International Association of Scientific Hydrology.

Bulletin

ISSN: 0020-6024 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/thsj18

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS

(PART 1) / A PHYSICAL MODEL FOR SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT IN CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS

WALTER H. GRAF & ERTAN R. ACAROGLU

To cite this article: WALTER H. GRAF & ERTAN R. ACAROGLU (1968) SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT IN CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS (PART 1) / A PHYSICAL MODEL FOR SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT IN CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS, International Association of Scientific Hydrology.
Bulletin, 13:2, 20-39, DOI: 10.1080/02626666809493581

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02626666809493581

Published online: 04 Jan 2010.

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 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS
(PART 1)

A' PHYSICAL MODEL FOR SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

IN CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS

WALTER H. GRAF,
Associate Professor and Chairman, Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering Division,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.
and
ERTAN R. ACAROGLU,
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
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1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

An attempt is made to establish a physical model which explains the phenomenon of total
sediment transport (total load) in a conveyance system. The conveyance system may be an open
channel, a "natural" river, or a closed conduit. Model and prototype verification of the esta-
blished physical model is also sought.

2. SHEAR INTENSITY AS A TRANSPORT CRITERION

Consider a horizontal, plane, stationary bed consisting of loose and cohesionless particles
of uniform size, and liquid flowing over it. This may exist in any kind of conveyance system which
may be an open chanel or a closed conduit. Furthermore, it is assumed that the cross sectional
area of the conveyance system through a given distance is constant, and, through the same
distance, the flow and the bed are statistically in a steady state; in other words average values
are considered.
As soon as the liquid starts flowing, shearing stresses are established at the wetted perimeter
of the conveyance system, where the wetted perimeter is defined by the boundaries of the net cross
sectional area in which the flow takes place. These shearing stresses are also transmitted through
the liquid and a shearing stress distribution is created.
A further increase in the flow intensity, causes an increase in the magnitude of the shearing
stresses. Hence, for a particular stationary bed, a condition is eventually reached, at which par-
ticles in the movable bed are unable to resist the shearing stresses and, therefore, start to move.
This movement is not an instantaneous one for all particles of the same size in the top layer.
In fact, at this particular shearing stress, some move and some do not. This is due to the statis-
tical nature of the problem, which implicitly brings out the fact that the flow has to be a turbulent
one. The condition of "initial movement of the bed" has been in the past and is in this investi-
gation determined by observation; therefore, its definition is a very subjective one. In general
it is referred to as the" critical condition". An immediate consequence of the above phenomenon
is that further increase of the flow intensities causes more particles to be dislodged from the
stationary bed, and conceivably all the particles in the bed can be entrained into the flow, if the
flow intensity is adequately increased.
Above is a brief account of the phenomenon, as observed under natural and laboratory
conditions.

20
 In order to analyze the problem the forces exerted on a particle must be considered. In the
equilibrium condition, the hydrodynamic forces, F p, acting on a particle are balanced by its
submerged weight, R p Accordingly, the forces that a particle has to resist when surrounded
by moving liquid of density p can be represented as

(1)

where
CR = resistance coefficient; a function of the particle Reynolds number dvL/v and a shape factor
al, i.e. fl(al, dVL/v);
d = particle diameter;
A p = f(d 2), surface area of the particle and is equal to a2d 2 ;
vL = liquid velocity at some representative level with respect to the particle.
On the other hand, the velocity in turbulent flow can ,be represented as

= .J7:olpfl (k s J-;;:;P, L)k

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VL (2)
v s

where
1'0 = average shearing stress at the wetted perimeter;
k 8 = Nikuradse's equivalent sand roughness;
y = depth in vertical direction;
'V = kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
Assume that the roughness height and the particle diameter are equal, i.e. k 8 = d, and that
the representative velocity occurs at a certain depth which can be written as y = a3 d, where as
is a constant for a particular particle, then the expression

can be obtained. Then, equation (2) is written as follows:

(3)

The velocity vL in equation (3) is the true liquid velocity which can be calculated according
to Prandtl's mixing length theory. However, as the velocity in equation (3) is increased, particles
are picked up from the stationary bed, as has been noted before, and their presence modifies
the logarithmic velocity distribution. (*) The experimental data of the present investigation have
clearly shown this. Similar findings in pipes are reported by Durand (1953), and Newitt et al.
(1962). Also in open channels, deviations from the logarithmic velocity distribution are reported
in the presence of solid particles. Einstein et ale (1955) have extensively studied the effects of
heavy sediment concentrations on velocity distributions.

(*) With clear liquid flow in a pipe, the velocity distribution follows the logarithmic law and the
maximum velocity occurs at the centerline of the pipe. However, in the presence of solid particles this
point of maximum velocity is pushed vertically upwards and deviations from the logarithmic velo-
city distribution are observed.

21
 Due to the above observations, equation (3) is modified as follows:

(4)

with
c = concentration of solid particles (by volume) at the level \vhere the velocity vL is measured,
and RP can be expressed as the shear velocity, and is denoted by V*, i.e.

(5)
where
R = hydraulic radius of the cross section, defined as Aclp; with A c, as the net area of the cross
section in which the flow takes place, and p as the wetted perimeter;
S = slope of the energy grade line.
By substituting equations (4) and (5) in equation (1) and representing CR and A p in their
functional forms, equation (1) yields
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or

(6)

On the other hand, the resisting force of a particle directly depends on its submerged weight,
i.e.
(7)
where
R p = resisting force of a particle;
04 = volumetric constant of a particle;
ps = density of a particle.
At the" critical condition", at which the motion is just about to occur, the resisting force of
the particle has to balance the hydrodynamic forces or Fp R p For the entrainment process
I"J

of the particles to continue, and for transporting the entrained particles from one place to
another, the hydrodynamic forces should exceed the resisting forces, that is Fp > R p
The functional relationship between the hydrodynamic forces expressed by equation (6) and
the resistance forces expressed by equation (7) is thus obtained:

or rearranging
{_s_-_l_)_d = ! a2 /1 (a 1 ' d_V_L) 14 (_dV_*, a3' c) (8)
SR 2 a4 v v

where
S = PsiP, the specific gravity of sediment material.

22
 By applying equation (8) to a particular sediment particle, it can be seen that aI, a2, as, and
a4 become constants. Furthermore, it is assumed that the particle Reynolds number, dVL/v, can
be expressed by another particle Reynolds number computed with shear velocity, v*. This
assumption may be justified by the fact that VL and V* are functionally related. Therefore,
rewriting equation (8) yields
(s-l)~ = Is (dV*,
SR v
c) (9)

This equation represents the relationship of the hydrodynamic forces on a particle and the
particle resistance.
The left hand side of equation (9) is similar to the one which has been introduced by Einstein
(1942, 1950), who has called it the "intensity of shear on particle". However, Einstein has
developed this parameter for free surface flows, where the hydraulic radius refers to the movable
bed only. In the present study, it is called the "shear intensity parameter" and is denoted by lJf.
Hence, equation (9) yields
tp = (s-1) d
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(9a)
SR

In fact, this P-value represents the ratio of the" critical shearing stress, " ie, to the" available
shearing stress", iO. The "critical shearing stress", ie, as the name implies is the bed shear at
the" critical condition", and the" available shearing stress", iO, is the one available in or created
by the liquid flow. Then
tp rx critical shearing stress (1: c)
available shearing stress (1:0)

Above can be explained in the following way: At the" critical condition", forces on a given
particle must equal the resisting forces of the particle as was noted before. If the shearing
stresses ~t the "critical condition" on the particle are denoted by ie, then, the force due to this
"critical shearing stress" must be equal to the submerged weight of the particle, or

and after rearranging

(10)

where a2 and a4 are the same constants used in equations (1) and (7) respectively. From equation
(5) the value of the" available shearing stress" for a given flow can be obtained as

1:0 = pg RS (11)

The ratio of critical to the available shearing stress, according to equations (10) and (11),
now can be written as
1: c a4(s-1)d
1:0 a2 SR

''II

23
 Then, generally, for a given particle, a functional relationship between 1: c/1:o and lJf can be
defined as

(12)

Also, it can be shown that lJf is identical with the inverse of the parameter given by Shields
(1936). This is done by multiplying both numerator and denominator of equation (9) by the
specific weight, pg, i.e.

pg(s-J)d
pgSR
= j~ (dV*,
v
c)
and by using equation (11)
pg(s-l)d _
-.15
I' (dV*
- , c) (13)
'to V
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is obtained. The left hand side of the equation (13) is the inverse of the Shields parameter.
Returning back, it can be seen from equations (9) and (9a), that they do give information
on the "intensity of shear for the whole spectrum of flow conditions. This may be illustrated in
figure 1, where the "shear intensity parameter", lJf, is plotted against' the particle Reynolds
number dv./v with the concentration, c, as a parameter.

No motion

Motion begins

----c
---- - -.- -- ---- 1 Motion
--- - - __ c
2

Fig. 1 - Representation of 1p = f's(dv*/v, c) as given by equations (9) and (9a).

The shape of the above figure 1 does not suggest an exact determination of the function as
given by equations (9) and (9a). This can only be determined experimentally and is extensively
discussed by Acaroglu (1968). However, it does describe the model set forth by these equations.
Supposing the flow intensity is such that the "available shearing stress ", TO, does not exceed
the "critical shearing stress ", 1: c , i.e. 1:0 <1: c , none of the particles from the loose bed are entrained
into the flow. In figure 1 this is indicated by the" no motion" region.

24
 However, as the flow intensity is increased, the" available shearing stress", TO, increases
accordingly. When TO equals the value of the "critical shearing stress ", T c , the particle motion
is about to start. This condition has been named the" critical condition". At this condition the
value of the" shear intensity parameter", P, is denoted by Pc.
Further increase in the flow intensities results in higher values of the "available shearing
stress ", and TO becomes larger than Tc, and solid particles become entrained into the flow.
Depending on the value of TO, the quantity of entrained solid particles, which is proportional
to concentration, C, may vary. In figure 1 this is indicated by the" motion" region.
Hence, it can be seen that the" shear intensity parameter", P, defines two distinct regions of
flow conditions, viz. flow with and without solid particles. The boundary between the two regions
is given by P = Pc, as shown in figure 1.
Therefore, the possibility of using the" shear intensity parameter", P, as a _sediment transport
criterion shall be investigated.

3. A TRANSPORT PARAMETER AND ITS RELATION TO THE SHEAR INTENSITY PARAMETER

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3.1 Transport (work) rate

Assume that the total transport rate per unit wetted perimeter of sediment particles in a
conveyance system, denoted by q;' is expressed by the submerged weight of the transported
particles per unit time and per unit wetted perimeter or

where
C = volumetric concentration of the transported sediment particles in the net cross-sectional
area, A c ;
A c = area of the net cross section in which the flow takes place;
V m = average transport velocity of the mixture in the net cross-sectional area, Ar.;
p = wetted perimeter.
Replacing Ac/p by the hydraulic radius, R, the above equation yields

(14)

The transport rate as given in equation (14) has the dimensions of work rate per unit area of the
wetted perimeter, Le. M/T3 in MLTsystem. However, it is not a true work rate as yet, since the
force is not in the same direction with the movement. The force, in this case, is the buoyant
weight of the particles acting vertically downward. The transport rate can be considered as an
actual work rate if it is multiplied by an appropriate conversion factor. For the particular
problem under investigation, this conversion factor is thought to be the ratio of the liquid
velocity acting in the direction of the transport, to the settling velocity of the sediment particles
acting in the direction of the buoyant weight of the transported particles, or

VL = conversion factor (15)

Vss

where
VL average liquid velocity in the cross section.
This assumption directly implies that the particles, during the process of transport, are com-
pletely entrained into the flow, i.e. they are surrounded by the flowing liquid. When sediment

25
 particles are transported close to the solid boundary, the above mode of transport is referred to
as "saltation", however, further away from the solid boundary, it is referred to as "suspension ".
Henceforth, the transport (work) rate can be written as

transport (work) rate = q; 2v; (16)

vss

where qT* is as defined in equation (14). The settling velocity of a particle is expressed as

vss = J4(Ps-P)gd (17)

3 pCD .
with
CD = drag coefficient of a particle and is a function of particle Reynolds number and a shape
factor.
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3.2 Determination of the work rate

Work rate is defined as the time rate of doing work, which is also referred to as power.
This definition also holds true for a flowing mass of liquid, and, in this case, it is defined as
the product of the weight rate of flow and the energy per unit weight, or

P =yQH (18)
where
P = power (work rate);
y = specific weight of the liquid;
Q = volume rate of the liquid;
H = total head available at a particular cross section.
Equation (18) gives the available power at a given cross section of the conveyance system.
Then, the power consumed between the two cross sections along the direction of flow, i.e. the
rate of work done by the flow of liquid from one cross section to the other, is given by

yQ (AR)

If LJH is considered for a unit longitudinal length of the conveyance system, the following is
obtained:
yQS

where S is the slope of the energy grade line. By using the equation of continuity, i.e. Q = VL. A c,
the above can be written as follows:

Consequently, the actual power, P*, per unit longitudinal length and per unit wetted perimeter,
p, is
(19)

By substituting the hydraulic radius, R for Ac/p and TO for yRS, equation (19) yields:

P* = 'to VL (20)

26
 Only a part of this work rate is used to transport the particles, provided that the" available
shearing stress", TO, exceeds the" critical shearing stress", T e Hence, the rate of work used to
transport sediment particles can be expressed by P s *, or

P: = P*.b (21)

where b is defined as a factor of proportionality, i.e.

b = work done on the particles
total work done by the liquid

If the sediment particles transport is in a state of equilibrium, the transport (work) rate in
equation (16) should equal the work rate in equation (21), or

p* b = q; vi
Vss
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Replacing p* by equation (20) yields

(22)

Some of the arguments put forward for developing equation (22) have been also used by
Bagnold (1966) in his new approach to model the sediment transport in open channels.
However, Bagnold divides the total load into two major components-the bed load and the
suspended load-and assigns separate factors of proportionality for each load, which he calls
the" bed load transport efficiency" and the" suspension efficiency", respectively. Furthermore,
experimental results enable him to determine the values for both efficiency terms in his model
of a two dimensional free surface flow.
Considering the present case of the total load in a conveyance system, determination of a
single factor of proportionality, b, by a rational approach is rather impossible. Instead, a func-
tional relationship of the said factor of proportionality, b, with the shear intensity parameter, P,
can be conceived, or

Hence, substituting g2 (P) into equation (22) the following is obtained:

q~ = 'Co vss g2 (P) (22a)

Provided that the value of b = g2(P) can be determined, equation (22a) gives the value of the
total transport rate of a particular sediment material, represented by its settling velocity, at a
given "available shearing stress" in a particular conveyance system.

3.3 The <1> and P relationship

The above equation (22a) can be made dimensionless by dividing both sides by a work rate
term which is given as Te VTe/P. Thus the following is obtained:

(23)

.'~

27
 Recalling the establishment of a functional relationship between lJf and Terro, as given in
equation (12), the following can also be said

(24)

Hence, substituting equations (10), (14), (17), and (24) into equation (23) for the corresponding
values of Te, qT*, Vss, and TofTe, it is possible to get

For small concentrations, the mixture velocity V m can be approximated by the liquid velocity
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VL, so that
Vm ~ VL = V
Rearrangement of the above equation yields

(25)

Since the "shear intensity parameter," lJf, already includes the effects of the drag coefficient of
the particle, Cn, and both the constants a2 and a4, the right hand side of equation (25) can,
thus, be written as

(26)

The left hand side of equation (26) may be looked upon as a dimensionless" transport parameter"
and it is denoted by C/>. Thus a relationship is obtained, so that
(27)

The above functional relationship between the "transport parameter", C/>, and the "shear
intensity parameter", lJF, suggests a physical model. The exact form of the function has to be
determined by using the experimental data obtained from model and prototype conveyance
systems.

4. EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF THE C/> AND lJf RELATIONSHIP

4.1 Discussion of the data

The general applicability of equation (27) depends on the range and the quality of the labo-
ratory and the field data used to obtain its numerical relationship. In other words, data obtained
from prototype and model investigations in different kinds of conveyance systems, with different
solid materials under various flow conditions, should be used.

28
 In the present investigation, total load data obtained in laboratory flumes, in natural rivers,
and in closed conduits with different cross sectional areas are used. Special attention is paid to
the fact that all the data used have been recorded with movable bed in open channel flows and
close to the point of deposition in closed conduit flows. This implies that an increase in the flow
intensity, Le. a decrease in the" shear intensity parameter", lJf, will be responsible for an increase
in the total load, or ep. Obviously, this condition is not fulfilled if the solid material supply in
the system is exhausted. The data recorded under this condition ensure that the measured total
load represents the transport capacity. This is the maximum transport rate of sediment particles
for the given flow intensity.
A complete list of the data used with all the pertinent information is given by Acaroglu (1968)
and is briefly discussed below.

4.1.1. The closed conduit data which fulfill the above requirements are obtained from the fol-
lowing sources:
Ismail (1952) has done experiments in a square conduit (.27 x .076 m) with two different
sizes of sand particles. The particles have non-uniform size distributions, and the d50-values
are assumed as the characteristic particle sizes. The given d50 values are .091 and .147 mm. All
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the reported data with the exception of points which have 'concentration values less than .01
percent are used to determine the function in equation (27).
Wilson (1965) reports experiments in a square conduit (.094 x .094 m) and in pipes of two
different diameters (.053 and .088 m). Sand of uniform size distribution (d = .71 mm) and nylon
are used as solid materials. However, the nylon data, because of the reported poor experimental
accuracy, are not included in this study. Of all the sand data given, only the ones with deposition
in the square conduit are used.
The above data are supplemented by the experiments reported by Acaroglu (1968). These
experiments have been done in a .076 m diameter pipe with uniform size sand of d = 2.00 mm.
A detailed description of this experimental work is given in Acaroglu (1968).

4.1.2. The flume data used in this study have been recorded for a flow over a loose bed and
represent a wide range of flow conditions. Hence, they fulfill all the requirements which have been
mentioned before. The sources of the data are as follows:
Gilbert (1914) reports experiments in flumes of six different widths (.07, .134, .201, .305, .403,
.598 m). Of eleven different sizes of sand material used in the experiments, only the following
five are included in this study: .305, .375, .505, .787, and 1.710 mm. Each sand has a uniform
size distribution.
Guy et ale (1966) have done experiments in 2.41 and .61 m. wide laboratory flumes. Of the
eight different sizes of sand material, six (.27, .28, .32, .33, .45, .93 mm) have non-uniform size
distributions, and as the characteristic particle size, d50-values are used. The remaining two
(.19, .33 mm) have relatively uniform size distributions. All the reported data are used in this
study.
Ansley (1963) reports experiments in a .153 m wide laboratory flume and in two pipes of
.027 and .052 m diameters. As solid material, sand with uniform size distribution (.223 mm) has
been used. In this study, only the flume data are used for determining equation (27), since
adequate information on the conditions of deposition in the pipe data is not given.

4.1.3. The river data which are included in this study are taken from Einstein (1944). This
data have been taken along a reach of the Mountain Creek, with the existing natural solid
material having a non-uniform size distribution. The characteristic size is assumed to be
d50 = .9 mm. A summary of the above discussed data is given in table 1.

l~ 29
 w TABLE 1
0

No. d
Source Conveyance system points Code (mm) Material s
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R.A. Ismail (1952) Square steel Conduit 32 10000 .091 Sand 2.650
(.27 x .076 m) 28 11000 .147 Sand 2.650
K.C. Wilson (1965) Square aluminium conduit 67 W2000 .710 Sand 2.650
(.0937 x .0937 m)
E.R". Acaroglu (1968) Aluminium pipe 111 AOOOO 2.000 Sand 2.670
(D = .076 m) 112 A1000 2.780 Sand 2.670
G.K. Gilbert (1914) Laboratory flumes 59 GOOOO .305 Sand 2.690
(various sizes) 197 G1000 .375 Sand 2.6~0
158 G200D .505 Sand 2.690
115 G3000 .787 Sand 2.690
48 G4000 1.710 Sand 2.690
H.P. Guy, D.B. Simons, Laboratory flumes 39 SROOO .450 Sand 2.650
E. V. Richardson (1966) (2.41 x .61 m and .61 x .762 m) 35 SR100 .280 Sand 2.650
33 SR200 .190 Sand 2.650
19 SR300 .270 Sand 2.650
36 SR400 .930 Sand 2.650
29 SR500 .320 Sand 2.650
13 SR600 .330 Sand 2.650
15 SR700 .330 Sand 2.650
R. W. Ansley (1963) Laboratory flume 26 ANOOO .223 Sand 2.650
(.153 x .153 m)
H.A. Einstein (1944) (Natural) River 81 EOOOO .900 Sand 2.670
E.K. Kriegel, H. Bauer (1966) Galvanized iron pipe 45 KOOOO 1.400 Coke 1.430
(D = .0535 m) 6 K100n 1.610 Coke 1.400
27 K2000 1.670 Coke 1.400
16 K3000 1.900 Coke 1.400
20 K4000 1.440 Coke 1.430
15 K5000 1.150 Coke 1.380
 4.2 Analysis of the data
The above discussed data are used to calculate the values of the" shear intensity parameter",
lJ', and the "transport parameter", w. A log-log plot in figure 2 of the calculated P and Wvalues
suggest a relationship of the following shape

(28)

for representing the data. The result of the regression analysis for equation (28) has yielded the
values of th~ constants as A = 10.39 and B = - 2.52. Thus, equation (28) can be written in the
following way
rp = 10.39 (p)-2.S2 (29)

or substituting the corresponding definitions of t/J and P in the above equation, it yields

C VR ((S_1)d)-2.S2
~====:== = 10.39 - - (29a)
~(s-1)gd3 SR
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Hence, equation (29a) or figure 2 give information on the average liquid-solid mixture velocity
and the volumetric concentration of the total load passing through a cross section of a particular
conveyance system for a given value of the" shear intensity parameter," P.

5. DISCUSSION OF THE MAIN ASSUMPTIONS AND OF THE WAND P RELATIONSHIP

In the process of developing the physical model for the transport of the total load in a con-
veyance system, the basic assumptions made are recapitulated at this point.

(1) The liquid flow is turbulent; This assumption is a result of the fact that the entrainment
process is of a statistical nature, which implies that random fluctuations of the hydrodynamic
forces act on the particles. Fluctuations of the hydrodynamic forces, on the other hand, are due
to the turbulent character of the flow i.e. fluctuating pressure and velocity components.

(2) The particles are cohesionless and have a uniforms ize distribution; Cohesionless particles
limit the size range of the particles that can be used for this model. But it is a necessary as-
sumption if, order to ensure that the resisting force of particles to the hydrodynamic forces
is directly proportional only to the gravity forces and no other force which may be induced by
the electro-chemical environment created in the case of cohesive particles.
Assumption of the uniform size distribution of the particles facilitates the physical model
and is a hypothetical one. In fact, a true uniformity of size cannot be achieved unless the particles
are artificially prepared. In natural rivers, the particles have a non-uniform size distribution.
Although, every effort is made to obtain data with uniform particle sizes, it has been impossible
to find an adequate amount of data in each case. Therefore, data with non-uniform sizes have
to be used. In such cases, the characteristic size of the particle is assumed to be equivalent to the
value of d50 in this study.

(3) Saltation and suspension are the primary means of transport: In setting up a single model
for the transportation of the total load in various flow conditions, the above assumption is a
necessity. This model implies the following: When the particles are In motion they are com-
pletely surrounded by the liquid. Hence, at low flow intensities, "saltation" is the only means of
transport, and at high flow intensities, "saltation" plus" suspension" are responsible for the trans-

31
 -------------------,
1<1
RELATIONSHIP OF
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SHEAR INTENSITY PARAMETER 'f .nd

TRANSPORT PARAMETER c;>

CLOSED CONDJIT DATA FLlJv1E DATA RIVER DATA

0 ISMAIL(1952) GILBERT (1914) + EINSTEIN(1944)
c WILSON(1965) y ANSLEY (196 3)

+
x
;Z x x
xx
o ACAROGLU(1968) x GUY at aL( 1966)

x
. ..

x
It
+
.x ~++
."1 ~ :.:~ ~x_ -.. " v ~
+
1- ~4<:::
.. .~
x : ... ~ ~....
X

x~~ ,x 'S.

. ~ +~ f< .,X: ~ .... : Xl I ~

x
X
X

. o:-::~~~.~ x

-
+ !
+
+
.~;.. +>t: Q
D. rf: :j,
+ x x
xt.~ .:, .:. ; x
------'-
. . ~
A ltX
XC
x
Xi x" x
'1'= (s-1)d o .~tJ. ~ 0
o~x x >t
SR
1
01' .. o~
... . . ~x x:rx
~~ ~ xx~o 0 :~ It
.\,;1
D -Uo --ole x
I ~")~k& ~)f(x ,~ ~y
----- )(

~8~~ x!_
<l>CJ 0 't' Y ) X x
X
i P'On " ... f"\ D C J(. x~ x It
0

~c: ~ ......... "'-

I
0 o 0 C OOOl:~L~ l. fY\~v'k ~ xv x
I ! j
I ...
0 0
r- x y y ... x )(
"
X

c: I)(x
I I 0
0 0
0
0
c o~ x
x

~~
0
I x )(
! I
I \
,
r I = C VR
3
.......,..,.

JS-1)d g
10'" I i
1Cf1 1Q'1 10 10' 10 2 1 o3
Fig. 2
 r port. Consequently, there is no need for a distinction between the transport of the bed load
and (he suspended load, and assigning different mechanisms to each mode of transport.
At low flow intensities, there is a controversy on the nature of the mechanism by which the
particles are transported. Valin (1963) and Danel et ale (1953) accept "saltation" as a primary
means of transport, a fact which has also been verified by the present experiments. On the other
hand, both Einstein (1950) and Kalinske (1947) reject this mechanism as a. primary means of
transport and, instead, suggest a rolling and sliding motion. Nevertheless, it should be men-
tioned that all the above scientists find it necessary to divide the total load into two fractions-
the bed load and the suspended load-and accept different mechanisms of transport for each
case.
Consequently, the significance of equation (29a) must be discussed in the light of the pro-
posed physical model and its above assumptions. In spite of the scatter of the data in figure 2,
it can be said that the function as expressed by equation (29a) is a representative one.
Equation (29a) has a determination coefficient of .59 which means that 41 percent of the
sample points are unexplained by the regression equation. Such a scatter may be acceptable if
the range of the experimental conditions as well as the diversity and the accuracy of the experi-
mental methods used in obtaining the data, are considered.
Downloaded by [177.34.100.174] at 19:30 24 October 2017

For the sake of discussion, the closed conduit data and the open channel and river data are
plotted as separate figures.
Figure 2a includes all the closed conduit data and the regression line given by equation (29a).
The strongest deviations from the regression line occur in the data given by Ismail (1952).
Such a wide scatter can only be attributed to poor measurements accuracy. For the determination
of the total sediment transport, an adequate number of measurements with desirable accuracy
have not been made. This may be because the main purpose of the experiments has been the
determination of the turbulence mechanism of the flows with suspended material, and the quan-
titative values of the total sediment transport has been of less importance for the particular
research in question. Of all the closed conduit data, Ismail (1952) has the widest range of the
"shear intensity parameter" .33<P<3.34, and the corresponding variation of the "transport
parameter" is .32<(1)<110.73. Therefore, they are included in this study.
The main purpose of the experiments which are done by Wilson (1965) and are reported in
this study, has been the determination of the rates of bed material transport in closed conduits
at high-flow intensities. Therefore, relatively narrow ranges of the "shear intensity parameter",
.34<P<2.55, and of the "transport parameter", 1.08<(1)<69.50 are covered. The plotted
points are in close agreement with the given regression equation.
The data obtained by Acaroglu (1968) cover the ranges of .52< P <2.97 and 1.11 <(1)<36.10.
The experimental set-up and the measuring devices used, have dictated such limited ranges of
the parameters. The plotted points represent the flow conditions at which the sediment particles
have been moving near the point of deposition, only in such cases, it is possible to measure the
rates of transported sediment material. The scatter of this set of data plotted in figure 2a can
only be attributed to the difficulties involved in accurate measurements in sediment transport
experiments.
Figure 2b includes all the free surface flow data used and the regression line as given by
equation (29a).
The data reported by Gilbert (1914) have the range of .58 < P < 12.61 and .007 < (1) < 12.61.
This data are quite significant because there is a large quantity of it. Almost half the number of
points used in the regression analysis belong to Gilbert's set. Furthermore, the majority of these
points are within .10 < (1) < 10 range, and show a relatively balanced scatter about the regression
line. Therefore it is probably that the regression equation, viz. equation (29a), is mainly deter-
mined by this set of data, and the influence of the other data is less significant.
The experimental results reported by Guy et al. (1966) cover the widest range of the" shear
intensity parameter", .19 < P <22.83, and of the "transport parameter", .001 <(1) <980.67.
Furthermore, most of these experiments have been done in a wide, 2.41 m, laboratory flume..
Therefore, the flow conditions are very similar to that of a prototype open channel. The ranges

33
 I RELATIONSHIP OF
j I i
Downloaded by [177.34.100.174] at 19:30 24 October 2017

I I SHEAR INTENSITY PARAMETER ' and

i i I 1
TRANSPO'RT ,PAR.Alv1ETER ep
\ i
I
I I i
i I CLOSED CONDUIT DATA
I i I I o ISMAIL(1952)
I c WILSON(1965)

~~
!
i o ACAROGLU(1968)
i
--.....
.............. I i i i i i
r---.......
r-...... I I i I I

-L--til'
~
I , I I

I ~ ........... ! iI I
I I I

I Co ~ o I I I
I
! !
I
C ~ o I I

I'~ O~~) cd'

0 i
i I II i i I
I C 0" ,..~~ ....
I
a
I
I i
I, i
cO~9 ~DOOO 0 I
"f = (s-1)d I c
I 0 g 0 I ! I
~~ ffs:~~
SR
DO 1

0
0 II 1
I
I
OCb
10 .. u - C
0
,.,..... 0
I
I !
i
i
Bo~
Cf D
""'" .rj:) i
;Q) Q
oo~ rp8~ ~~ c

~,
00 Do a ~~~ ... n
""
"",

e 0 o 0 c ooutte"~ D

0 0 I
n ,. .......... I
e [ :~
c~
D D
I C I c
I

~ '-J
C I
I
i
I I
1-""" .........
= C VR I I
3 I 1

j JS-1)d g
1(5' ! i I I
1~ 1a 10 10' 10 2 103

Fig.2a
 4
1

RELATIONSHIP OF
I SHEAR INTENSITY PARAMETER 'r and
t--.
-~~+ I-----r-- TRANSPORT PARAMETER ~
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I I
; I Ii RIVER DATA
FLUME DATA
I
GILBERT (1914) + EINSTEIN(1944)
x y ANSLEY (1963)
x

10' ~ r"t.a.
+ x x x GUY at al. (1966 )
!Xx I
~ -fI
~'T ... T+ x
x + -t~+"+' Me, + x x X
+ f' ~~YJ .:'\
.~ '"
x : ~.,
.~

~ '~
x

~ c:
)(
x
~ +x ~ .) ~~ ~ X I
~ ''''iii

+ .~+ +~:.. :. ~i'1

'~7
+ + \.=i x I I

x .... ... ... f!.~~~ti

~~ ~ x ! I
+ + + .x
.. '1 x
I
I

~~ i'~
!
~ ;". x I X
l + ~ ~~~ ,,~ I I I I i
.....
.J . .. x
. X\ x I II
A
~. x I
" (s-1) d
~
.. .:.... ...: '. xxi
x x ~xx~
x
I

~x
!
I
I
I

.. r<l-.. ~x :,,, v
x
I
.. .~ ,'XKx:)C ~v
r~x_ XY I-
X
y xIX x
.. ---........
x~ v v

~ Inr~YIY : xy )(
X

~ X
I i i' x Y Y x x v

I i
I I ~
~.

x
X
~~
I
I x x
I i I
.........
I !
r':
~=~
I
I
10'
10-2 10 0
J(S-1)d 3g
10 1
I 102
I I

Fig.2b
 of the above mentioned parameters and the quality of the experimental results make this data
most valuable for the regression analysis. In spite of the scatter of the plotted points, a general
tendency of the 1Jf and f1> relationship is evident. This can be seen in figure 2b. On the other hand,
the scatter of the points, plainly, reflect the difficulties involved in the measurements of the
sediment transport experiments. The most up-to-date measurement technique employed, and
the extreme care taken for the measurements have definitely minimized the errors, but have not
eliminated them. Therefore, the scatter of this data has to be considered as very reasonable and
acceptable. The only regrettable fact is the non-uniform size distribution of the sand material
used for most of the experiments. This fact creates the problem of determining a characteristic
particle size for a particular sand material. The presently assumed d50 values, as a characteristic
particle diameter, may not be the best choice, and this is evident in figure 2b. A different choice
of the characteristic particle sizes may have produced a more representative regression equation.
But, the determination of the characteristic particle sizes is considered to be beyond the scope of
the present investigation. .
Although, the experimental results reported by Ansley (1963) have limited ranges of 1Jf and
f1> values, viz..43 < 1Jf < 1.05 and 9.40 < f1> <231.27, respectively, the extreme care taken in
assuring uniform supercritical flow conditions makes this set of data very special, and hence,
very valuable. It is special because this is the only set of free surface flow data which is obtained
Downloaded by [177.34.100.174] at 19:30 24 October 2017

under true uniform flow conditions at high flow intensities. In all the other experiments reported
in this study, this condition is relaxed. The small scatter exhibited by these points can be attri-
buted to measurement accuracy.
The river data plotted in figure 2b are taken from Einstein (1944). These data cover a relatively
narrow range of the "shear intensity parameter", 2.09 < 1Jf < 16.63, and of the "transport
parameter", .004 < f1> < .42. In all the natural waterways, this may very well be the dominant
region at which the flow takes place with such low sediment transport rates. In this respect,
Einstein's data are very significant. The consistent deviations of the plotted points may be
attributed to the following facts. Firstly, the possibility of the failure to measure the true total
load. The main emphasis in the measurements have been the determination of the bed load.
Therefore, the suspended material, though it is reported as insignificant, is not included in the
measured values. The addition of this amount to the already reported transport rates, though
it may be very small can definitely give more correct results. Secondly, the rather non-uniform
size distribution of the natural material. Because the functional dependence of the parameters
on the particle diameter, d, a different choice of the characteristic particle size can change the
calculated 1Jf and f1>-values. Therefore, the consistent deviations can be minimized by the proper
choice of such a characteristic particle size, but, as noted before, this is beyond the scope of this
study.
Also, it should be mentioned that, in all the experiments discussed in the present study, sands
of about the same density are used as sediment material. Although, it is desirable to use data
obtained with different solid materials, reliable data using such materials with the complete
descriptions of the flow conditions have not been available.
However, for the sake of completeness, the results of the experiments reported by Kriegel
et ale (1966) are discussed. His data are compared with equation (29a) in figure 3. These experi-
ments are done in a pipe of .054 m diameter, and coke (s ~ 1.4) is used as solid material. This
set of data is not used for the regression analysis, because it lacks the necessary and important
information on the deposit conditions. Therefore, the flow conditions have been assumed near
the point of deposition. In spite of this assumption, the plotted points do not show a radical
deviation from the regression line give by equation (29a). Hence, the proposed equation may also
be representative of the transport of sediment materials, having specific gravities, s, other than
that of sand, (s = 2.65).

36
 RELATIONS HIP 0 F
SHEAR INTENSITY PARAMETER 'i' and
TRANSPORT PARAMETER 4>
Downloaded by [177.34.100.174] at 19:30 24 October 2017

I
CLOSED CONDUIT DATA
I 6 KRIEGEL (It al. (1966)

I
~~ I
10' ............
~
~ ......... !
I

~ I
~ !

I .......... ~ I

f+'
I
I
I ~6
~ (s-1)d
lISR
I
i
I
I
I
I

j
11.
i
i
I
!
I
I
1

I
I

~~r.s;~
i
!
i
I

16~:A
IT
:

~rAA~
UG
I
I
I
I
I
I
Q\\tt ~
~ r--....
i : I A

~
I
I I
I

~
I I
I I !
I I
I I 1
I ~
i ...........
I
>= CVR I r--......
I I
I I
~(S-1) d g 3 I
10-4 )
i I i I I
1(j2 10"

Fig. 3
 6. CoNCLUDING REMARKS

The existence of a functional relationship between the" shear intensity parameter", lJf and
the "transport parameter" (jJ has been established with the help of a physical model. The exact
function is determined by making use of model and prototype investigations. This proposed
function gives information on the transport of the total sediment load in a conveyance system
which may be an open channel or a closed conduit.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This study was partially supported by a grant of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, Grant Number WP 00838-ESE.

8. NOMENCLATURE
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A A constant.
Ac Net area of a cross section of a conveyance system
Ap Surface area of a particle.
al Shape factor.
a2 Surface area constant of a particle.
a3 A constant.
a4 Volumetric constant of a particle.
B A constant.
b A factor of proportionality.
C Average volumetric concentration of transported particles.
CD Drag coefficient of a particle.
CR Resistance coefficient of a particle.
C Point volumetric concentration.
D Pipe diameter.
d Particle diameter.
dso Mean particle diameter.
Fp Hydrodynamic forces on a particle.
/1, , n Function of...
gl, , n Function of. ..
g Gravitational acceleration.
H Total head available at a particular cross section.
ks Nikuradse's equivalent sand roughness.
L Length.
M Mass.
P Power (work rate).
p* Actual rate of work done per unit longitudinal length and per unit wetted perimeter.
P s* A portion of p* used to transport sediment particles.
P Wetted perimeter.
qT* Total transport rate of sediment material per unit wetted perimeter.
R Hydraulic radius.
Rp Submerged weight of a particle.
S Slope of energy grade line.
s Specific gravity of sediment material.
T Time. .
V Average velocity.
VL Average liquid velocity.

38
 Vm Average transport velocity of mixture.
v* Shear velocity.
vL Point liquid velocity.
Vss Settling velocity of a particle.
y Depth in vertical direction.
y Specific weight of liquid.
L1 Difference.
v Kinematic viscosity of liquid.
p Density of liquid.
ps Density of sediment material.
rc Critical shearing stress.
'to Average shearing stress at wetted perimeter.
(/) The "transport parameter".
fj/ The "shear intensity parameter".

9. REFERENCES
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ACAROGLU, E. R., Sediment Transport in Conveyance Systems. Ph. D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York, 1968.
ANSLEY, R. W., Open Channel Transport of Fluidized Solids. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta, 1963.
BAGNOLD, R. A., An Approach to the Sediment Transport Problem from General Physics. U. S. G. S.
ProfeSSional Paper No. 422-1, 1966.
DANEL, P., R. DURAND, and CONDOLIOS, E., Introduction to the Study of Saltation. La Houille Blanche,
8: 815-829, 1953.
DURAND, R., Basic Relationships of the Transportation of Solids in Pipes-Experimental Research.
Proc. Intern. Assoc. Hydr. Res., pp. 89-103, Minneapolis, Minn., 1953.
EINSTEIN, H. A., Formulas for the Transportation of Bed Load. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs., 107: 561-
577, 1942.
- - - - , Bed Load Transportation in Mountain Creek. U. S. Dept. Agr. Soil Conservation Service,
SCS-TP-55, 1944.
- - - - , The Bed-Load Function for Sediment Transportation in Open Channel Flows. U. S. Dept.
Agr. Technical Bulletin, No. 1026, 1950. .
EINSTEIN, H. A. and NING CHIEN. Effects of Heavy Sediment Concentration Near the Bed on Velocity
and Sediment Distribution. M. R. D. Sediment Series No.8, University of California, Berkeley,
Cal.; 1955.
GILBERT, G. K., Transportation of Debris by Running Water. U. S. G. S., Professional Paper, No. 86,
1914.
GUY, H. P., SIMONS, D. B., and RICHARDSON, E. V., Summary of Alluvial Channel Data from Flume
Experiments, 1956-1961. U. S. G. S. Professional Paper, No. 462-1, 1966.
Ismail, H. A., Turbulent Transfer Mechanism and Suspended Sediment in Closed Conduits. Trans.
Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs., 117: 409-434, 1952.
KALINSKE, A. A., Movement of Sediment as Bed Load in Rivers. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 28: 615-
620, 1947.
KRIEGEL, E. and BAUER, H., Hydraulischer Transport korniger Feststoffe durch waagerechte Rohrleitungen.
VDI..Forschungsheft 515, 1966.
NEWITT, D. M., RICHARDSON, J. F., and SHOOK, C. A., Hydraulic Conveying of Solids in Horizontal
Pipes, Part II: Distribution of Particles and Slip Velocities. Proc. of Symposium on Interaction
between Fluids and Particles, (London: Instn. Chern. Engrs.), pp. 87-100, 1962.
SHIELDS, A., Anwendung der Ahnlichkeitsrnechanik und Turbulenzforschung auf die Geschiebebewegung.
Mitt. Preuss. Versuchsanstalt fur Wasserbau and SchifJhau, No. 26, Berlin, 1936. For resume see
Rouse, H., Engineering Hydraulics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pp~ 789-791, 1950.
WILSON, K. C., Derivation of the Regime Equations from Relationships for Pressurized Flow by Use
of the Principle of Minimum Energy-Degradation Rate. Civ. Engr. Research Report, No. 51, Civ.
Engr. Dept., Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, 1965.
YALIN, S., An Expression for Bed-Load Transportation. Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs., J. Hydr. Div., 89
(HY3): 221-250, 1963.

39