IMAGE FORMATION ON UNDULATING TERRAIN USING THE UPGRADED INGARA
L-BAND RADAR SYSTEM
P.B. Pincus*, M. Preiss*, N.J.S. Stacy
*Defence Science & Technology Organisation
Edinburgh, SA, Australia
ABSTRACT
A beamforming approach to SAR image formation is shown
to facilitate spatially variant aperture trimming which max-
imises the potential repeat-pass coherence when focusing
onto undulating terrain. The method is demonstrated using
the upgraded Australian airborne radar system, Ingara.
Index Terms SAR, interferometry, terrain
1. INTRODUCTION
SAR image formation and interferometry over undulating ter-
rain using an airborne radar system is a challenging task, be-
cause the ground-platform collection geometry may change
considerably over the aperture and over the scene. One stan-
dard method of image formation for spotlight-mode data is
the polar-format algorithm (PFA), which employs a tomo-
graphic framework to dene a single coordinate space and
a single object plane onto which the pixels are focused [1].
However, when the scatterers do not lie in this plane, and the
ight-track is not straight and level, the PFA image at those
scatterer positions will suffer a loss of focus [2]. For inter-
ferometry, the coherence between two images depends on the
cross-correlation between their spatial frequencies. Further-
more, the support for these spatial frequencies depends on
the acquisition geometry at the local scatterer surface. There-
fore, a pair will exhibit a loss in coherence, termed geometric
or baseline decorrelation, in proportion to the difference in
their acquired support [3]. For scatterers in the object plane,
this decorrelation can be mitigated by ltering i.e. trimming
the spatial-frequency supports to their common area. How-
ever, a global trim will not sufce for undulating terrain [4].
Both these problems can be ameliorated by dividing the image
swath into patches and separately forming and trimming the
image at each patch using a coordinate system better aligned
with the local surface tangent.
A beamforming approach to SAR image formation is to
directly compensate for the range from each pulse position to
each pixel position. This offers a convenient, although com-
putationally expensive, way to drape imagery over the terrain
i.e. focus the pixels to the ground surface height instead of
a at plane at a nominal height [5]. In SAR terminology, the
PFA operates in the spatial-frequency domain, whereas beam-
forming operates in the time really the spatial domain.
In this paper we will formulate SAR beamforming in
978-1-4673-7297-8/15/$31.00 2015
c IEEE
D.A. Gray
University of Adelaide Radar Research Centre
School of EEE, U. Adelaide, SA, Australia
terms of the spotlight-mode tomographic framework. This
enables us to quantify the spatial-frequency support provided
by the set of beamformed pulses i.e. the aperture for each
pixel, accounting for the local terrain at that pixel position. A
key conclusion is that beamforming is effectively the limiting
case of PFA where each pixel position is a distinct motion-
compensation point whose object plane is aligned with the
local terrain. We then incorporate a spatial-frequency trim
into the beamformer which allows for the generation of a
pair of images whose pixels have spatial-frequency supports
trimmed to a common overlap appropriate to their local sur-
face geometry. The interferometric coherence of such a pair
is shown to exhibit less geometric decorrelation, both in
simulation and using real data.
Recent papers by colleagues Blacknell and Andre, with
others, showed in simulation and using a ground-based radar
imaging a laboratory-controlled scene, that their similar pro-
cess of spatially variant incoherence trimming improved the
coherence over undulating terrain [6, 7]. They did not though
present a mathematical formulation or algorithmic details.
We begin with a description of the Ingara L-band radar,
whose recent upgrade was the motivation for this work.
2. INGARA
Ingara is an airborne imaging radar system built and operated
by Australias Defence Science and Technology Organisa-
tion [8]. In a standard conguration, it operates at X-band us-
ing a dual-linearly-polarised patch array pulsed in ping-pong
mode (alternating transmit, simultaneous receive) to acquire
full quad-polarisation imagery. It has been extended with
a ground-based receiver to conduct bistatic imaging experi-
ments [9]. In order to investigate the scattering phenomenol-
ogy of forests, an L-band variant (140 MHz BW, monostatic)
was built using a pair of circularly-polarised helical antennas,
shown in Fig. 1, to similarly obtain the full scattering matrix.
First ights on a Beechcraft 1900C took place in July 2013.
A notable feature of the Ingara radar is that it steers in
real-time to a planned spot (in spotlight mode) or line (in
stripmap mode) on the ground. This pulse-to-pulse agility
increases the tolerance for typical airborne platforms which
only roughly approximate the planned track. The X-band sys-
tem steers in two ways: the antenna is mounted on a two-axis
gimble, so that the beam is physically steered, and the range-
gate delay (RGD) is dynamic, so that the timing of the receive
629
window approximately suits the instantaneous range to the
desired ground position. The L-band system does only the
latter type of steering, as the helical antennas are xed; the
broader beam-pattern lessens the need for physical steering.
The noise level of the L-band radar was estimated by mea-
suring the coherence of the cross-pol channels, which would
ideally be unity for reection-symmetric scattering, and then
using the connection between SNR and decorrelation due
to noise SN R = 1/(1 + 1/SN R). This curve was tted to
2D histograms of the power in the left-transmit-right-receive
(LR) channel (after absolute calibration using trihedral corner
reectors) and the coherence between the LR and RL chan-
nels. The approximate noise-equivalent sigma-nought value
giving a good t was 31 dB.
Fig. 1. The Ingara L-band helical antenna pair mounted under the
fuselage. The helices turn in opposite directions, giving orthogonal
left and right circular polarisations.
3. IMAGE FORMATION AND THE
SPATIAL-FREQUENCY SIGNAL MODEL
We formulate image formation in terms of the spotlight-mode
tomographic framework, and show how beamforming ts
within this framework. Given knowledge of the terrain to-
pography, we can focus to the ground surface and determine
the spatial-frequency support for each pixel.
The beamforming described here is straightforward,
and is similar to most common SAR backprojection ap-
proaches [10], but without the fast feature, or the associated
approximations. We previously described the algorithm for
a different radar which used dechirp (a.k.a. deramp) demod-
ulation [11], however, the Ingara L-band radar (unlike the
X-band system) directly samples the received chirp signal,
which changes the processing. Moreover, here we provide
insight into how the spatial frequencies in the chirp data
collected in stripmap mode can be quantitatively understood
in terms of the widely-known tomographic framework for
dechirp data collected in spotlight mode [1, 2].
Let the transmitted radar signal be the real part of a lin-
ear FM pulse sc (t) with centre frequency f0 , bandwidth Bc ,
duration Tc and chirp rate = Bc /Tc .
j2f0 t j(tTc /2)2
sc (t) = e e rect((t Tc /2)/Tc )
Model the illuminated ground scene as an undulating surface
with complex reectivity g(x, y, h(x, y)) [2]. In what fol-
lows, we ignore amplitude factors due to propagation or radar
hardware as these do not affectthe signal processing. Each
scattering element at range r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 responds with
630 2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)
an attenuated and delayed echo g(x, y, z)sc (t r ) where
r = 2r/c and c is the speed of propagation. The total re-
sponse gp (r)sc (tr ) from range r depends on the projection
gp (r) of the reectivity over the spherical wavefront at r [12].
   
gp (r) = (r x2 + y 2 + z 2 )g(x, y, z)dxdydz
z y x
The total response srx (t) available at the receive antenna at
time instant t is the sum of the responses across all ranges.

srx (t) =  gp (r)sc (t r )dr
r
The Ingara L-band receiver mixes the signal down to an in-
termediate frequency fIF = f0 fmix and samples the result.
The recorded pulse ss (t) + n(t) starts at t = TRGD , has dura-
tion Ts , and suffers from additive noise n(t). (Discrete signals
are written using continuous-time notation for simplicity.)
ss (t) = srx (t) cos (2fmix t)rect((t TRGD Ts /2)/Ts )
As described in section 2, Ingaras range-gate delay
TRGD = 0 + Tc /2 Ts /2 varies pulse-to-pulse so that
the echo from a reference ground position is approximately
centred in the receive window, even as the range r0 = c0 /2
to that position changes. In stripmap-mode, the reference
position changes pulse-to-pulse as well this is the standard
mode for the Ingara L-band radar.
Continuing the demodulation of the pulse in software,
the complex baseband signal sb (t) is obtained by mixing the
raw pulse with a phase ramp at fIF , or equivalently, circu-
larly shifting the pulse spectrum. The introduced phase offset
2fIF TRGD is removed to phase-align all pulses at t = 0.
sb (t) =rect((t TRGD Ts /2)/Ts )

2
gp (r)ej2f0 r ej(tr Tc /2)
r
rect((t r Tc /2)/Tc )dr
As is commonplace in signal processing, a matched lter
smf (t) is applied at baseband to compress the chirp and
estimate the information in gp (r) while maximising the SNR.
2
smf (t) = ej(tTRGD Tc /2) rect((tTRGDTc /2)/Tc )
In software, the matched lter is implemented in the fre-
quency domain, with the signals upsampled to avoid aliasing.
Here, the time-domain convolution is written out to pro-
vide insight into the available data. (All rect() windows are
dropped for brevity.)
  
sb smf (n ) = sb (t)smf (n t)dt = gp (r)ej drdt
t t r
= [(tr Tc /2) (tn TRGD Tc /2)2 ]2f0 r
2
= [2(t Tc /2)(TRGD + n r )+r2 (TRGD +n )2 ]
+ 2f0 (TRGD + n r ) 2f0 (TRGD + n )
= [2f0 + 2(t Tc /2)](TRGD + n r )
+ [r2 (TRGD + n )2 ] 2f0 (TRGD + n )
Transform from time delays n and r to ranges
rn = c(TRGD + n )/2 and r = cr /2, and transform temporal
quantities t and f0 to k = 4/c(t Tc /2) and k0 = 4f0 /c.
 
4f0 4 4 4f0
= + (tTc /2) (rn r)+ 2 (r2 rn2 ) rn
c c c c
= (k0 + k)(rn r) + 4/c2 (r2 rn2 ) k0 rn
We assume that the residual chirp phase 4/c2 (r2 rn2 )
contributed by a response from r at the evaluated range rn is
negligible. Set kr = k0 + k, and note that dkr = dt, ignoring
amplitude scaling.
 
sb smf (rn ) = ek0 rn gp (r)ejkr r ejkr rn drdkr
kr r
Hence, the integral over r, inherent to the data collection,
is now a Fourier transform evaluated at spatial frequencies
k0 k/2 kr k0 + k/2, where k = 4Bc /c is the lution quantied, and the spatial-frequency overlap computed
spatial bandwidth available from the rect window in sc (t).
The integral over kr , due to the applied convolution, is an in-
verse Fourier transform evaluated at rn . The radar measures
a ltered, narrowband version of the scene reectivity func-
tion g. In principle this is the same for dechirp data, but one
key difference is that in the dechirp case the spatial-frequency
support shifts according to a scatterers range delay relative to
the dechirp delay i.e. the support depends directly on the rect
window in sc (t r ). Essentially, the product of two chirps is
a sinuosoid whose frequency depends on their relative delay.
This characteristic can be removed by a dispersive lter, as in
chirp deskew [13]. In contrast, in the chirp case, the convolu-
tion output is in the spatial domain, and the spatial-frequency
supports, accessible by a Fourier transform, will be the same
for all ground positions (or a subset if only part of the echo fell
in the receive window). Essentially, the convolution converts
different delays into spatial offsets, as captured by rn .
To complete the tomographic formulation, the projection-
slice theorem may be invoked [1]. Approximate the spher-
ical wavefront at r by a tangent plane, written in Hes-
sian normal form as r = n x, where x = [x, y, z]T and
n = [sin cos , cos cos , sin ]T is the unit normal from are correlated during interferometric processing. This space
the origin at the platform to the plane in the scene, at azimuth
angle and depression angle .
   
gp (r)ejkr r dr g(x, y, z)ejkr nx dxdydz
r z y x
  
= g(x, y, z)ej(kx x+ky y+kzz ) dxdydz
z y x
where kx = kr sin cos , ky = kr cos cos & kz = kr sin .
Importantly, this allows us to interpret the spatial-frequency
support geometrically as an offset segment of a radial line
oriented at (, ) in k-space i.e. the domain of the 3D Fourier
transform of g(x, y, z). The orientation (, ) denes the
instantaneous range direction for the pulse, and therefore the
orthogonal projection which generated gp (r).
In traditional spotlight-mode image formation, all scat-
terer and platform positions are determined with respect to a
2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)
single coordinate system, with origin shifted to a xed scene
reference position [2]. This leads to a common k-space and a
single object plane. Our key proposal is that the time-domain
algorithms which fully compensate for the exact range can
nonetheless be interpreted tomographically, with the Carte-
sian axes positioned and aligned to suit the local surface at
each pixel position. That is, (r, , ) are recalculated for each
pixel, with and the effective azimuth and grazing angles
on incidence. In effect, the pulse data is motion-compensated
to each pixel position, and each pixel is formed as if it were
the scene reference point of a spotlight-mode image, with an
object plane aligned to the local topography. We use the to-
mographic framework to compute the spatial-frequency sup-
port that each pulse offers to each pixel. For each pixel, an
aperture can be selected, the point-spread function and reso-
for repeat acquisitions, which is critical for interferometry.
Image formation just involves evaluating the convolution
sb smf (rn ) for all pulses at all ranges rn corresponding to
all pixels (x, y, h(x, y)) in the scene. Each pixel value is the
sum of all the pulse contributions weighted by their conjugate
range phase +k0 rn to achieve coherent addition hence the
term beamforming. We interpolate to each pixel range by up-
sampling the pulse and selecting the nearest range bin. Thus,
basic time-domain image formation only requires knowledge
of the instantaneous range from platform to pixel. However,
to understand the constituent spatial frequencies, knowledge
of the angular geometry (, ) is crucial.
4. SPATIAL-FREQUENCY SUPPORT ON
UNDULATING TERRAIN
A coordinate space for an airborne radar image can be estab-
lished by setting z normal to the nominal ground plane and
x parallel to the planned ight-track, so x is azimuth and y
is ground-range. This at reference frame will usually be the
frame in which the nal 2D image is displayed, but more-
over, it will serve as the common reference frame for repeat
passes, and therefore the space in which spatial frequencies
is sufcient to calculate range and therefore do beamforming.
However, to accurately compute the full platform-pixel ge-
ometry, a secondary coordinate space (x, y, z) is dened for
each pixel, with origin at the pixel position and z normal to
the local surface tangent z denes the object plane. This
second space is obtained by rotating the nominal image coor-
dinate axes by the local ground-range and azimuth slopes gr
and az . Now the effective angular geometry (, ) of the
platform at A relative to the pixel at P can be computed for
the rotated Cartesian position see Fig. 2.
xA cos az 0 sin az 1 0 0 xA
yA = 0 1 0 0 cos gr sin gr yA
zA sin az 0 cos az 0 sin gr cos gr zA
= arctan xA /yA = arctan zA / x2A + yA
2
631
 To obtain the elevation and slopes at each pixel, we t a
2D spline to the available terrain elevation data, and use nite
differences between the interpolated heights of neighbouring
pixels. Note that the order of the az and gr rotations does
matter; the specic signs used in the image formation and
the geometry calculations may mean that the order should be
reversed to match the data.
) of the images spatial frequencies Fa (kx , ky )
Fb }}
Fig. 2. The nominal-image (blue) and pixel-specic (red) coordi-
nate reference frames at a pixels spatial position P (left), and in the
spatial-frequency domain (right). The reference frames are related
by rotations by the ground-range and azimuth slopes, gr and az ,
about the x and y axes, respectively. The effective angular geom-
etry (, ) of the platform at A is computed, and this determines
the projection direction kz of the pulse (green) in k-space. The rst
projection is onto the kx -ky object ground plane (orange), and the
second projection is onto the kx -ky image ground plane (light blue).
For one pixel, the angular geometry (, ), together with
the radar parameters fc and Bc , enable the spatial-frequency
support to be properly located in that pixels k-space, as
shown in section 3. However, the pixel will eventually be part
of an image in which the effective spatial-frequency domain
is simply the 2D Fourier transform of the image, oriented
in the original at image reference frame. Therefore, the
3D spatial-frequency support in k-space must be projected
onto the at ground plane in k-space. This is done in two
steps, as shown in Fig. 2: rstly, the support is projected onto
the kx -ky ground plane, and secondly, the support is further
projected onto the kx -ky ground plane; both projections are
along kz . The second projection is implemented by dila-
tion factors 1/ cos az and 1/ cos gr applied to the kx and
ky dimensions respectively. A similar process is followed in
slant-to-ground plane conversion of polar-format imagery [2].
kx = kr sin cos / cos az
ky = kr cos cos / cos gr
For the special case of a point with no azimuth slope im-
632 2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)
aged at broadside i.e. az = 0 and xA = xA = 0 so = = 0,
the local grazing angle is just the sum of the nominal graz-
ing angle and the ground-range slope.
yA sin gr + zA cos gr
= arctan = + gr
yA cos gr zA sin gr
5. SPATIAL-FREQUENCY TRIMMING FOR
REPEAT-PASS INTERFEROMETRY
SAR interferometry involves computing the complex coher-
ence between a pair of radar images, fa (x, y) and fb (x, y)
[2]. The coherence can be expressed in terms of the cross-
correlation (
and Fb (kx , ky ).
E{fa fb } E{FFT1 {Fa
= = 
E{fa fa }E{fb fb } E{Fa Fa }E{Fb Fb }
For repeat passes of an airborne platform, the ight-tracks
will not be identical. Therefore, the supports for Fa and Fb
will not be the same, leading to a geometry-induced degra-
dation in the coherence i.e. baseline decorrelation [3]. This
decorrelation can be avoided by trimming the images spatial-
frequency supports to a common overlap region in a reference
plane here we use the kx -ky ground plane of the image at
the expense of reduced resolution. However, as shown in sec-
tion 4, the spatial frequencies at each pixel position project
into the ground plane according to the local geometry, so for
undulating terrain the trim should be spatially varying [6].
SAR beamforming does not explicitly consider the spatial
frequencies of the data, and implementing a trim as part of
time-domain image formation is not a standard processing
task. We have implemented the trim in three stages. Firstly,
for each pixel, we compute the spatial-frequency overlap
region in the kx -ky ground plane for the apertures of both
passes, using the approach of section 4. Secondly, for each
pixel, we nd the portion of each pulses line of support
which lies inside the overlap region in the kx -ky ground
plane, and record the spatial-frequency pulse samples which
should be trimmed. Note that different pixels may require the
same pulse to be trimmed differently, due to different local
geometries. Thirdly, when beamforming each pixel, each
pulse in the aperture is trimmed according to its associated
record, prior to upsampling and range compression. Essen-
tially, for each pixel, the aperture is ltered to suit the overlap
requirement.
6. SIMULATION
The 2D Fourier transform of a radar image shows the super-
position of the spatial frequencies, and therefore the spatial-
frequency supports, of all pixels. For standard polar-format
imagery, the supports are presumed to be the same for all
pixels, following the plane-wave and at-scene approxima-
tions [2]. For beamformed imagery, the supports are not the
same, even for a at scene, because the geometry of one pulse
position relative to each pixel is different. For an undulat-
ing scene, the supports could be dispersed widely over the k-
x
transformed image. Note too that the support displayed in the ky
?
transformed image may be an alias, as the observable k-space
extents are limited to the reciprocal of the spatial pixel spac-
ings along azimuth and ground-range, scaled by 2. There-
fore, if the pixel spacing is changed, the aliased position of
the support in the transformed image will change, although of (a) reference (b) grazing 0 = 41
course the actual support has not changed.
To demonstrate the effect of different geometries on the
location of the k-space support, we synthesise raw data for
a scene consisting of a single scatterer, form the image us-
ing the beamforming approach of section 3, and display its
2D Fourier transform see Fig. 3. In each case, the spa-
tial image, not shown, is a 2D sinc function. We also follow
(c) squint 0 = 30 (d) azimuth offset 0 = 10
the approach of section 4 to predict where the support should
lie. Moreover, we use this knowledge to compute the k-space
overlap region between repeat passes and then trim the aper-
tures to this overlap see Fig. 4.
Fig. 5 shows the utility of the spatially varying trim for
a clutter scene that has signicant undulation. Two pairs of
images were formed using synthetic data from two passes:
pair (a) had no aperture trim, whereas pair (b) did. All four (e) ground-range slope gr = 10 (f) azimuth slope az = 10
images were focused to the undulating surface. The interfer- Fig. 3. 2D Fourier transforms of beamformed images of synthetic
ometric coherence || for pair (a) suffers from a high level of raw data. The scene consists of a single point scatterer. Chirp:
geometric decorrelation due to the incoherent contributions f0 = 1.32 GHz, Bc = 140 MHz. Azimuth resolution: 0.75 m. The
reference geometry, used for (a), is a straight, broadside (squint
from non-overlapping spatial-frequency supports the level
0 = 0 ) aperture centred at r0 = 1 km, 0 = 0 and 0 = 45 , rela-
of overlap, and therefore the level of decorrelation, varies tive to the scatterer on a at surface. (b)-(f) each have one deviation
spatially according to the underlying topography. This decor- from the reference geometry. The red box is the expected location of
relation is mostly absent from pair (b), because the spatial- the spatial-frequency support provided by the aperture.
frequency supports have been trimmed to their overlap.
7. REAL DATA
We have used Ingara L-band data acquired in stripmap mode
to demonstrate the effectiveness of the pixel-based trim. The
interferometric results displayed in Fig. 6 indicate that the
spatially varying aperture trim implemented as part of the
beamformer is effective in removing additional decorrelation (a) 0 = 3 , az = 10 (b) 0 =2 , az,gr =20 , 10
0 =(18 , 22 ), 0 =(18 , 22 )
beyond what a simple global trim can achieve. The effect is
Fig. 4. Extension of Fig. 3 for repeat passes. Now the aperture is
limited by the sparsity and accuracy of the available elevation
trimmed during image formation to suit the overlap region (green).
data [14], as height errors lead to slope errors which lead to
x
-
incorrect k-space projections and trims. y ?
8. CONCLUSION
SAR image formation via time-domain beamforming has
been formulated in the spotlight-mode tomographic frame-
work. Given elevation data, this framework enables the
(a) Without trim (b) With pixel-based trim
spatial-frequency support of each pixel to be determined in a
coordinate space aligned to the local terrain. The beamform- Fig. 5. Interferometric coherence || between repeat passes over
sinusoidally undulating terrain; slope varies between 20 . Black:
ing algorithm was extended to incorporate a spatially varying
no coherence, white: full coherence. The scene consists of uniform
aperture trim, which is used to align the spatial-frequency clutter. Geometry and radar as in Fig. 3, but 0 = 2 . In (a), the
supports for each pixel position in an image pair, prior to in- bands of low coherence occur at maximum positive slope, where the
terferometric processing. Results using the upgraded Ingara overlap is smallest. The aperture trim in (b) leads to a substantial
L-band radar over undulating terrain show that the method is reduction in geometric decorrelation, except where the overlap is so
better able to mitigate geometric (baseline) decorrelation than small (steep slope,near range) that there is little coherence to recover.
a global image trim.

2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR) 633

(a) Optical image of scene 500 500 m (Google) (b) Elevation (m) (c) Overlap (%)
az
-
gr ?

(d) SAR image, resolution (azgr): 0.751.63 m (e) || with global image trim (f) || with local pixel trim
Fig. 6. Ingara L-band beamformed imagery and coherence, focused onto undulating terrain [14] at Cape Jervis, South Australia. Slopes
vary between [13 , +22 ]. Two passes (a, b) were acquired at r0 = (3.3, 4.1) km, 0 = (6.6 , 6.9 ) and 0 = (26.6 , 21.5 ) N.B.
0 = 5.1 . The integration angle was 12 . A Hamming window was applied. (c) shows, for each pixel, the size of the overlap relative to the
support from one pass this captures the net effect of terrain slope, platform geometry and radar waveform. Comparing the interferometric
coherence magnitudes (e) and (f), it is clear that the spatially varying trim removes more geometric decorrelation than the global trim based
on the geometry at the scene centre only. Some patches in near-range (top of image) have very small overlap, leading to very low coherence.

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634 2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)