Transformer Failure Analysis & Mitigation 2017

Transformer Failure Analysis & Mitigation

Transformer is one of the most critical components of the electrical power system. In any electrical network the
generation voltage is usually different than the transmission and distribution voltage, this is where the
transformers have a crucial role to play in terms of effectively transmitting the power from source to the various
load points with minimum losses and higher efficiency.

However as with every other equipment, transformers are also susceptible to failures which have significant
impact on the reliability, quality of the power transmitted. The objective of this document is to find out the
probable causes of failures and mitigation techniques to avoid such failures.

The first section deals with the probable causes of transformer failure and the next section deals with the
mitigation techniques which would help reduce the failure rate of transformers and increase its life expectancy.

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Section-1: Transformer Failure Causes:

Transformer failures can be broadly attributed to following:

Internal factors
External factors

1. Internal factors:
These are factors which originate from within the transformer due to failure of its internal components. They
can be further subdivided into the following:

1.1 Winding Failure

Transformer winding are aluminum or copper conductor wound across the transformer core. The voltage
transformation depends upon the number of turns of winding made on transformer primary and secondary
side.

High voltage/low current flows in the primary side winding and through electromagnetic induction voltage is
stepped down and current stepped up in the secondary side winding. These windings withstand dielectric,
thermal and mechanical stress during this process. The faults that occur in the winding are due to these
stresses.

Winding failures may occur due to the following:

1.1.1. Turn-to-Turn Insulation Breakdown

Dielectric faults occur in the winding due to turn-to-turn insulation breakdown. These are the insulation
between the turns of the winding. Insulation breakdown commonly occur due to high current and voltage
which are high above the rated values. The breakdown of the insulation results in the flashover of the
winding turns and cause short circuit. Two reasons for the high values of voltage and current are
Lightning impulse attack with no lightning arresters
Fault voltages

1.1.2. Hotspots
The windings are usually of copper. Due to the copper line resistance thermal losses occur. These thermal
losses make hotspots in the winding due to bad or lack of maintenance. This over time causes wear and
tear and the decrease of the physical strength up to the point of breaking of the winding.

1.1.3. Mechanical problems in the winding

Mechanical faults are the distortion, loosening or displacement of the windings. This results in the
decrease of the performance of the transformer and the tearing of the turn-to-turn ratio. The main
reasons that cause this fault are the improper repair, bad maintenance, corrosion, manufacturing
deficiencies, vibration and mechanical movement within the transformer.

1.2 Bushing Failure

Bushes are insulating devices that insulate a high voltage electrical conductor to pass through an earth
conductor. In transformers it provides a current path through the tank wall. Inside the transformer paper
insulators are used which are surrounded by oil that provides further insulation. Bushing failure usually occurs
over time. Some of the main reasons for bushing failure are discussed below.

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1.2.1 Loosening of Conductors

Loosening of conductors is caused by transformer vibrations which results in overheating. This heat
damage the insulating paper and the oil used.

1.2.2 Sudden High Fault Voltages

Sudden high fault voltages causes partial discharge (breakdown of solid/liquid electrical insulators) which
damage the bushes and causes its degeneration and complete breakdown within hours.

1.2.3 Ageing and Environmental factors

Seal breaking of bushes happen due to ingress of water, aging or excessive dielectric losses. Due to this
fault core failure of the transformer occurs.

1.2.4 Non-replacement of Transformer Oil

Not replacing of old oil over long time or its deficiency due to leakage causes internal over-flashing.

1.3 Tap Changer Failure

The tap changer function in the transformer is to regulate the voltage level. This is done by either adding or
removing turns from the secondary transformer winding. It is the most complex part of the transformer and
also an important one. Even the smallest fault results in the wrong power output. The tap change failures
might occur due to any one of the below reason.

1.3.1 Run Through Fault

In Run-Through fault the tap changer takes time and after a delay changes the turn ratio. The main reason
for it is the relay responsible for the tap change has residue flux because of polluted oil, therefore taking
time to change. The other reason for run-through fault is the spring becoming fragile over time.

1.3.2 Lack of Maintenance

Lack of maintenance causes the shaft connection between the tap and the motor driver of the tap
changer to be not synchronous. Because of this the tap changer is not in the position where it needs to
be.

1.3.3 Ageing
Regular use of the tap changer causes the spring in it to slowly become fragile over time and then finally
break. Because of this the tap changer is not able to change the turn ratio of the winding.

1.4 Core Failure

The transformers have laminated steel cores in the middle surrounded by the transformer windings. The
function of the core is to concentrate the magnetic flux. Fault in the core directly affect the transformer
windings, causing faults in them. The cores of the transformers are laminated to reduce eddy-current. The
lamination of the core can become defected by poor maintenance, old oil or corrosion. The breakdown of the
smallest part of the lamination results in increase of thermal heat due to eddy-current. The effects of this over
heating are

1.4.1 Overheating from windings

The over-heating reaches the core surface which is in direct contact with the windings. As a result of this
the windings are damaged by the heat.

1.4.2 Ageing

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This heat also damages the oil in the transformers resulting in the release of a gas from the oil that
damages other parts of the transformer.

1.5 Tank Failure

The function of the tank in the transformer is to be a container for the oil used in it. The oil in the tank is used
for insulation and cooling. The tank can also be used as a support for other equipments of the transformer.

The fault in the tank occurs due to environmental stress, corrosion, high humidity and sun radiation resulting
in a leakage or cracks in the tank walls. From these leakages and cracks oil spill from the tank causing the
reduction of oil.

1.5.1 Overheating of Winding

The over-heating reaches the core surface which is in direct contact with the windings. As a result of this
the windings are damaged by the heat.

1.5.2 Overheating of Oil

This heat also damages the oil in the transformers resulting in the release of a gas from the oil that
damages other parts of the transformer.

1.6 Protection System Failure (internal)

The main function of the protection system is to protect the transformer from faults by first detecting the fault
and then resolving it as fast as possible. If it cannot fix the fault, it isolates it so that it may not damage the
transformer.

Protection systems include the Buchholz protection, pressure relief valve circuitry, surge protection and
Sudden Pressure Relays.

1.6.1 Buchholz Protection

Buchholz protection is a protective device that is sensitive to dielectric faults in the transformer.
Overheating of the relay occurs because of accumulation of gasses over time, which reduces its sensitivity
to dielectric faults. Low level oil due to leakage causes the Buchholz protection to come into action even if
there is not a fault which is not needed and waste of energy.

1.6.2 Pressure Relief Valve

Pressure relief valve circuitry protects the transformer from exploding due to gas pressure. The gas
pressure is produced due to overheating of oil. Pressure relief valve circuitry slowly reduces the pressure
of the gasses. Fault in this circuitry mainly occurs due to the spring in it becoming fragile over time
resulting in the circuitry not being able to reduce pressure quickly. This circuitry also fails when gas
pressure increases quickly as this is only able to release pressure slowly.

1.6.3 Surge Protector

Surge protector protects the transformer from over voltage by allowing specific magnitude of voltage to
go to transformer and for the rest alternate route is found. Failure in surge protection causes high voltage
to pass to the windings which becomes damaged because of it. Moisture, heat and corrosion are the main
reasons of the failure of surge protection as it causes overheating and short circuit in it.

1.6.4 Sudden Pressure Relays

Sudden Pressure Relays protects the transformers from blowing up from sudden exponential increase of
gas pressure. If it fails to release the sudden pressure the transformer blows up. Relay fails due to
humidity and moisture affecting its internal circuitry.

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1.7 Cooling System Failure

Cooling system reduces the heat produced in transformers due to copper and iron losses. The cooling system
contains cooling fans, oil pumps and water-cooled heat exchangers. The failure in the cooling system causes
the heat to build up in the transformer which effect different parts of the transformer and also causes more
gas pressure to be built inside which may cause the transformer to blow. Some of the main reasons for failure
are discussed below.

One of the biggest reasons of cooling system failure is leak in the oil/water pipes. This causes the reduction in
the fluids which results in low heat exchange which is not good for the transformer. Leakage happens because
of environmental stress, corrosion, high humidity and sun radiation.

Some failure occurs due to fault in the cooling fans which rush-in cool air into the tanks for cooling purpose.
The fans create faults because of poor maintenance, over use or motor wear-out.

Cooling system can perform wrong due to bad thermostats which measure the heat in the transformer. Faulty
thermostats show wrong temperature causing the cooling system to operate accordingly and not in the way
needed.

2. External factors:
These are factors which result in damage to the transformer due to effect of abnormal conditions originating
due to external faults or plant operator error. The causes for such failures are discussed below:

2.1 Failure of transformer protection devices

External short circuit or internal faults may cause abnormally high values of electrical quantities (voltage,
current, power) to pass through the transformer. The protective device like CT and PTs, relays and their
associated breakers that sense these abnormal quantities need to operate within its specified time so as to
avoid subjecting the transformer to these high values for a larger time beyond the transformer withstand
capability. In event of failure of these protective device transformer may be subjected to electrical and
mechanical stress due which may lead to its failure.

2.2 Prolonged Overloading

For effective operation of an electrical system, transformers are sometimes overloaded to meet operating
conditions. As such, it's important that we have an understanding with the transformer manufacturer as to
what overloading the unit can withstand without causing problems.

The main problem is heat dissipation. If a transformer is overloaded by a certain factor, say 20% beyond kVA
rating for a certain period of time, depending upon that period of time, it's probable that any heat developed
in the coils will be transferred easily to the outside of the transformer tank. Therefore, there's a reasonable
chance that the overloading will not cause a problem. In case of prolonged overloading the additional loss
generates more heat, which effects the burning of winding insulation, causing ultimate failure of the
transformer.

2.3 Unbalanced loading

If the load is unbalanced with respect to ground (i.e. if the loads are connected phase to ground and the three
phases are not equal), it is expected that transformer will be able to supply the unbalanced current. However

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if the transformer configuration is anything else apart from Delta-Star, it is possible that the requirement to
supply an unbalanced current could result in an unbalanced flux in the transformer that links to the metal tank
housing the transformer. That situation can cause the tank to heat up and can lead to failure of the paint on
the tank causing corrosion.

2.4 Failure of Surge arresters

In the event of lightning strikes there are electrical transients which may cause sudden voltage surge which if
exceeds the Basic Insulation Level (BIL) of the transformer may result in damage to the external and internal
insulation level of the transformer. To protect a unit of equipment from transients occurring on an attached
conductor, a surge arrester is connected to the conductor just before it enters the equipment. The surge
arrester is also connected to ground and functions by routing energy from an over-voltage transient to ground
if one occurs, while isolating the conductor from ground at normal operating voltages. This is usually achieved
through use of a varistor, which has substantially different resistances at different voltages.

2.5 Effect of Harmonics

Application of non-sinusoidal excitation voltages to transformers increase the iron losses in the magnetic core
of the transformer. A more serious effect of harmonic loads served by transformers results in increase in
winding eddy current losses. Eddy currents are circulating currents in the conductors induced by the sweeping
action of the leakage magnetic field on the conductors. Eddy current concentrations are higher at the ends of
the transformer windings due to the crowding effect of the leakage magnetic fields at the coil extremities. The
eddy current losses increase as the square of the current in the conductor and the square of its frequency. The
increase in transformer eddy current loss due to harmonics has a significant effect on the operating
temperature which results in heating of the transformer core and windings and over a period of time there is a
risk of insulation failure due to overheating from harmonic currents.

2.6 Power Frequency Overvoltage

There may be always a chance of system over voltage due to sudden disconnection of large load. Although the
amplitude of this voltage is higher than its normal level but frequency is same as it was in normal condition.
Over voltage in the system causes an increase in stress on the insulation of transformer. As we know that,
voltage V = 4.44.f.T V , increased voltage causes proportionate increase in the working flux. This
therefore causes, increased in iron loss and dis - proportionately large increase in magnetizing current. The
increase flux is diverted from the transformer core to other steel structural parts of the transformer. Core
bolts which normally carry little flux, may be subjected to a large component of flux diverted from saturated
region of the core alongside. Under such condition, the bolt may be rapidly heated up and destroys their own
insulation as well as winding insulation

2.7 Under Frequency Effect

Under-frequency leads to magnetic core saturation where the magnetic circuit part of the transformer simply
cannot carry further magnetic field. This results in non-linear transformer action that creates non-sinusoidal
waveforms and current that is no longer limited by inductance. This means greater current than expected will
flow thru the windings causing I2R losses to increase rapidly. The transformer efficiency is sharply falls
resulting in greater heat rejection that overheats everything associated with the transformer; oil, windings,
insulation system, containment, etc.

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Section-2: Transformer Failure Mitigation:

As discussed in previous section, transformer failures can be attributed to internal and external factors. The
internal factors can be taken care by regular inspections, periodic tests and preventive maintenance. An overall
description of items to be checked and tested during periodic maintenance is provided below:

1. Failure Mitigation for Transformer (Internal factors)

1.1 To be checked daily (Visual Inspection)
Physical appearance
Checking color of silica gel
Checking of silica gel color ( In breather)
Oil leakage
Level of oil in conservator
Record oil & Winding temperature

1.2 To be checked and carried out Quarterly:

Cleaning of transformer and yard.
Tightening of HV & LV connection
Checking of Buchholz relay, pressure relay valves and sudden pressure relays.

1.3 Following to be carried out annually or Bi-annually:

Dehydration of transformer oil.
Check dielectric strength of oil
Check moisture content in oil.
Check the acidity test
Insulation resistance test
Resistance test of earth pits.
Polarisation Index test
Turns ratio test
Low voltage impulse test
Induced Voltage test
Tan-Delta Test

2. Failure Mitigation for Transformer (External factors)

Apart from the above checkups and tests, transformer failure which occur due to factors originating due to
external agents/forces need to be accounted as well.

2.1 Transformer protection system Adequacy check and review

The transformer protection system including the CTs, PTs, Circuit breakers and relays need to be checked and
tested for proper operation. The protection settings need to be verified with injected value of current and
voltage to confirm the actuation of trip signals as per the transformer protection requirement.

2.2 Training of plant operators and adherence to safety standards

Certain transformer conditions originating due to bad operational practices can be avoided if the plant
operator personnel are trained well. The plant operator should be made aware of transformer loading
capabilities, safe loading charts which give account of permissible loading % with respect to the permissible
time for which it is accepted. Plant operational standards in terms of closed bus coupler operation and parallel
operation of transformers should be implemented when the load requirements are high.

2.3 Harmonic analysis studies and application of filter banks

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As discussed in previous section, due to non-linear loads, harmonics are generated in the power system which
leads to the eddy current losses in the transformer core due to the circulation of the harmonic currents. These
increase in eddy current losses which results in heating of the transformer which reduces the life expectancy
of the core, winding and insulation over a period of time. Hence it is required to analyze and perform
harmonic analysis and recommend filter banks at key locations so as to reduce these non-sinusoidal circulating
currents due the harmonic injecting loads.

2.4 Ensuring proper application of Surge arrester rating and its adequacy
Surge arrester should be properly rated and tested before connecting it to the critical equipments like
transformers. The surge arrester fidelity test should be confirmed periodically to ensure its reliable operation.

2.5 Employing Power Frequency Overvoltage protection for transformers

Power frequency overvoltages (POP) are any voltage increase of 20% or above the nominal value for an
indefinite period. Power frequency overvoltages are caused by supply problems, or, very often, by bad
connections or breakage of the neutral conductor. They can also be caused by anomalies in the power supply.

Power frequency overvoltage protection consists of monitoring each of the phase voltages and tripping a
cutout device if voltage increases above 20% of the nominal value. The cutout device trips faster in the event
of higher overvoltage.

2.6 Employing effective load shedding scheme

Sudden load loss/ grid failure may result in rapid change in system voltage and frequency. The generators may
become overloaded and there might be peak transients observed in the system due to which the power flow,
voltage, current and frequency through the transformers may see rapid fluctuations for a sustained period.
Along with the effective protection scheme if there is a load shedding scheme, the changes in the electrical
quantities can be controlled and would help the electrical equipments in the power systems.

Section-3: References

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1. http://www.electricalindia.in/blog/post/id/5692/case-studies-of-the-transformers-failure-analyses
2. http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/transformer-failures-maintenance
3. http://www.energycentral.com/c/tr/managing-risk-transformer-failures
4. http://www.electrical4u.com/external-and-internal-faults-in-transformer/
5. IEEE Standard C57-125-1991

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