
tissue. Administration of Rh o(D) immune globulin to the placenta has not been determined or in the case of ap-
women who are Rh negative is necessary to prevent isoim- parent placenta previa in the second trimester, the term low-
munization. lying placenta is used (Clark, 2004).
The nurse helps the woman and her family cope with the Incidence and etiology. The incidence of placenta
pregnancy loss and recognize that the pregnancy was ab- previa is approximately 0.5% of births (Clark, 2004). The
normal. In addition, the woman and her family are en- most important risk factors are previous placenta previa, pre-
couraged to verbalize their feelings, and information is pro- vious cesarean birth, and suction curettage for miscarriage
vided about support groups or counseling resources as or induced abortion, possibly related to endometrial scarring
needed. Follow-up management includes frequent physical (Ananth, Demissie, Smulian, & Vintzileos, 2001b). The risk
and pelvic examinations and weekly measurements of - also increases with multiple gestation (because of the larger
hCG level until the level drops to normal and remains nor- placental area), closely spaced pregnancies, advanced ma-
mal for 2 consecutive weeks. Then -hCG measurements are ternal age (older than 35 years), African or Asian ethnicity,
taken for every 1 to 2 months for a total of 1 year. A rising male fetal sex, smoking, cocaine use, multiparity, and to-
titer and an enlarging uterus may indicate choriocarcinoma bacco use (Clark, 2004; Cunningham et al., 2005).
(malignant GTD). The symptoms (enlarged fundus and ris- Clinical manifestations. Approximately 70% of
ing -hCG titers) are similar to a normal pregnancy, there- women with placenta previa have painless vaginal bleeding;
fore explanations to the woman and her family must include 20% have vaginal bleeding associated with uterine activity.
the need to postpone future pregnancies for at least one year Previa should be suspected whenever vaginal bleeding oc-
because of the close monitoring required. Any contraceptive curs after 20 weeks of gestation. This bleeding, bright red in
method, including oral contraceptives, is appropriate, with color, is associated with the stretching and thinning of the
the exception of an intrauterine device (IUD). Of particu- lower uterine segment that occurs during the third trimester.
lar importance is the necessity of the use of a contraceptive Placental attachment is gradually disrupted, and bleeding oc-
that is reliable and consistently used. Physical examination curs when the uterus is not able to adequately contract and
including pelvic is done monthly until remission and then stop blood flow from open vessels (Benedetti, 2002). The ini-
every 3 months for 1 year. If rising hCG titers are found then tial bleeding is usually a small amount and stops as clots
chemotherapy is reinitiated (ACOG, 2004b; Berman, Di Saia, form; however, it can recur at any time (Table 23-8).
& Tewari, 2004). Vital signs may be normal, even with heavy blood loss,
because a pregnant woman can lose up to 40% of blood vol-
Late Pregnancy Bleeding ume without showing signs of shock. Clinical presentation
Late pregnancy bleeding disorders include placenta previa, and decreasing urinary output may be better indicators of
premature separation of placenta (abruptio placentae), and acute blood loss than vital signs alone. The FHR is reassuring
cord insertion and variations in the insertion of the cord and unless there is a major detachment of the placenta (Gilbert
placenta. Expedient assessment for and diagnosis of the cause & Harmon, 2003).
of bleeding is essential to reduce risk of maternal and peri- Abdominal examination usually reveals a soft, relaxed,
natal morbidity and mortality (Fig. 23-11). nontender uterus with normal tone. If the fetus is lying
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 749
Fig. 23-11 Bleeding during late pregnancy. CBC, Complete blood count; IV, intravenous.
longitudinally, the fundal height is usually greater than ex- blood transfusion reactions, overinfusion of fluids, abnor-
pected for gestational age because the low placenta hinders mal placental attachments, (e.g., placenta accreta), postpar-
descent of the presenting fetal part. Leopolds maneuvers tum hemorrhage, thrombophlebitis, anemia, and infection
may reveal a fetus in an oblique or breech position or ly- (Ananth et al., 2001b; Crane, Van den Hof, Dodds, Armson,
ing transverse because of the abnormal site of placental im- & Liston, 2000).
plantation. The greatest risk of fetal death is caused by preterm birth.
Maternal and fetal outcomes. The maternal Other fetal risks include malpresentation and congenital
morbidity rate is approximately 5% and the mortality rate anomalies (Clark, 2004; Gilbert & Harmon, 2003). Infants
is less than 1% with placenta previa (Clark, 2004). Compli- who are small for gestational age or have IUGR have been
cations associated with placenta previa include premature associated with placenta previa. This association may be re-
ROM, preterm labor and birth, surgery-related trauma to lated to poor placental exchange or hypovolemia resulting
structures adjacent to the uterus, anesthesia complications, from maternal blood loss and maternal anemia (Clark, 2004).
750 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
Internal os
Internal os
Membranes Blood Membranes Blood
Blood
External os External os
Fig. 23-12 Types of placenta previa after onset of labor. A, Complete, or total. B, Incomplete,
or partial. C, Marginal, or low lying.
TABLE 23-8
Summary of Findings: Abruptio Placentae and Placenta Previa
ABRUPTIO PLACENTAE
GRADE 1 MILD GRADE 2 MODERATE
SEPARATION (10% SEPARATION (20% GRADE 3 SEVERE PLACENTA
TO 20%) TO 50%) SEPARATION (`50%) PREVIA
ULTRASONOGRAPHIC FINDINGS
Location of Normal, upper Normal, upper uterine Normal, upper uterine Abnormal, lower
placenta uterine segment segment segment uterine segment
Station of pre- Variable to engaged Variable to engaged Variable to engaged High, not engaged
senting part
Fetal position Usual distribution* Usual distribution* Usual distribution* Commonly trans-
verse, breech, or
oblique
Gestational or Usual distribution* Commonly present Commonly present Usual distribution*
chronic hyper-
tension
Fetal effects Normal fetal heart Nonreassuring fetal heart Nonreassuring fetal Normal fetal heart
rate pattern rate pattern heart rate pattern, rate pattern
death can occur
*Usual distribution refers to the usual variations of incidence seen when there is no concurrent problem.
DIC, Disseminated intravascular coagulation.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 751
Ultrasonographic examinations may be done every 2 to must be in stable condition with no evidence of active bleed-
3 weeks. Fetal surveillance may include an NST or BPP once ing and must have transportation to be able to return to the
or twice weekly. Serial laboratory values are evaluated for de- hospital immediately if active bleeding resumes. She must
creasing hemoglobin and hematocrit levels and changes in have close supervision by family or friends in the home. The
coagulation values. Venous access with an IV infusion or he- woman should be taught how to assess fetal and uterine ac-
parin lock may be placed in case blood or blood component tivity and bleeding and told to avoid intercourse, douching,
therapy is needed. Antepartum steroids (betamethasone) may and enemas. She should limit her activities according to the
be ordered to promote fetal lung maturity if gestation is less advice of her physician and be advised to keep all appoint-
than 34 weeks. No vaginal or rectal examinations are per- ments for fetal testing, laboratory assessments, and prena-
formed, and the woman is placed on pelvic rest (nothing tal care. Visits by a perinatal home care nurse may be
in the vagina). If sonographic findings indicate that the pla- arranged.
cental edge is located within 2 cm of the internal os then a If hospitalization or home care with activity restriction
cesarean birth is necessary (Bhide & Thilaganathan, 2004). is prolonged, the woman may have concerns about her work-
Once she reaches 37 weeks of gestation and fetal lung ma- or family-related responsibilities or may become bored with
turity is documented, cesarean birth can be scheduled. inactivity. She should be encouraged to participate in her
The woman with placenta previa should always be con- own care and decisions about care as much as possible. Pro-
sidered a potential emergency because massive blood loss vision of diversionary activities or encouragement to par-
with resulting hypovolemic shock can occur quickly if bleed- ticipate in activities she enjoys and can do during bed rest
ing resumes. Placenta previa in a preterm gestation may be is needed (see suggestions for activities in the Self-Care box
an indication for transfer to a tertiary perinatal center because on p. 727). Participation in support group made up of other
a neonatal intensive care unit may be necessary for care of women on bed rest while hospitalized, or online if at home
the preterm neonate. may be a helpful coping mechanism (Maloni & Kutil, 2000).
Home care. Criteria for home care management, cur-
rently an uncommon practice, vary among primary perina- Evaluation
tal providers and are usually determined on a case-by-case The expected outcomes of care are used to evaluate the care
basis. To be considered for home care referral, the woman for the woman with placenta previa (Plan of Care).
NURSING DIAGNOSIS Decreased cardiac output NURSING DIAGNOSIS Risk for injury to the fetus
related to bleeding secondary to placenta previa related to decreased uterine or placental perfu-
Expected Outcomes Woman will exhibit signs of sion secondary to bleeding
CD: Plan of CarePlacenta Previa
increased blood volume and restoration of cardiac Expected Outcome Woman will exhibit ongoing
output (i.e., normal pulse and blood pressure; nor- signs of fetal well-being (i.e., adequate fetal move-
mal heart and breath sounds; normal skin color, ment, normal FHR, reactive NST, normal BPP).
tone, and turgor; normal capillary refill). Nursing Interventions/Rationales
Nursing Interventions/Rationales Monitor fetus daily for signs of tachycardia, decreased move-
Palpate uterus for tenderness and tone; assess bleeding rate, ment, loss of reactivity on NST to identify and treat changes
amount, color, CBC values, and coagulation profile to de- in fetal status.
termine severity of situation. (Do not perform vaginal ex- Obtain BPP per physician order to assess for signs of chronic
amination, because it may stimulate further bleeding.) asphyxia.
Establish baseline data for cardiac output (vital signs; heart Maintain maternal side-lying position to prevent compression
and breath sounds; skin color, tone, turgor; capillary refill; of aorta and vena cava.
level of consciousness; urinary output; pulse oximetry) to use
NURSING DIAGNOSIS Risk for infection related
as basis for evaluating effectiveness of treatment.
to anemia and bleeding secondary to placenta
Initiate intravenous therapy or blood transfusions and med-
previa
ications per physician order to restore blood volume and pre-
vent organ compromise in mother and fetus. Expected Outcome Woman will show no signs of
intrauterine infection.
Place woman on bed rest to decrease oxygen demands.
Monitor vital signs, intake and output, hemodynamic status, Nursing Interventions/Rationales
and laboratory values to evaluate treatment response. Monitor vital signs for elevated temperature, pulse, and
Provide emotional support to woman and her family (i.e., blood pressure; monitor laboratory results for elevated WBC
explain procedures and their rationale; explain what is count, differential shift; check for uterine tenderness and mal-
happening and what to expect; keep support person present) odorous vaginal discharge to detect early signs of infection
to allay fears and provide the family with some sense of control. resulting from exposure of placental tissue.
After stabilization, teach woman home management, in- Provide or teach perineal hygiene to decrease the risk of as-
cluding bed rest, observation for spotting and bleeding, close cending infection.
follow-up with her health care provider, and preparation for
immediate return to hospital if needed to prevent or stem
further complications.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 753
Premature separation of placenta abdominal pain and uterine tenderness are characteristic of
Premature separation of the placenta, or abruptio abruption, either finding may be absent in the presence of
placentae, is the detachment of part or all of the placenta a silent abruption (Clark, 2004). Bleeding may result in ma-
from its implantation site (Fig. 23-13). Separation occurs in ternal hypovolemia (i.e., shock, oliguria, and anuria) and co-
the area of the decidua basalis after 20 weeks of gestation and agulopathy. Mild to severe uterine hypertonicity is present.
before the birth of the infant. Pain is mild to severe and localized over one region of the
Incidence and etiology. Premature separation of uterus or diffuse over the uterus with a boardlike abdomen.
the placenta is a serious complication that accounts for sig- Extensive myometrial bleeding damages the uterine mus-
nificant maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality rates. Ap- cle. If blood accumulates between the separated placenta and
proximately 1 in 200 of all pregnancies is complicated by the uterine wall, it may produce a Couvelaire uterus. The
abruptio placentae (Cunningham et al., 2005). uterus appears purplish and copper colored and is ecchymotic,
Maternal hypertension is probably the most consistently and contractility is lost. Shock may occur and is out of pro-
identified risk factor for abruption (Benedetti, 2002). Cocaine portion to blood loss. The Apt test result is positive, hemo-
is also a risk factor, believed to be the result of severe hy- globin and hematocrit levels drop, and coagulation factor lev-
pertension (Andres & Day, 2000). Blunt external abdominal els drop. With the Apt test (blood in the amniotic fluid),
trauma, most often the result of motor vehicle accidents vaginal blood is mixed with sodium hydroxide. Maternal
(MVAs) or maternal battering, is an increasingly significant blood turns brown while fetal blood remains red. A Kleihauer-
cause of placental abruption (Benedetti, 2002; Clark, 2004). Betke (KB) test may be ordered to determine the presence of
Other risk factors include cigarette smoking, previous abrup- fetal-to-maternal bleeding (transplacental hemorrhage), al-
tion (5% to 17%), cocaine use (10%), and preterm rupture though there appears to be no value to this test in the gen-
of membranes (Clark, 2004; Cunningham et al., 2005). eral workup of patients with abruption (Clark, 2004).
Abruption is more likely to occur in twin gestations (Ananth Maternal and fetal outcomes. Maternal mor-
et al., 2001a). Women who have had two previous abruptions tality rate approaches 1% for women with an abruptio pla-
have a recurrence risk of 25% in the next pregnancy (Clark, centae (Clark, 2004). This condition remains a leading cause
2004). of maternal death. The mothers prognosis depends on the
Classification. The most common classification of extent of placental detachment, overall blood loss, degree of
placental abruption is according to type and severity. This DIC, and time between placental detachment and birth. Ma-
classification system is summarized in Table 23-8. ternal complications are associated with the abruption or its
Clinical manifestations. The separation may be treatment. Hemorrhage, hypovolemic shock, hypofibrino-
partial or complete, or only the margin of the placenta may genemia, and thrombocytopenia are associated with severe
be involved. Bleeding from the placental site may dissect abruption. Renal failure and pituitary necrosis may result
(separate) the membranes from the decidua basalis and flow from ischemia. In rare cases, women who are Rh negative can
out through the vagina (70% to 80%), it may remain con- become sensitized if fetal-to-maternal hemorrhage occurs
cealed (retroplacental hemorrhage) (10% to 20%), or it may and the fetal blood type is Rh positive.
do both (see Fig. 23-13) (Benedetti, 2002). Clinical symptoms Perinatal mortality rates range from 10% to 12%
vary with degree of separation (see Table 23-8). (Cunningham et al., 2005). Death occurs as a result of fetal
Classic symptoms of abruptio placentae include vaginal hypoxia, preterm birth, and SGA status. Risks for neurologic
bleeding, abdominal pain, and uterine tenderness and con- defects are increased (Cunningham et al., 2005). Fetal com-
tractions (Clark, 2004; Cunningham et al., 2005). Although plications include congenital anomalies (Clark, 2004).
Collaborative care. Abruptio placentae should be this goal is not reached despite vigorous attempts at re-
highly suspected in the woman with a sudden onset of in- placement, hemodynamic monitoring may be necessary
tense, usually localized, uterine pain, with or without vagi- (Benedetti, 2002). Fresh frozen plasma or cryoprecipitate
nal bleeding. Initial assessment is much the same as for pla- may be given to maintain the fibrinogen level at a minimum
centa previa. Physical examination usually reveals abdominal of 100 to 150 mg/dl.
pain, uterine tenderness, and contractions. The fundal height Vaginal birth is possible and is especially desirable in cases
should be measured over time, because an increasing fun- of fetal demise; however, cesarean birth is common because
dal height indicates concealed bleeding. Approximately 60% of fetal or maternal distress.
of live fetuses exhibit nonreassuring signs, such as loss of vari- Nursing care of patients experiencing moderate to severe
ability and late decelerations, on the electronic fetal heart abruption is demanding because it requires close monitor-
monitor; uterine hyperstimulation and increased resting tone ing of the maternal and fetal condition. All procedures
may also be noted on the monitor tracing (Benedetti, 2002). should be explained to the woman and her family. Emo-
Many women demonstrate coagulopathy, as evidenced by tional support is also extremely important. If actively bleed-
abnormal clotting studies (fibrinogen, platelet count, PTT, ing, the woman is concerned not only for her own well-
fibrin split products). Sonographic examination is used to being but also for the well-being of her fetus.
rule out placenta previa; however, it is not always diagnos-
tic for abruption (Cunningham et al., 2005). A retroplacental Cord insertion and placental
mass may be detected with ultrasonographic examination, variations
but negative findings do not rule out a life-threatening abrup- Velamentous insertion of the cord (vasa previa) is a rare
tion (Clark, 2004). placental anomaly associated with placenta previa and mul-
Nursing diagnoses and expected outcomes of care are sim- tiple gestation. The cord vessels begin to branch at the mem-
ilar to those described for placenta previa. branes and then course onto the placenta (Fig. 23-14, A).
Treatment depends on the severity of blood loss and fetal ROM or traction on the cord may tear one or more of the
maturity and status. Women with abruptio placentae are not fetal vessels. As a result the fetus may quickly bleed to death.
usually managed out of the hospital because the placenta can
separate further at any time and immediate intervention may
be necessary. However, if the abruption is mild and the fetus
is less than 36 weeks of gestation and not in distress, expec-
tant management may be implemented. The woman is hos-
pitalized and observed closely for signs of bleeding and labor.
The fetal status is also monitored with intermittent FHR A
monitoring and NSTs or BPPs until fetal maturity is deter-
mined or until the womans condition deteriorates and im-
mediate birth is indicated. Use of corticosteroids to accel-
erate fetal lung maturity is appropriately included in the plan
of care for expectant management (Cunningham et al.,
2005). Women who are Rh negative may be given Rh o(D)
immune globulin if fetal-to-maternal hemorrhage occurs.
If the mother is hemodynamically stable, a vaginal birth B
may be attempted if the fetus is alive and in no acute dis-
tress or if the fetus is dead. In the presence of fetal com-
promise, severe hemorrhage, coagulopathy, poor labor
progress, or increasing uterine resting tone, a cesarean birth
is performed. At least one large-bore (16 to 18-gauge) IV line
should be started. Maternal vital signs are monitored fre-
quently to observe for signs of declining hemodynamic sta-
tus, such as increasing pulse rate and decreasing BP. Serial
laboratory studies include hematocrit or hemoglobin de-
terminations and clotting studies. Continuous electronic fe-
tal monitoring is mandatory. An indwelling Foley catheter C
is inserted for continuous assessment of urine output, an
excellent indirect measure of maternal organ perfusion
(Benedetti, 2002).
Blood and fluid volume replacement will most likely Fig. 23-14 Cord insertion and placental variations. A, Ve-
be ordered, with a goal of maintaining the urine output at lamentous insertion of cord. B, Battledore placenta. C, Placenta
30 ml/hr or greater and the hematocrit at 30% or greater. If succenturiate.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 755
Battledore (marginal) (Fig. 23-14, B) insertion of the cord in- examples of conditions that can trigger DIC because of wide-
creases the risk of fetal hemorrhage, especially after marginal spread damage to vascular integrity (Cunningham et al., 2005;
separation of the placenta. Kilpatrick & Laros, 2004). DIC is an overactivation of the clot-
Rarely, the placenta may be divided into two or more sep- ting cascade and the fibrinolytic system, resulting in deple-
arate lobes, resulting in succenturiate placenta (Fig. 23-14, C). tion of platelets and clotting factors. This results in the for-
Each lobe has a distinct circulation. The vessels collect at the mation of multiple fibrin clots throughout the bodys
periphery, and the main trunks unite eventually to form the vasculature, even in the microcirculation. Blood cells are de-
vessels of the cord. Blood vessels joining the lobes may be stroyed as they pass through these fibrin choked vessels. Thus
supported only by the fetal membranes and are therefore in DIC results in a clinical picture of clotting, bleeding, and is-
danger of tearing during labor, birth, or expulsion of the pla- chemia (Cunningham et al., 2005; Labelle & Kitchens, 2005).
centa. During expulsion of the placenta, one or more of the DIC is always a secondary diagnosis. Clinical manifestations
separate lobes may remain attached to the decidua basalis, and laboratory test results are summarized in Box 23-7.
preventing uterine contraction and increasing the risk of
postpartum hemorrhage. Collaborative care
Medical management during pregnancy includes cor-
CLOTTING DISORDERS recting the underlying cause and replacement of essential fac-
IN PREGNANCY tors and fluid volume. (See Chapter 25 for further discussion.)
The nurse caring for the pregnant woman at risk for DIC
Normal Clotting must be aware of risk factors. Careful and thorough assessment
Normally, there is a delicate balance (homeostasis) between is required, with particular attention to the signs of bleeding
the opposing hemostatic and fibrinolytic systems. The he- (e.g., petechiae, oozing from venous access sites or any break
mostatic system is involved in the lifesaving process. This in the skin, and hematuria). Because renal failure is one con-
system stops the flow of blood from injured vessels, in part sequence of DIC, urinary output is carefully monitored (min-
through the formation of insoluble fibrin, which acts as a he- imum of 30 ml/h) using an indwelling Foley catheter. Vital
mostatic platelet plug. The coagulation process involves an signs are assessed frequently. Supportive measures include
interaction of the coagulation factors in which each factor keeping the pregnant woman in a side-lying tilt to maximize
sequentially activates the factor next in line, the cascade ef-
fect sequence. The fibrinolytic system is the process through
BOX 23-7
which the fibrin is split into fibrinolytic degradation prod-
ucts and circulation is restored. Antepartal Clinical Manifestations and
Laboratory Screening Results for Pregnant
Clotting Problems Patients with Disseminated Intravascular
Coagulation
A history of abnormal bleeding, inheritance of unusual bleed-
ing tendencies, or a report of significant aberrations of lab-
Possible Physical Examination Findings
oratory findings indicate a bleeding or clotting problem. For Spontaneous bleeding from gums, nose
the pregnant woman, bleeding disorders are suspected if the Oozing, excessive bleeding from venipuncture
woman has gestational hypertension, HELLP syndrome, re- site, intravenous access site, or site of insertion of
tained dead fetus syndrome, amniotic fluid embolism, sep- urinary catheter
sis, or hemorrhage. Determination of hemostasis is made by Petechiae, for example on the arm where blood
testing the usual mechanisms for the control of bleeding, the pressure cuff was placed
Other signs of bruising
function of platelets, and the necessary clotting factors. Most Hematuria
clotting disorders are more a concern in the immediate post- Gastrointestinal bleeding
partum period. Recognition in the antepartal period may de- Tachycardia
crease hemorrhagic problems (see Chapter 25). Diaphoresis
Laboratory Coagulation Screening Test Results
Disseminated intravascular Plateletsdecreased
coagulation Fibrinogendecreased
Factor V (proaccelerin)decreased
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) or con- Factor VIII (antihemolytic factor)decreased
sumptive coagulopathy is a pathologic form of clotting that Prothrombin timeprolonged
is diffuse and consumes large amounts of clotting factors, Partial prothrombin timeprolonged
causing widespread external bleeding, internal bleeding, or Fibrin degradation productsincreased
both and clotting (Cunningham et al., 2005). DIC is most of- D-dimer test (specific fibrin degradation frag- ment)
ten triggered by the release of large amounts of tissue throm- increased
Red blood smearfragmented red blood cells
boplastin. This occurs in abruptio placentae, retained dead
fetus, and amniotic fluid embolus syndrome. Severe
Sources: Cunningham et al., 2005; Kilpatrick & Laros, 2004; Labelle &
preeclampsia, HELLP syndrome, and gram-negative sepsis are Kitchens, 2005.
756 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
blood flow to the uterus. Oxygen may be administered 2002). Factors that influence the development and man-
through a tight-fitting rebreathing mask at 8 to 10 L/min, or agement of STIs during pregnancy include previous history
per hospital protocol or physician order. Blood and blood of STI or pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), number of cur-
products must be administered safely. Fetal assessments are rent sexual partners, frequency of intercourse, and antici-
done to monitor fetal well-being (Labelle & Kitchens, 2005; pated sexual activity during pregnancy. Lifestyle choices also
Lurie, Feinstein, & Mamet, 2000). DIC usually is cured with may affect STIs in the perinatal period. Risk factors include
the birth and as coagulation abnormalites resolve. use of IV drugs or having a partner who uses IV drugs.
Other lifestyle factors that increase susceptibility to STIs
INFECTIONS ACQUIRED (through suppressive effects on the immune system) include
DURING PREGNANCY smoking, alcohol use, inadequate or poor nutrition, and
high levels of fatigue or personal stress (Gibbs, Sweet, &
Sexually Transmitted Infections Duff, 2004).
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in pregnancy are re- Physical examination and laboratory studies to determine
sponsible for significant morbidity rates. Some consequences the presence of STIs in the pregnant woman are the same
of maternal infection, such as infertility and sterility, last a as those done in nonpregnant women (see Chapter 5).
lifetime. Psychosocial sequelae may include altered inter- Treatment of specific STIs may be different for the preg-
personal relationships and lowered self-esteem. Congenitally nant woman and may even be different at different stages of
acquired infection may affect the length and quality of a pregnancy. Table 23-9 describes the maternal, fetal, and
childs life. neonatal effects. Table 23-10 describes treatment during preg-
Chapter 5 discusses the diagnosis and management of nancy of common STIs. Infected women need instruction re-
STIs, and Chapter 27 discusses neonatal effects and man- garding how to take prescribed medications, information on
agement. This discussion focuses only on the effects of sev- whether their partner(s) also need to be evaluated and treated,
eral common STIs on pregnancy and the fetus (Table 23-9). and a review of preventive measures to avoid reinfection.
Effects on pregnancy and the fetus also vary according to
whether the infection has been treated at the time of labor TORCH Infections
and birth. TORCH infections can affect a pregnant woman and her fe-
tus. Toxoplasmosis, other infections (e.g., hepatitis), rubella
Collaborative care virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus, known col-
The most common STIs in women are chlamydia, human lectively as TORCH infections, are a group of organisms ca-
papillomavirus, gonorrhea, herpes simplex virus type 2, pable of crossing the placenta and adversely affecting the de-
syphilis, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infec- velopment of the fetus. Generally, all TORCH infections
tion (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], produce influenza-like symptoms in the woman, but fetal
TABLE 23-9
Pregnancy and Fetal Effects of Common Sexually Transmitted Infections
INFECTION PREGNANCY EFFECTS FETAL EFFECTS
Data from Cunningham, F., Leveno, K., Bloom, S., Hauth, J., Gilstrap, L., Wenstrom, K. (2005). Williams obstetrics (22nd ed.). NewYork: McGraw-Hill; & Gilbert,
E., & Harmon, J. (2003). Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery (3rd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 757
TABLE 23-10
Treatment of Common Sexually Transmitted Infections in Pregnancy
SEXUALLY
TRANSMITTED
INFECTION TREATMENT NURSING CONSIDERATIONS
Chlamydia Erythromycin 500 mg PO four times a day Instruct woman to take after meals and with
7 days; or amoxicillin 500 mg PO three 8 oz water; instruct partner to be tested
times a day 7 days and treated if needed.
Herpes Acyclovir is used in pregnancy only if the Instruct woman in comfort measures: keep
potential benefit outweighs the potential lesions clean and dry; use compresses on
risk to the fetus; treat symptoms. Anal- lesions (cold milk, colloidal oatmeal) every
gesics and topical anesthetics may be or- 2 to 4 hr, sitz baths; woman should abstain
dered for severe discomfort. from intercourse while lesions are pres-
ent; if woman has active lesions at time of
labor, a cesarean birth will usually be per-
formed to prevent perinatal transmission.
Gonorrhea Ceftriaxone 125 mg IM one dose or Ce- Screening is done at first prenatal visit; re-
fixime, 400 mg po X one dose or Spectin- peated in third trimester if high risk. In-
omycin, 2 grams IM as single dose plus struct partner to be tested and treated if
treatment for chlamydial as listed above needed. Infants are treated within 1 hour
of birth with ophthalmic erythromycin or
tetracycline ointment.
Group B streptococcus Penicillin G 5 million units IV initial dose fol- Pregnant women should be screened at
lowed by 2.5 million units IV q4 hours dur- 36-37 weeks of gestation; if positive or
ing labor or ampicillin 2 grams IV initial status unknown at time of labor, the
dose followed by 1 gram IV q4 hours woman is treated.
Hepatitis B For exposure, hepatitis B immune globulin Screening should be at first prenatal visit,
0.06 mg/kg IM; repeat in 1 mo, followed with rescreening in third trimester for high
by hepatitis B vaccine series risk patients; treatment is supportivebed
rest, high-protein, low-fat diet, increased
fluid intake; the woman should avoid med-
ications that are metabolized in the liver.
Human papillomavirus Trichloracetic acid (TCA) or bichloracetic acid Podophyllum and 5-fluorouracil are possibly
(BCA) 80% to 90% applied topically to teratogenic and should not be used in
warts one to three times a week; Xylo- pregnancy; inform partners to be tested
caine jelly applied for burning sensations; and treated if needed; couples should use
cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen in second condoms for intercourse; inform women
and third trimesters; CO2 laser ablation that smoking can decrease effects of
therapy therapy.
Syphilis Benzathine penicillin G 2.4 million units IM Treatment cures maternal infection and
once; if syphilis of more than one year du- prevents congenital syphilis 98% of the
ration then 2.4 million units IM (one dose time; routine screening during pregnancy
per week X 3 weeks) should be at the first prenatal visit and in
No proven alternatives to penicillin in preg- the third trimester in women at high risk;
nancy; women who have a history of al- partners should be tested and treated if
lergy to penicillin should be desensitized needed.
and treated with penicillin
Trichomonas Metronidazole 2 grams PO once Inform partners to be treated; women
should avoid alcohol and vinegar prod-
ucts to avoid nausea and vomiting,
intestinal cramping, and headaches; not
recommended during lactation; stop
breastfeeding, treat; resume in 48 hours
after last dose.
Women may use breast pump and discard
milk to prevent interruption of milk supply.
Candidiasis Over-the-counter topical agents; butocona- May be used during lactation.
zole, clotrimazole, miconazole, or tercona-
zole; use for 7 days
Bacterial vaginosis Metronidazole 250 mg PO three times a day See Trichomonas; infection may increase
7 days risk of preterm labor; women are usually
asymptomatic.
TABLE 23-11
Maternal Infection: TORCH
COUNSELING: PREVENTION,
IDENTIFICATION, AND
INFECTION MATERNAL EFFECTS FETAL EFFECTS MANAGEMENT
Toxoplasmosis Acute infection similar to in- With maternal acute infection, Use good handwashing tech-
(protozoa) fluenza, lymphadenopathy parasitemia nique
Woman immune after first Less likely to occur with ma- Avoid eating raw meat and ex-
episode (except in immuno- ternal chronic infection posure to litter used by in-
compromised patients) Miscarriage likely with acute fected cats; if cats in house,
infection early in pregnancy have toxoplasma titer
checked
If titer is rising during early
pregnancy, abortion may be
considered an option
OTHER INFECTIONS
Hepatitis A (infec- Miscarriage, cause of liver fail- Exposure during first Usually spread by droplet or
tious hepatitis) ure during pregnancy trimester, fetal anomalies, hand contact especially by
(virus) Fever, malaise, nausea, and ab- fetal or neonatal hepatitis, culinary workers; gamma-
dominal discomfort preterm birth, intrauterine globulin can be given as
fetal death prophylaxis for hepatitis A
Hepatitis B (serum May be transmitted sexually, Infection occurs during birth Generally passed by contami-
hepatitis) (virus) symptoms variablefever, Maternal vaccination during nated needles, syringes, or
rash, arthralgia, depressed pregnancy should present blood transfusions; also can
appetite, dyspepsia, abdomi- no risk for fetus (however, be transmitted orally or by
nal pain, generalized aching, data are not available) coitus (but incubation pe-
malaise, weakness, jaundice, riod is longer); hepatitis B
tender and enlarged liver immune globulin can be
given prophylactically after
exposure
Hepatitis B vaccine recom-
mended for populations at
risk
Populations at risk are women
from Asia, Pacific islands,
Indochina, Haiti, South
Africa, Alaska (women of
Eskimo descent); other wo-
men at risk include health
care providers, users of in-
travenous drugs, those sex-
ually active with multiple
partners or single partner
with multiple risks
and neonatal effects are more serious. TORCH infections among nonpregnant women of comparable age. However,
and their maternal and fetal effects are described in Table pregnancy may make diagnosis more difficult. An enlarged
23-11. Neonatal effects are discussed in Chapter 27. uterus and displaced internal organs may make abdominal
palpation more difficult, alter the position of an affected or-
SURGICAL EMERGENCIES gan, or change the usual signs and symptoms associated with
DURING PREGNANCY a particular disorder. Common conditions necessitating ab-
dominal surgery during pregnancy include cerclage, ovarian
The incidence of surgery requiring anesthesia during preg- cystectomy, and appendectomy (Kuczkowski, 2004). Fetal
nancy ranges from 0.2% to 2.2%, affecting an estimated concerns include teratogenic effects secondary to the anes-
50,000 to 75,000 pregnant women each year (Kuczkowski, thetic drugs used, intrauterine fetal death, and premature la-
2004; Ludmir & Stubblefield, 2002). The need for abdom- bor (Kuczkowski, 2004). Regional anesthesia is preferred,
inal surgery occurs as frequently among pregnant women as with intensive fetal and maternal monitoring. After 24 weeks
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 759
TABLE 23-11
Maternal Infection: TORCHcontd
COUNSELING: PREVENTION,
IDENTIFICATION, AND
INFECTION MATERNAL EFFECTS FETAL EFFECTS MANAGEMENT
OTHER INFECTIONScontd
Rubella (3-day Rash, fever, mild symptoms; Incidence of congenital Vaccination of pregnant
German measles) suboccipital lymph nodes anomaliesfirst month women contraindicated;
(virus) may be swollen; some 50%, second month 25%, pregnancy should be pre-
photophobia third month 10%, fourth vented for 1 month after
Occasionally arthritis or month 4% vaccination; pregnant
encephalitis Exposure during first women nonreactive to
Miscarriage 2 monthsmalformations hemagglutinin-inhibition
of heart, eyes, ears, or brain, antigen can be safely vacci-
abnormal dermatoglyphics nated after birth
Exposure after fourth month
systemic infection,
hepatosplenomegaly,
intrauterine growth
restriction, rash
Cytomegalovirus Respiratory or sexually trans- Fetal death or severe, general- Virus may be reactivated and
(CMV) (a herpes mitted asymptomatic illness ized diseasehemolytic cause disease in utero or
virus) or mononucleosis-like syn- anemia and jaundice, during birth in subsequent
drome; may have cervical hydrocephaly or micro- pregnancies; fetal infection
discharge cephaly, pneumonitis, may occur during passage
No immunity develops hepatosplenomegaly, through infected birth canal;
deafness disease is commonly pro-
gressive through infancy
and childhood
Herpes genitalis Primary infection with painful Transplacental infection is Risk of transmission is
(herpes simplex blisters, rash, fever, malaise, rare; congenital effects in- greatest during vaginal
virus, type 2 nausea, headache; preg- clude skin lesions and scar- birth if woman has active
[HSV-2]) nancy risks include miscar- ring, intrauterine growth re- lesions
riage, preterm labor, still- striction, mental retardation, Acyclovir not recommended
births microcephaly in pregnancy; treat
symptomatically (see Table
23-10)
of gestation lateral displacement of the uterus facilitates anatomic location (see Fig. 8-13). Because of these changes,
uteroplacental perfusion (Kuczkowski, 2004). rupture of the appendix and the subsequent development
of peritonitis occur two to three times more often in preg-
Appendicitis nant women than in nonpregnant women.
Appendicitis occurs in approximately 1 in 2000 pregnancies. The woman with appendicitis most commonly has right
This condition occurs with approximately the same fre- lower quadrant abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, and
quency during each trimester of pregnancy and the post- loss of appetite. Approximately half of these affected
partum period (Ludmir & Stubblefield, 2002). The diagno- women have muscle guarding. Moving the uterus tends to
sis of appendicitis is often delayed because the usual signs increase the pain. Temperature may be normal or mildly
and symptoms mimic some normal changes of pregnancy increased (to 38.3 C). Because of the physiologic increase
such as nausea and vomiting and increased WBC count in WBCs that occurs in pregnancy, elevated WBC counts
(Cunningham et al., 2005). As pregnancy progresses, the ap- are not clear indicators of appendicitis (Mourad, Elliott,
pendix is pushed upward and to the right of its usual Erickson, & Lisboa, 2000). Significant increases associated
760 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
with appendicitis must be monitored either by rising lev- should be monitored; constant vigilance is maintained for
els on serial samples or by an increasing left shift. symptoms of impending obstetric complications. The extent
The diagnosis of appendicitis requires a high level of sus- of preoperative assessment is determined by the immediacy
picion because the typical signs and symptoms are similar of surgical intervention and the specific condition that ne-
to those found in many other conditions, including cessitates surgery.
pyelonephritis, round ligament pain, placental abruption, Preoperative care for a pregnant woman differs from that
torsion of an ovarian cyst, cholecystitis, and preterm labor for a nonpregnant woman in one significant aspect: the
(Ludmir & Stubblefield, 2002) (see Table 23-7). presence of at least one other person, the fetus. Continu-
Appendectomy before rupture usually does not require ous FHR and uterine contraction monitoring should be per-
either antibiotic or tocolytic therapy. If surgery is delayed un- formed if the fetus is considered viable. Procedures such as
til after rupture, multiple antibiotics are ordered. Rupture is preparation of the operative site and time of insertion of IV
likely to result in preterm labor, necessitating the use of to- lines and urinary retention catheters vary with the physician
colytic agents. and the facility. Solid foods and liquids are restricted before
surgery. If the woman experiences a prolonged NPO status,
Intestinal Obstructions IV fluids with dextrose should be given. To decrease the risk
The second most common nonobstetric abdominal emer- of vomiting and aspiration, special precautions are taken
gency in pregnancy is intestinal obstruction. Any woman before anesthetic is administered (e.g., administering an
with a laparotomy scar is more likely to have an intestinal antacid).
obstruction (adynamic ileus) during pregnancy. Adhesions Intraoperatively, perinatal nurses may collaborate with the
as a result of previous surgery or PID, an enlarging uterus, surgical staff to provide for the special needs of pregnant
and displacement of the intestines are etiologic factors. women undergoing surgery. To improve fetal oxygenation,
Symptoms include constipation; persistent cramplike, ab- the woman is positioned on the operating table with a lat-
dominal tenderness or pain (continuous or colicky); and eral tilt to avoid maternal compression of the vena cava.
vomiting (Cunningham et al., 2005). Auscultatory rushes Continuous fetal and uterine monitoring during the proce-
within the abdomen and laddering of the intestinal shad- dure is recommended because of the risk for preterm labor.
ows on x-ray films aid in the diagnosis of intestinal ob- Monitoring may be accomplished using sterile Aquasonic gel
struction. Immediate surgery is required for release of the and a sterile sleeve for the transducer. During abdominal sur-
obstruction. Pregnancy is rarely affected by the surgery, as- gery, uterine contractions may be palpated manually.
suming the absence of complications such as peritonitis. In the immediate recovery period, general observations
and care pertinent to postoperative recovery are initiated.
Gynecologic Problems Frequent assessments are carried out for several hours after
Pregnancy predisposes a woman to ovarian problems, es- surgery. Continuous fetal and uterine monitoring will likely
pecially during the first trimester. Ovarian cysts and twist- be initiated or resumed because of the increased risk of
ing (torsion) of ovarian cysts or twisting of adnexal tissues preterm labor. Tocolysis may be necessary if preterm labor
may occur. Other problems include retained or enlarged cys- occurs (see Chapter 24).
tic corpus luteum of pregnancy, and bacterial invasion of Plans for the womans return home and for convalescent
reproductive or other intraperitoneal organs. Serial ultra- care should be completed as early as possible before dis-
sounds, MRIs and transvaginal color Doppler are used to di- charge. Depending on her insurance coverage, nursing care
agnose most ovarian abnormalities (Cunningham et al., may be provided through a home health agency. If not, the
2005). Ovarian masses generally regress by 16 to 20 weeks woman and other support persons must be taught necessary
of gestation but if not then elective surgery may be done to skills and procedures, such as wound care. Box 23-8 lists in-
remove masses. Laparotomy or laparoscopy may be required formation that should be included in discharge teaching for
to discriminate between ovarian problems and early ectopic the postoperative patient. The woman may also need refer-
pregnancy, appendicitis, or an infectious process. rals to various community agencies for evaluation of the
home situation, child care, home health care, and financial
Collaborative Care or other assistance.
The woman and her family are concerned about the effects
of the procedure and medication on fetal well-being and the TRAUMA DURING PREGNANCY
course of pregnancy. An important part of preoperative nurs-
ing care is encouraging the woman to express her fears, con- Trauma is a common complication during pregnancy be-
cerns, and questions. Initial assessment of the pregnant cause the majority of pregnant women in the United States
woman requiring surgery focuses on her presenting signs and continue their usual activities. Therefore pregnant women
symptoms. A thorough history is obtained, and a physical are at the same risk as other women for vehicular crashes,
examination is performed. Laboratory testing includes, at a falls, industrial mishaps, violence, and other injuries in the
minimum, a complete blood count with differential and a home and community. Treatment of pregnant trauma vic-
urinalysis. FHR, fetal heart activity, and uterine activity tims is complicated because trauma health care providers sel-
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 761
Clinical Manifestations
dom have the same level of expertise in the care of pregnant When maternal survival of trauma occurs, fetal death is usu-
women as they do in care of nonpregnant trauma victims ally the result of abruptio placentae occurring within 48
(Lutz, 2005). hours of the accident (Van Hook, Gei, & Pacheco, 2004).
traumatic uterine rupture (Cunningham et al., 2005). How- trauma patient (Cunningham et al., 2005). Survival of the
ever, maternal death occurs less than 10% of the time, and fetus is dependent on maternal survival and stabilization.
when it occurs it is usually the result of massive injuries sus- The perinatal nurse is often called on to function collabo-
tained from an impact severe enough to rupture the uterus. ratively with emergency department or trauma unit staff
members in providing care for the pregnant trauma victim.
Penetrating Abdominal Trauma Priorities of care for the pregnant woman after trauma must
Bullet wounds are the most frequent cause of penetrating ab- be to resuscitate the woman and stabilize her condition first
dominal injury, followed by stab wounds. In the majority of and then consider fetal needs. Lateral displacement of the
cases of penetrating abdominal wounds, the woman survives, uterus may significantly improve maternal cardiac output
but the fetus does not (41% to 71%) (Gonik & Foley, 2004). and therefore fetal oxygenation (Cunningham et al., 2005).
The enlarged uterus may protect other maternal organs, but On admission after trauma, pregnant women are typed,
the fetus is particularly vulnerable (Cunningham et al., 2005). crossmatched, and screened, with a urinalysis, coagulation
Numerous factors determine the extent and severity of ma- panel, ultrasound examination, and assessment of FHR per-
ternal and fetal injury from a bullet wound, including size formed as appropriate. A KB test is done for women at
and velocity of the bullet, anatomic region penetrated, an- greater than 12 weeks of gestation to ascertain fetal red blood
gle of entry, path of the bullet, organs damaged, gestational cells (fetomaternal hemorrhage) in the maternal circulation
age, and exit wound. Once the bullet enters the body, it may regardless of the maternal blood type. Rho(D) immuno-
ricochet several times as it encounters organs or bone, or it globulin administration is indicated for Rh-negative women
may sever a large blood vessel. Gunshot wounds require sur- with fetomaternal bleeding, and tetanus toxoid is adminis-
gical exploration to determine the extent of injury and re- tered if indicated (Cunningham et al., 2005).
pair damage as needed. Stab wounds are limited by the In cases of minor trauma, the woman is evaluated for vagi-
length and width of the penetrating object and are usually nal bleeding, uterine irritability, abdominal tenderness, ab-
confined to the pathway of the weapon. Maternal and fetal dominal pain or cramps, and evidence of hypovolemia. A
injury are less if the stab wound is located in the upper ab- change in or absence of FHR or fetal activity, leakage of am-
domen and if movement of the penetrating object is from niotic fluid, and presence of fetal cells in the maternal cir-
above the head downward toward the abdomen rather than culation are also included in the assessment.
from the ground upward toward the lower abdomen. Stab In cases of major trauma, the systematic evaluation be-
wounds usually require surgical exploration to clean debris, gins with a primary survey and the initial ABCDEFs of re-
determine extent of injury, and repair damage. suscitation: establishment of and maintaining an airway, en-
suring adequate breathing, maintaining an adequate circulatory
Thoracic Trauma volume, assessing for disability (alert, voice, pain, and unre-
Thoracic trauma is reported to produce 25% of all trauma sponsive), examining the patient head to toe (Van Hook, Gei,
deaths (Van Hook, Gei, & Pacheco, 2004). Chest trauma may & Pacheco, 2004) and assessing fetal status.
result in several life threatening injuries which include ten- Once an airway is established, assessment should focus
sion pneumothrorax or open pneumothorax, hemothorax, on adequacy of oxygenation. Rapid placement of two large
cardiac tamponade, flail chest, myocardial damage, dia- bore (14- to 16-gauge) IV lines is necessary in the majority
phragmatic rupture, aortic rupture, and pulmonary contu- of seriously injured women. With maternal blood loss greater
sion. Pulmonary contusion results from nearly 75% of blunt than 2,000 ml there is rapid maternal deterioration while the
thoracic trauma and is a potentially life-threatening condi- fetus may be compromised with a blood loss less than 2,000
tion. Pulmonary contusion can be difficult to recognized, ml (Van Hook, Gei, & Pacheco, 2004). Infusion of IV fluids
especially if flail chest also is present or if there is no evidence such as normal saline should use a 3:1 ratio; that is, 3 ml of
of thoracic injury. Pulmonary contusion should be suspected crystalloid replacement to 1 ml of the estimated blood loss
in cases of thoracic injury, especially after blunt acceleration is given over the first 30 to 60 minutes of acute resuscitation.
or deceleration trauma, such as that occurring when a rap- Because of the 50% increase in blood volume during preg-
idly moving vehicle crashes into an immovable object. nancy, formulas for nonpregnant adults for estimating crys-
Penetrating wounds into the chest can result in pneu- talloid and blood replacement to counter blood loss must
mothorax or hemothorax. This type of injury is usually be adjusted upward for pregnancy. Replacement of red blood
caused by a vehicular crash that results in impalement by the cells and other blood components is anticipated. Vasopres-
steering column or a loose article in the vehicle that became sor drugs to restore maternal arterial BP should be avoided,
a projectile with the force of impact. Stab wounds into the if possible, until volume replacement is administered. Es-
chest also may occur as a result of violence. tablishing a baseline neurologic status is essential.
After immediate resuscitation and successful stabilization
Collaborative Care measures, a more detailed secondary survey of the mother
Immediate priorities for stabilization of the pregnant woman and fetus should be accomplished. A complete physical as-
after trauma should be identical to those of the nonpregnant sessment including all body systems is performed. The eval-
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 763
TABLE 23-12
Priorities for Perinatal Trauma Management
ACTIVITY TEAM A (MOTHER) TEAM B (FETUS)
From Gilbert, E., & Harmon, J. (2003). Manual of high risk pregnancy and delivery (3rd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
CPR, Cardiopulmonary resuscitation; EFM, electronic fetal monitor; FHR, fetal heart rate.
*Pregnant woman is first priority, then fetus.
uation and care is usually performed by two teams of care determine gestational age, viability of the fetus, and placental
providers. The first team focuses on the mother and the sec- location.
ond focuses on the fetus and any pregnancy-related prob- In addition to assisting with stabilization of the woman,
lems. Table 23-12 summarizes posttrauma care for the preg- the nurse will likely be providing emotional support for the
nant woman and fetus. injured woman and her family. If the trauma is the result of
The greatest clinical concern after vehicular crashes is an MVA, other family members may also have been critically
abruptio placentae, as up to 40% of these women will have injured or killed. The nurse collaborates with staff members
an abruption (Van Hook, 2002). Assessments should focus in other units of the same hospital, as well as at other hos-
on recognition of this complication, with careful evaluation pitals, to make sure that questions are answered and con-
of fetal monitor tracings, uterine tenderness, labor, or vagi- sistent information is given. Grief support may also be nec-
nal bleeding. Ultrasound examination may be performed to essary.
764 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
In the presence of severe, multisystem trauma, peri- assuring before monitoring is discontinued and the woman
mortem cesarean birth may be indicated. Removal of the fe- discharged (Cunningham et al., 2005). Education for the
tus early in the process of resuscitation may increase the woman and her family is important. She should be in-
chance for maternal survival. With maternal death, fetal sur- structed to contact her health care provider immediately if
vival is unlikely if cesarean birth is accomplished more than changes in fetal movement or signs and symptoms indica-
20 minutes after maternal demise. Therefore, to facilitate ma- tive of preterm labor, PROM, or placental abruption de-
ternal resuscitation, a cesarean birth may be indicated after velop. If the trauma occurred as a result of a MVA, the
4 to 5 minutes of maternal resuscitative efforts are ineffec- woman should be reminded about the importance of wear-
tive (Cunningham et al., 2005; Van Hook, Gei, & Pacheco, ing a seat belt and given directions for using it correctly dur-
2004). ing pregnancy (position the lap belt over hips and thighs,
With minor trauma the woman may be discharged home rather than across the abdomen) (see Fig. 9-18). If the
after an adequate period of EFM that demonstrates fetal re- trauma occurred as a result of domestic violence, the woman
assurance and absence of uterine contractions (Cunningham may need information about intimate partner violence (see
et al., 2005). Her vital signs should be stable, with no evi- Chapter 4); referral to a crisis center, law enforcement
dence of bleeding at the time of discharge. There should be agency, or counseling center; and help in forming a safety
no uterine contractions, and the FHR tracing should be re- plan.
COMMUNITY ACTIVITY
Contact your local hospital, obstetric offices, Contact your local hospital or obstetric office to
health department and mental health counselors identify resources available for women on bed
to assess resources available for pregnant wo- rest due to a high risk pregnancy. Review the
men and their families who have experienced a hospital policy for these women and their fami-
pregnancy loss. Assess the availability of written lies, i.e., written and electronic materials and sup-
resources reviewing the level of literacy of the re- port groups. Identify the specific activities al-
sources and support groups. Review the hospi- lowed, including activity level, home activities,
tal policy and procedure for women experiencing child care, hygiene, ambulation, and sexual ac-
a pregnancy loss to include written materials, tivity.
parental memorabilia, and disposition of fetus,
Key Points
Hypertensive disorders during pregnancy are a agement focuses on restoring fluid and electrolyte
leading cause of infant and maternal morbidity and balance and preventing recurrence of nausea and
mortality worldwide. vomiting.
The cause of preeclampsia is unknown, and there Some miscarriages occur for unknown reasons,
are no known reliable tests for predicting which but fetal or placental maldevelopment and mater-
women are at risk for this condition. nal factors account for many others.
Preeclampsia is a multisystem disease rather than The type of miscarriage and signs and symptoms
only an increase in BP. direct care management.
HELLP syndrome, which usually becomes appar- Recurrent premature dilation of the cervix may be
ent during the third trimester, is a variant of se- treated with a cervical cerclage; the woman is in-
vere preeclampsia and is considered life threat- structed on activity restriction and recognizing the
ening. warning signs of preterm labor, ROM, and infec-
tion.
Magnesium sulfate, the anticonvulsive agent of
choice for preventing eclampsia, requires careful Ectopic pregnancy is a significant cause of ma-
monitoring of reflexes, respirations, and urinary ternal morbidity and mortality.
output; its antidote, calcium gluconate, should be There are two categories of gestational tro-
available at the bedside. phoblastic disease, hydatiform mole, and or ges-
Intent of emergency interventions for eclampsia is tational trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN). -hCG titers
to prevent self-injury, ensure adequate oxygena- are measured to confirm diagnosis and to follow
tion, reduce aspiration risk, establish seizure con- up after treatment.
trol with magnesium sulfate, and correct maternal Premature separation of the placenta and placenta
acidemia. previa are differentiated by type of bleeding, uter-
ine tonicity, and presence or absence of pain.
The woman with hyperemesis gravidarum may
have significant weight loss and dehydration; man-
C HAPTE R 23 Pregnancy at Risk: Gestational Conditions 765
Key Pointscontd
Clotting disorders are associated with many ob- Fetal survival depends on maternal survival; after
stetric complications. trauma the first priority is resuscitation and sta-
An enlarged uterus, displaced internal organs, and bilization of the pregnant woman before consid-
altered laboratory values may confound differen- eration of fetal concerns.
tial diagnosis in the pregnant woman when the Minor trauma can be associated with major com-
need for immediate abdominal surgery occurs. plications for the pregnancy, including abruptio pla-
Preoperative care for a pregnant woman differs centae, fetomaternal hemorrhage, preterm labor
from that for a nonpregnant woman in one sig- and birth, and fetal death.
nificant aspect: the presence of at least one other Pregnancy confers no immunity against infec-
person, the fetus. tion, and both mother and fetus must be consid-
Most traumatic maternal injuries are a result of mo- ered when the pregnant woman contracts an in-
tor vehicle crashes, followed by falls and direct as- fection.
saults to the pregnant abdomen.
Resources
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) American Social Health Association (ASHA)
409 12th St., SW P.O. Box 13827
Washington, DC 20024 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
800-762-2264 1-800-783-9877
www.acog.com www.ashastd.org
766 U NI T S EVE N COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBEARING
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Institute of Justice
1600 Clifton Rd., NE National Criminal Justice Reference Service
Atlanta, GA 30333 P.O. Box 6000
404-329-1819 Rockville, MC 20849-6000
404-329-3286 800-851-3420
www.cdc.gov askncjrs@ncjrs.org
Division of Violence PreventionCDC National Sexually Transmitted Diseases Hotline
Intimate Partner Violence 800-227-8922
www.cdc.gov/ncipc
Moms on Bedrest:
COPE (Coping with the Overall Pregnancy/Parenting Experience) www.momsonbedrest.com
37 Clarendon St.
Pregnancy and Infant Loss
Boston, MA 02116
1421 East Wayzata Blvd., Suite 40
617-357-5588
Wayzata, MN 55391
Family Violence Prevention Fund 614-473-9372
383 Rhode Island St., Suite 304
Pregnancy Bed Rest
San Francisco, CA 94103
http://fpb.cwru.edu/Bedrest/
415-252-8900
www.fvpf.org Pregnancy Bed Rest
www.pregnancybedrest.com
Left Sidelines MagazineBedrest
Sidelines Rest- Taking to BedAmericanBaby
2805 Park Place Rest-Coping How to Keep from Going Crazy
Laguna Beach, CA 92651 http://www.americanbaby
949-497-2265
Sexually Transmitted Diseases CDC
www.sidelines.org
www.cdc.gov/nchstp/dstd/disease_info.htm
National Domestic Violence and Abuse Hotline www.cdc.gov/std/STDFact-STDs&Pregnancy.htm
800-799-SAFE
Violence Against Women Electronic Network (VAWnet)
www.vawnet.org
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