History: Basics Modifications Why We Need Transformer?

Testing of Transformers
Table of Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................3
History..........................................................................................................................................................................4
Basics..............................................................................................................................................................4
Modifications...............................................................................................................................................5
Why we need transformer?.....................................................................................................................6
Transformer Definition...........................................................................................................................................7
Working Principle.....................................................................................................................................................7
Construction...............................................................................................................................................................8
Core type.......................................................................................................................................................9
Shell type.....................................................................................................................................................10
Some related terms..................................................................................................................................11
Losses...........................................................................................................................................................14
Types of transformers...........................................................................................................................................16
Type on basis of cooling medium..........................................................................................................17
Type on basis of design............................................................................................................................21
Application of transformers...............................................................................................................................22
Tests...........................................................................................................................................................................23
Specifications...........................................................................................................................................................27
Capitalized cost.......................................................................................................................................................28
Different terminologies..........................................................................................................................29
Capitalization of losses worldwide......................................................................................................34
Payback time..............................................................................................................................................41
New technology......................................................................................................................................................45
Slim transformers.....................................................................................................................................45
Conclusion................................................................................................................................................................49
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ABSTRACT
Transformer is an electrical device used for transference of energy by exploiting the
ferromagnetic properties of a conducting core. Electromagnetic induction allows
transfer of energy, but power remains constant and thus energy remains conserved.
The property is exploited at power stations where voltage is stepped up resulting in
decrease in current, allowing maximum power transfer at minimum cost with
minimum losses. Transformers differ from one another on the basis of their mode of
construction, insulating material, cooling process, core type and winding. Types of
transformers can be broadly classified in to two categories as design type and size type
transformers. Modifications in transformers are introduced to meet the required
specifications of the consumer, incooperating minimum losses, maximum output and
small size. Latest version of transformer which is in market is known as slim
transformer. Total capitalization cost of a transformer which provides a rough estimate
of the total life expectancy of a transformer, along with the payback period mark two
significant parameters taken in to account in detail in this report.
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INTRODUCTION
Electrical energy is inevitable, the sole existence of mankind depends on it. But easy
accessibility of electricity is our main focus of interest. The question of paramount
importance is not only the generation but also distribution of energy. The conflict is
resolved by transformer which serves as an efficient mode of energy transference.
Depending on the application area and system requirement different transformers use
different technologies, with the same working principle. Dry type and oil immersed
transformers differ in cooling mechanisms and insulating material, which gives each
type some specific characteristics making it suitable for different application areas.
The authentication process and quality control is ensured by carrying out a number of
tests, which run parallel comparison of the specification and the results. Statistical and
economic analysis is a prudent step towards harvesting maximum benefit with
minimum losses and therefore taken in to account while manufacturing a product.
Future refinement critically controls losses, size and cost.
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HISTORY
Transformer is referred to as
the heart of the alternating current system
Originally it was invented by Otto Blthy, Miksa Dri, Kroly Zipernowsky of

the Austro-Hungarian Empire First designed and used the transformer in both
experimental and commercial systems. Later on Lucien Gaulard, Sebstian
Ferranti, and William Stanley perfected the design
The property of induction was discovered in the 1830's but it wasn't until 1886 that
William Stanley, working for Westinghouse built the first reliable commercial
transformer. His work was built upon some rudimentary designs by the Ganz
Company in Hungary (ZBD Transformer 1878), and Lucien Gaulard and John
Dixon Gibbs in England. Nikola Tesla did not invent the transformer as some
dubious sources have claimed. The Europeans mentioned above did the first work
in the field. George Westinghouse, Albert Schmid, Oliver Shallen Berger and
Stanley made the transformer cheap to produce, and easy to adjust for final use.
William Stanley's First Transformer built in 1885. Single phase AC power.
The first AC power system that used the modern transformer was in Great
Barrington, Massachusetts in 1886. Earlier forms of the transformer were used
in Austro-Hungary 1878-1880s and 1882 onward in England. Lucien Gaulard
(Frenchman) used his AC system for the revolutionary Lanzo to Turin electrical
exposition in 1884 (Northern Italy). In 1891 mastermind Mikhail Dobrovsky
designed and demonstrated his 3 phase transformers in the Electro -Technical
Exposition at Frankfurt, Germany.
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MODIFICATIONS
1830s-Joseph Henry and Michael Faraday work with electromagnets and
discover the property of induction independently on separate continents.
1836 - Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland invents the induction
coil
1876 - Pavel Yablochkov uses induction coils in his lighting system
1878 -1883 - The Ganz Company (Budapest, Hungary) uses induction coils in
their lighting systems with AC incandescent systems. This is the first
appearance and use of the toroid shaped transformer.
1881 - Charles F. Brush of the Brush Electric Company in Cleveland, Ohio

develops his own new design of transformer
1880-1882 - Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti (English born with an Italian parent)

designs one of the earliest AC power systems with William Thomson (Lord
Kelvin). He creates an early transformer. Gaulard and Gibbs later design a
similar transformer and loose the patent suit in English court to Ferranti.
1884 - In Hungary Otto Blthy had suggested the use of closed-cores, Kroly
Zipernowsky the use of shunt connections, and Miksa Dri had performed the
experiments. They found the major flaw of the Gaulard-Gibbs system were
successful in making a high voltage circuit work using transformers in parallel.
Their design was a toroid shape which made it expensive to make. Wires could not
be easily wrapped around it by machine during the manufacturing process.
1884 - Use of Lucien Gaulard's transformer system (a series system) in the first
large exposition of AC power in Turin, Italy. This event caught the eye of
William Stanley, working for Westinghouse. Westinghouse bought rights to the
Gaulard and Gibbs Transformer design. The 25 mile long transmission line
illuminated arc lights, incandescent lights, and powered a railway. Gaulard won
an award from the Italian government of 10,000 francs.
1885 - George Westinghouse orders a Siemens alternator (AC generator) and a

Gaulard and Gibbs transformer. Stanley begin experimenting with this system.
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1885 - William Stanley makes the transformer more practical due to some
design changes: "Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with
single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the
secondary winding. This design was first used commercially in the USA in
1886". William Stanley explains to Franklin L. Pope (advisor to Westinghouse
and patent lawyer) that is design was salable and a great improvement. Pope
disagrees but Westinghouse decides to trust Stanley anyway.
George Westinghouse and William Stanley create a transformer that is practical
to produce (easy to machine and wind in a square shape, making a core of E
shaped plates) and comes in both step up and step down variations. George
Westinghouse understood that to make AC power systems successful the
Gaulard design had to be changed. The toroid transformer used by the Ganz
Company in Hungary and Gibbs in England were very expensive to produce
(there was no easy way to wind wire around an iron ring without hand labor).
1886 - William Stanley uses his transformers in the electrification of downtown

Great Barrington, MA.This was the first demonstration of a full AC power
distribution system using step and step down transformers .
Later 1880s - Later on Albert Schmid improved Stanley's design, extending the
E shaped plates to meet a central projection.
1889 - Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first

three-phase transformer in Germany at AEG. He had developed the first three
phase generator one year before. Dobrovolsky used his transformer in the first
powerful complete AC system (Alternator + Transformer + Transmission +
Transformer + Electric Motors and Lamps) in 1891
1880s - Today - Transformers are improved by increasing efficiency, reducing

size, and increasing capacity.
Why we need transformer?
Main use of transformer is voltage manipulation
Due to the high cost of transmitting electricity at low voltage and high current levels,
transformers fulfill a most important role in electrical distribution systems. Utilities
distribute electricity over large areas using high voltages, commonly called
transmission voltages. Transmission voltages are normally in the 35,000 volt to
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50,000 volt range. We know that volts times amps equals watts, and that wires are
sized based upon their ability to carry amps. High voltage allows the utility to use
small sizes of wire to transmit high levels of power, or watts. You can recognize
transmission lines because they are supported by very large steel towers that you see
around utility power plants and substations. As this electricity gets closer to its point
of use it is converted, through the use of transformers, to a lower voltage normally
called distribution voltage. Distribution voltages range from 2,400 to 25,000 volts
depending upon the utility. Distribution lines are the ones that feed the pole mount and
pad mount transformers located closest to your home or place of business. These
transformers convert the distribution voltages to what we call utilization voltages.
They are normally below 600 volts and are either single-phase or three-phase and are
utilized for operating equipment, including light bulbs and vacuum cleaners in our
homes, to motors and elevators where we work. This is the point at which the Dry-
Type Distribution Transformer comes into play. It is used to convert the voltage
provided by the utility to the voltage we need to operate various equipment.
DEFINITION
Transformer is a device that converts alternating current at a certain voltage to
a n alternating current at a different voltage keeping frequency constant, by
electromagnetic induction.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Transformers work on the principle of mutual induction.
Transformer consists of two coils that have no electrical connection but are
magnetically coupled. The coil connected with the supply is known as primary
coil and the other connected to the load is known as secondary coil. Normally a
transformer has steel or an iron core; core is insulated from the windings. When
primary coil is connected to the AC supply, alternating voltages produces
varying magnetic field in the core and this varying magnetic field induces
magnetic flux in the secondary coil. The frequency of the induced EMF is the
same as the frequency of the applied voltage
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CONSTRUCTION
Transformers basically consist of two windings that are usually inductive and a
laminated core. The coils are insulated from the core as well from each other.
Normally the core is of steel or soft iron. The steel used is having high silicon
content and sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability and low
hysteresis loss. Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss.
A container is also required for the assembling of core and windings. Bushing
is required for getting terminals out of container. Some insulating medium is
also required; it depends on the type of transformer used. If the transformer is
oil-based then an oil conservator is also needed.
The sheets are cut in the shape as E, I and L. To avoid high reluctance at
joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of joint.
Types:
On the basis of construction transformer has two types:

Core type transformer

Shell type transformer
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Core type transformer:

In this transformer windings surround a considerable amount of core.
Windings are present at the opposite limbs of the core. These transformers are
also known as single window type transformers.
The coils are wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each
other by paper or mica. Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low
voltage coil is placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds the
low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin laminations.
As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the
natural cooling is more effective. The coils can be easily removed by
removing the laminations of the top yoke, for maintenance.
Advantages:
Low cost
Useful in low voltage applications
Easy to repair
Non-intricate design
Disadvantages:
Inability to avoid high voltage surges
Low mechanical strength
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Shell type transformers:

Shell Type Transformers has a double magnetic circuit. The core has 3 limbs.
Both the windings are placed on the central limb. The core encircles most part
of the windings. The cols used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich
coils. Each high voltage coil is in between two low voltage coils and low
voltage coils are nearest to tip and bottom of the yokes.
Advantages:
1. Useful in high voltage applications:
These transformers are useful in large capacity and higher medium voltage
applications.
2. Better short circuit strength:
The short-circuit strength of the transformer is increased through the use

of alternating high and low voltage windings, but the size of the coils
does not increase with the transformer's capacity increase.
3. Better mechanical and dielectric strength:
Shell type transformers bear more mechanical and dielectric strength.
4. Efficient cooling system:
Efficient cooling system is a distinguished trait of shell type transformers.
5. Protection against leakage flux:

Shell-form transformers are also protected against leakage magnetic flux in case of
local heating. Their iron core absorbs the leakage flux from the coils. Compared to core-
form transformers, there is flexibility in the selection of the wire size, which further helps
prevent local heating.
Disadvantages:
Complex construction:
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These transformers have a complex design.

Hard to repair:
Repair is not an easy task in case of shell transformers because
manufacture time is equal to the repair time.
Some related terms

Tapping:
A tap is a connection point along a transformer winding that allows a certain
number of turns to be selected. This means, a transformer with a variable
turns ratio is produced, enabling voltage regulation of the output. Tapping
allows adding or subtracting the number of turns for the fine tuning of the
transformer. Tap turns may be present at the end or in the middle of the coil.
The tap selection is made with a tap changer mechanism.
Changing taps:
Following things should be kept in mind while changing taps:
The first step is to de-energize the transformer and be sure that safety
measures are applied to all the terminals of the transformer.
When you adjust the bolted connection, make sure that no material
enters the transformer oil otherwise it may be dangerous.
Make sure that the connections are free of insulations, resins and oxidations.
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When grinding metal make sure that metal particles do not go into the
coils or links with any insulation if it happens it will cause the failure of
the transformer.
Insulating materials:
Transformer oil:
Transformer normally makes use of hydrocarbon mineral oil. It performs
the following functions:
It acts as a cooling agent.
It provides insulations in combination with the insulating material
used in coils and the conductors.
It has some disadvantages also:
Working of oil-based transformers is temperature dependent i-e cold
environment may cause the oil to freeze and high temperature may
cause it to boil hence affecting the working of the transformer.
Leakage of oil may create significant problems. The oil may catch
fire thus causing a lot of damage.
Insulating paper:
Insulating paper is made of vegetable fiber these fibers are made of cellulose.
It can withstand 150c.
Air cooling:
In this type insulation takes through the natural air. A blast of air is blown
through fans and blowers. This type of cooling is limited for the
transformers not exceeding 25 kV.
Diamond dotted paper:
These are the insulating paper with diamond shaped epoxy resins. It can
withstand 300c of temperature.
Excellent in insulation property:
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This is useful for interlayer insulation of transformer winding; provides

excellent insulation against heat, moisture and oil.
Excellent in adhesive property:
It can be kept adhesive even at 140c.
Press boards:
Press board is also made up of vegetable fibers and contains cellulose.
Solid press board unto 6 mm to 8mm thick is ordinarily made.
The most difficult insulation problem in HT transformer occur at

the ends of the windings and lead outs from the windings hence molded
pressboards are widely used in these parts for insulation.
Synthetic resin bonded paper based laminates are used in voltage
stressed zones.
Nomex paper:
It has following properties:
Inherent Dielectric Strength
It normally withstand short-term electrical stresses of 18 kV/mm to 34 kV/mm
(460 V/mil to 870 V/mil), depending on product type and thickness.
Mechanical Toughness
Densified Nomex products are strong, resilient and (in the thinner
grades) flexible, with good resistance to tearing and abrasion.
Thermal Stability
Temperatures up to 200C have little or no effect on the electrical and
mechanical properties of Nomex products. These properties are retained
at considerably higher temperatures. These properties are maintained for
at least 10 years of continuous exposure at temperatures up to 220C.
Chemical Compatibility
Nomex products are essentially unaffected by most solvents and are unusually
resistant to attacks by acids and alkalis. They are compatible with all classes of
varnishes and adhesives, transformer fluids, lubricating oils and
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refrigerants. Because Nomex products are not digestible, they are

not attacked by insects, fungi or mold.
Radiation Resistance
Nomex paper is essentially unaffected by 800 megarads (8 Mgy) of
ionizing radiation and still retains useful mechanical and electrical
properties after eight times this exposure.
Flame Resistance
Nomex products do not produce known toxic reactions in humans or
animals. Nomex products do not melt and, with a limiting oxygen index
(LOI) at 220C above 20.8the critical value for combustion in airthey
do not support combustion.
Moisture Insensitivity
In equilibrium at 95% relative humidity, densified Nomex papers and
pressboards maintain 90% of their bone-dry dielectric strength, while
many of their mechanical properties are actually improved.
Cryogenic Capabilities
Nomex products have found acceptance in a variety of cryogenic
applications due to their unique polymer structure
Losses in transformers
In an ideal transformer efficiency is 100% i-e no losses occur; this can only
happen when power supplied at input terminal is equal to the power delivered at
output terminal. Obviously this cannot happen in real transformers. Real
transformers suffer losses. Since it is a static device so no mechanical losses
occur. The electrical losses faced are:
Iron losses
Copper losses
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Copper loss:
These losses occur when heat is dissipated due to the passage of current. They
also depend upon the internal resistance of the windings. They are generally
given by the formula I2 R.
These losses are dependent at the load; since current increases with increase in
load these are the variable losses.
Iron losses:
Iron losses are also known as core losses. These are dependent at the frequency
of the supply voltage and on the magnetic properties of the core material. Since
these are constant factors so iron losses are the constant losses. Core losses are
basically divided into two types:

Eddy current

Hysteresis loss
Eddy current:
When AC supply is provided to the primary coil; varying current induces magnetic
field due to this EMF is induced in the secondary coil. During this process some of
the flux is lost in the core which gives rise to the swirls of current perpendicular to
the direction of magnetic field. This is known as eddy current. This current is not
delivered to the load but it decreases the efficiency of the transformer.
Eddy current can be reduced by using laminations in the core and by dividing
core in small parts so that less current may pass through it.
Hysteresis loss:
When demagnetization curve of the core do not follow the same path as the
magnetization curve instead follow a different path; this is known as
hysteresis loss. This loss occurs due to the non-alignment of the domains
which do not find time to rearrange themselves during demagnetization.
Hysteresis can be avoided by using core of:

high magnetic permeability

low coercivity and high resistance

using air core
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TPES OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformers can be broadly classified in to two categories, which differ

in
insulating medium, mode of construction and place of application.

Types on basis of Cooling medium
Types on basis of Design
TYPES ON BASIS OF COOLING MEDIUM:
On the basis of cooling agent, two type of transformers are:
Dry Type Transformer.
Oil Immersed Transformer
DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER:

In dry type transformer, no oil is used for insulation and cooling purpose.
The cooling medium for dry type transformer is natural air.
In Dry Type Transformer, cooling is done by air ventilation, providing low heat
services for indoor situations where oil leakage could cause a fire or
environmental hazard.
METHODS OF COOLING:
There are two cooling methods.

a) Natural Cooling:
Dry type transformers can be Natural Cooled with Air. The natural convection
of the air removes the heat generated by the transformers.
b) Forced Air Cooling:
This involves cooling the windings of the transformers with forced air, usually
by means of external fans and blowers.
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ADVANTAGES:
Dry Type Transformers need less maintenance.
Fire Proof vaults and Toxic gas removing system are not required.
Dry type transformers are usually located closer to the load, resulting in
cost savings because of shorter cable and reduced electrical losses.
DISADVANTAGES:
The efficiency of dry type transformers is lower than that of
conventional transformers.
Dry type transformers cannot be designed for very high voltages and
are designed up to the MV range.
OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMER:

In oil immersed transformer, oil is used for the purpose of insulation and cooling of
core and windings. The core and coils of the transformer are immersed in oil which
cools and insulates. Oil circulates through ducts in the coil and around the coil and
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core assembly, moved by convection. The oil is cooled by the outside of the
tank in small ratings, and in larger ratings an air-cooled radiator is used.
METHODS OF COOLING:
Oil Natural Air Natural

Oil Natural Air Forced
Oil Forced Air Forced
Oil Forced Water Forced
OIL NATURAL AIR NATURAL:
In this method, the heat generated in the core and winding is transferred to the
oil. The heated oil flows in the upward direction and then in the radiator. The heat
from the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the
transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer keeps circulating due to natural
convection and dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural conduction.
OIL NATURAL AIR FORCED:

Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method, fans
are mounted near the radiator and may be provided with an automatic starting
arrangement, which turns on when temperature increases beyond certain value.
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Oil Forced Air Forced

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is
forced through the heat exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow on
the heat exchanger with the help of fans.
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Oil Forced Water Forced:
In this method, forced water flow is used to dissipate heat from the heat
exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help
of a pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water which is also forced to
flow. The heated water is taken away to cool in separate coolers.
OILS USED IN OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMER:

Mineral oil is basically used in Oil Immersed Transformer. Silicone-based
or fluorinated hydrocarbons are also being used alternative of mineral oil.
ADVANTAGES:
An oil immersed transformer can operate at high voltages and high
power ratings.
They are very reliable and can handle many years of operations
without creating faults.
Oil filled transformers are more flexible for outdoors usage.
More efficient than dry type transformers.
DISADVANTAGES:
Mineral Oil used is highly flammable.
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TYPES ON BASIS OF DESIGNS:

On basis of design, focusing on shape and size two main classifications are:

Pad mounted Transformer

Pole mounted Transformer
PAD MOUNTED TRANSFORMER:

A pad mount transformer is a ground mounted distribution transformer in a
locked steel cabinet mounted on a concrete pad. Since all energized connection
points are securely enclosed in a grounded metal housing. Their enclosed
construction allows the installation of pad-mount transformers in public areas
without the need of protective fencing.
ADVANTAGES:
Extended security for personnel because of the non-existence of exposed
parts under voltage.
Indoor and outdoor installation.
Minimum space required for installation.
They are safe and reliable.
Quick implementation and low cost.
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POLE MOUNTED TRANSFORMER:

Pole mounted transformers are mounted on an electrical service pole, usually at the
level of the overhead cables. Pole-mounted transformers often include accessories
such as surge arresters or protective fuse links. Pole mounted transformers are small
in size so that it is easy to install them on single pole structures. This makes the
transformers inaccessible, reducing the risk of injury to animals and people .
ADVANTAGES:
Small in size and easy to install.
Inaccessible by people and animal so reduced risk of injury.
APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMER
Power transformers are used to minimize energy losses due to voltage
drop in transmitting electricity over long distances.
They match loads with internal resistance so that there is maximum
power transfer.
Dry Type Transformers are used mostly in indoor applications i.e.
hospitals, schools and commercial buildings where safety and reliability
are mandatory.
Each wind turbine is connected to a step-up transformer which boosts
the generating output of the turbine generator.
Transformer can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor
or resistance in an AC circuit. It can thus act as an impedance
transferring device.
It can be used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to the other.
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Transformers with several secondaries are used in television and

radio receivers where several different voltages are required.
Oil Immersed Transformers are used in utilities and power plant.
Step-down Transformer is used in Distribution System to step down
11KV voltages to 220-230V.
TESTS
Transformer is subjected to a number of tests to ensure that it is in accordance

to the specifications provided. The tests are run to check different parameters
of the, and are critically analyzed according to the set standard. The main tests
which are normally executed are:
Type Test
Routine Test
Short- Circuit Test
Open Circuit Test
High Voltage Impulse Test
Type Test:
To prove that the transformer meets clients specifications and design
expectations, the transformer has to go through different testing procedures in
manufacturer sites. Some transformer tests are carried out for confirming the
basic design expectancy of that transformer. These tests are done mainly in a
prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot. Type test of transformer
confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot. Different Type test
that done on transformer are as follows.
Transformer Winding Resistance measurement
Transformer Ratio Test
Transformer Vector group test
Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal
tap) and load loss (Short circuit test).
Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test).
Measurement of insulation resistance.
Dielectric tests of transformer.
Temperature Test
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Vacuum Tests
Tests on on-load tap change
Routine Test:
Routine tests of transformer is mainly for confirming operational performance
of individual unit in a production lot. Routine tests are carried out on every
unit manufactured.
Transformer winding resistance measurement.

Transformer ratio test.
Transformer vector group test.
Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal
tap) and
Load loss (Short circuit test).
Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test)
Measurement of insulation resistance.
Dielectric tests of transformer.
Tests on on-load tap-changer.
Oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints
and gaskets.
Open Circuit test:

In open circuit test rated voltage is applied to the input side (primary)
but secondary side is left open. A voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter are
connected to the input side to measure voltages, current and power respectively. As
the normally rated voltage is applied to the primary, so iron losses will occur in the
transformer core. As the primary no-load current (Io) which is nearly 2-10% of
rated IL measured by the ammeter is very small as Copper losses are negligible in
the primary and null to the secondary side so Wattmeter measures the core losses at
no - load and they remain the same at all loads.
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Now
Iron losses = Wo (Wattmeter Reading)
No-load Current = Io (Ammeter Reading)
Applied Voltage = V1 (Voltmeter Reading)
In this case
Input = Output + Losses
Output = V2I2cos
As I2 = 0 (As Secondary is open-circuited)
So Output = 0
Therefore
Input = Iron Losses
Short Circuit Test:

In this test which is known also as Impedance test, a small fraction usually 2
to 5% of the rated input voltage is applied at the primary which is usually the
high voltage (HV) winding. While the secondary side which is usually the
low voltage (LV) winding is short circuited by a wire through an ammeter.
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Also an Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter are connected on the primary

side. The primary voltage is gradually increased until the full load current I1
flow through the primary. At this point I2 also has full load current. Under
these conditions the copper losses are maximum while the iron losses are
negligible because of the small primary voltage.
Here
Input = Output + Losses

Where
Output = V2I2cos
As
V2 = 0 so Output = 0
Input = Copper Losses at Full load
High Voltage Impulse Test:
High voltage impulse test is carried out, to test the transformer capacity to
withstand the voltage surges that are caused due to lightening or switching. The
ability of a transformer to withstand these voltage surges depends on the
insulation or dielectric strength of insulting and cooling medium. Artificial
generation of lightening impulse is carried out using Impulse Generators.
Impulse Generation:
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Impulse generation is carried using Impulse Generators which consists of

energy banks, which generate high voltage beam used for testing. The energy
bank comprises on capacitors connected in parallel along with charging
resistors, which are discharged in series to create the impulse voltage. There
are approximately twenty capacitors each of 150kV, which produce a high
voltage impulse of about three million volts. The impulse test sequence is
applies successfully to each line terminal of tested winding. The other line
terminals and windings are kept earthed during the process.
SPECIFICATIONS
The Business Unit Distribution Transformers pursues a quality policy aimed at
integral quality and development of a working environment receptive to
continuous improvement. The whole organization is involved in such a way that
all delivered products and services satisfy the quality expectations of both
external and internal customers.
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COUNTRY RATINGS VOLTAGES

USA Up to 10 MVA Up to 72.5 kV
Belgium Up to 7 MVA Up to 72.5 kV
Ireland Up to 5 MVA Up to 72.5 kV
CAPITALIZATION
Capitalization - definition
It is defined as the provision of capital for a company, or conversion of assets
or income of a company to capital is called capitalization.
The process of classifying a cost as long term investment, rather than charging
it to its current operations is also defined as capitalization.
Capitalization Cost
Capitalization Cost is defined as an expense that is added to the cost basis of a
fixed asset on a company's balance sheet. Capitalized Costs are incurred when
building or financing fixed assets is invested upon. Capitalized Costs are not
expenses in the period they were incurred, but recognized over a period of time
via depreciation or amortization.
A capitalized cost doesn't appear on the income statement, but instead appears on
the long term assets account and a credit side on the cash account of the balance
sheet. However, the depreciation expense related to the capitalized cost would
appear as an expense on the income statement. Since long-term assets is larger due
to the effect of capitalization, the depreciation costs are also larger proportionally.
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TRANSFORMER
Total Ownership Cost
The concept of the capitalization cost makes the pathway for the introduction
of the important concept of Total Ownership Cost (TOC) that is a financial
estimate intended to help buyers and owners to determine the direct and
indirect cost of a product or system. The TOC is a widely used concept from
the management accounting. It is the sum of different cost associated with a
product, such as the purchase cost, Installation cost, commissioning cost,
operational cost, maintenance cost (over the useful life time period, such as 20
-30 years) and emission costs (as per the regulations).
The Total Ownership Cost is the factor that is brought into consideration during
purchase of transformers, when comparing the cost of the losses occurred due to
the transformer, this cost can be quite significant when calculated over the total
useful life. A low loss can appear to be expensive in short term or in means of
initial capital investment, but over the long period of time (such as the useful age
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of the transformer) it would cost lesser when compared to a high loss

transformer with smaller initial capital investment.
The Total Ownership Cost introduces the concept of Pay-Back Time Period,
which can be defined as the total time required by the investment to pay back
the cost incurred on the investment.
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CAPITALIZATION OF LOSSES:
The capitalized cost (CC) of a transformer can be expressed as sum of the purchase
price (Ct), the cost of no load losses and the cost of the load losses, or as a formula:
CC=Ct + K1 x P0 + K2 x PK
Where k1 represents the assigned cost of no load per watt P0. The value of no
load losses per watt K2. The assigned cost of load losses per watt and P k the
value of the load losses per watt.P0 and Pk are transformer properties. K1 and K2
are properties that depend on the expected loading of the transformer and
energy prices. K1 and K2 are calculated as follows:
(1+ ) 1
K1 = 8760
(+ )
.( + )
K2 = ()
Where:
i = interest rate (% per year)
n = lifetime (years)
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C = kWh price (EUR/kWh)

8760 = numbers of hours in a year
IL = loading current
IR = rated current
EXAMPLE OF TOC CALCULAIONS IN PAKISTAN:
TOC= Purchase Price + K1 x (no load losses) + K2 x (load losses)
Transformer rating: 200 kVA

Where:
K1 = Rs. 195.99 per KW
K2 = Rs. 299.99 per KW
For Low Loss Transformer:
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Purchase price= Rs. 580,165

No load losses = 396 KW
Load losses = 2728 W
TOC1 = Rs. 580,165 + 195,99 x (396) + 299.99 x (2728)
= Rs. 1476149.76
For High Loss Transformer:

Purchase price = Rs 387,000
No load losses = 495 W
Load loses = 3410 W
TOC2 = Rs. 387,000 + 195.99 x (495) + 299.99 x (3410)
= Rs 1,506,980.95
Benefit of using low loss transformer = TOC2 TOC1

= 1,506,980.95 1,476,149.76
= Rs. 30,831.19
INFLUENTIAL FACTORS OF THE A FACTOR:
The parameters with highest influence on A are:

1. Energy Price
2. Interest rate
3. Economic lifetime
The other input parameters have no influence on A. Interest rate and the A
factor have a negative correlation.
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INFLUENTIAL FACTORS ON THE B FACTOR
The parameters with highest influence on B are:

1. The load
2. Energy price
3. Interest rate
4. Economic lifetime
Most important input parameter of Factor A is the energy price and the
most influencing parameter on B factor is load.
CAPITALIZATION OF LOSSES WORLDWIDE
METHODOLOGY OF COMPUTING TOC IN INDIA
TOC = Ic + (A x Wi ) + (B x Wc )
TOC = total owning cost

Ic = initial cost including taxes of transformer as quoted by the
manufacturer. A factor = cost of no load losses in Rs/watt
B factor = cost of load losses in Rs/watt
Wi = no load losses quoted by the manufacturer in watt
Wc = load losses quoted by the manufacturer in watt
A factor = H x Ec/1000 x ((1 + ) 1)/ (1 + ) B factor = A factor x LLF
H = no of service hours per year of the distribution transformer = 8400

hours Ec = average energy cost (Rs/kWh) at 11kv/33 kv for the utility
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n = life of transformer in years = 25 years

LLF = loss load factor = 0.3 LF + 0.7 LF2, where LF is load factor
LF for rural areas = 0.5
LF for urban areas = 0.7
METHODOLOGY OF COMPUTING TOC IN KUWAIT

The capitalization will be based on the following assumptions:
Interest on capital: 10%
Capitalization period: 10 years
Charge per unit: 0.026 KD/kWh
Loss load factor: 0.26
Demand factor (D): 0.5
Transformers energy iron loss / year (PEE) = 8760 x iron loss
Transformers energy winding loss / year (PWDG) = 8760 x LLF x D x
D x winding loss
Total energy = A + B
Capitalized operational losses = 6.14 x (A + B) x Charge per unit
METHDOLOGY OF COMPUTING TOC IN SAUDI ARABIA
Transformer vendors / manufacturers shall be evaluated by using the

following capitalization formula:
T = P + 11,000 X C + 4000 X W
T = Total capitalized cost in Saudi Riyals
P = initial cost of transformer in Saudi Riyals
C = iron (core) losses in KW (no load losses)
W = copper (winding) losses in kW at rated load (load losses)
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ADVANTAGES:
Life cycle cost analysis is a method that encompasses not only the initial
purchase price but also the comparative costs of competing models,
equalized to present day dollars. Since the operating cost of a transformer
over its life may be many times its initial price the only fair comparison
with competing models must take operating costs into account.
Another benefit to owning a transformer with low life cycle cost, results
from the fact that it runs cooler. Loss in the form of heat reduces the life
of a transformer by causing damage to the insulation over time. It can
also cause transformers to fail. Consequently, a transformer with lower
life cycle cost would be expected to have a longer life and lower failure
rate, as well as lower losses.
A transformer with lower losses reduces the amount of power generation

needed to accommodate the losses. This in turn reduces the emission of
greenhouse gases, i.e. carbon dioxide produced by fossil fuel generators.
DISADVANTAGES:
The drawback of this process is, as mentioned, the difficulty in predicting

the future load profile and electricity costs and tariffs with any
confidence. On the other hand, these optimization efforts depend on
material prices, particularly active materials, i.e. conductor and core
material. Dynamic optimization makes sense when there is the different
price volatility of different materials like aluminium and copper or high
and low loss magnetic steel.
For large transformers, above a few MVA , the cost of losses are so high
that transformers are custom built, tailored to the loss evaluation figures
specified in the request for quotation for a specific project.
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For distribution transformers, often bought in large batches, the process is

undertaken once every few years. This yields an optimum transformer design,
which is then retained for several years less so changed dramatically. In fact
the loss levels established in national standards reflect established practice of
preferred designs with respect to loss of evaluation values.
The result that can be drawn from this report is that the purchase of higher-cost
higher-efficiency unit instead of a lower cost, low efficiency unit will result in
significant savings over the life of the transformer. As for the environmental
benefits, the high efficiency copper wound transformer will contribute to
reducing greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the consumption of fossil fuel
necessary to accommodate excessive transformer losses.
Net Present Value
Present Value
If you understand Present Value, you can skip straight to Net Present Value.
So $1,000 now is the same as $1,100 next year (at 10% interest).
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We say the Present Value of $1,100 next year is $1,000
Because we could turn $1,000 into $1,100 in one year (if we could earn
10% interest).
And we have in fact just used the formula for Present Value:
PV = FV / (1+r)n
PV is Present Value
FV is Future Value
r is the interest rate (as a decimal, so 0.10, not 10%)
n is the number of years
DEFINITION of 'Net Present Value - NPV'

The difference between the present value of cash inflows and the present value
of cash outflows. NPV is used in capital budgeting to analyze the profitability
of an investment or project.
The following is the formula for calculating NPV:
where:
Ct = net cash inflow during the period
Co= initial investment
r = discount rate, and
t = number of time periods
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In addition to the formula, net present value can often be calculated using
tables, as well as spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel.
Explanation of Net Present Value
Example: Let us say you can get 10% interest on your money.
So $1,000 now could earn $1,000 x 10% = $100 in a year.
Your $1,000 now would become $1,100 by next year.
So $1,100 next year is the same as $1,000 now.
Determining the value of a project is challenging because there are different ways
to measure the value of future cash flows. Because of the time value of money, a
dollar earned in the future wont be worth as much as one earned today. The
discount rate in the NPV formula is a way to account for this. Companies have
different ways of identifying the discount rate, although a common method is
using the expected return of other investment choices with a similar level of risk.
For example, if a retail clothing business wants to purchase an existing store, it

would first estimate the future cash flows that store would generate, and then
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discount those cash flows into one lump-sum present value amount of, say
$565,000. If the owner of the store was willing to sell his business for less than
$565,000, the purchasing company would likely accept the offer as it presents a
positive NPV investment. Conversely, if the owner would not sell for less than
$565,000, the purchaser would not buy the store, as the investment would present a
negative NPV at that time and would, therefore, reduce the overall value of the
clothing company.
Use in decision making:
if It means Then
NPV > 0 the investment would the project may be accepted

add value to the firm
NPV < 0 the investment would the project may be rejected
subtract value from
the firm
NPV = 0 the investment would We should be indifferent in the
neither gain nor lose decision whether to accept or reject the
value for the firm project. This project adds no monetary
value. Decision should be based on
other criteria, e.g., strategic positioning
or other factors not explicitly included
in the calculation.
The discount rate:

The rate used to discount future cash flows to the present value is a key
variable of this process.
A firm's weighted average cost of capital (after tax) is often used, but many
people believe that it is appropriate to use higher discount rates to adjust for
risk, opportunity cost, or other factors. A variable discount rate with higher rates
applied to cash flows occurring further along the time span might be used to
reflect the yield curve premium for long-term debt.
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Pay-Back Period
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Payback period in capital budgeting refers to the period of time required to

recoup the funds expended in an investment, or to reach the break-even point.
For example, a $1000 investment which returned $500 per year would have a
two-year payback period. The time value of money is not taken into account.
Formula
The formula to calculate payback period of a project depends on whether the
cash flow per period from the project is even or uneven. In case they are even,
the formula to calculate payback period is:
Initial Investment
Payback Period =
Cash Inflow per Period
When cash inflows are uneven, we need to calculate the cumulative net cash
flow for each period and then use the following formula for payback period:
B
Payback Period = A +
C
In the above formula
A is the last period with a negative cumulative cash flow;

B is the absolute value of cumulative cash flow at the end of the period A;
C is the total cash flow during the period after A
Both of the above situations are applied in the following examples.
Decision Rule
Accept the project only if its payback period is LESS than the target
payback period.
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Examples
Example 1: Even Cash Flows
Company C is planning to undertake a project requiring initial investment of

$105 million. The project is expected to generate $25 million per year for 7
years. Calculate the payback period of the project.
Solution:
Payback Period = Initial Investment Annual Cash Flow = $105M $25M =

4.2 years
Example 2: Uneven Cash Flows
Company C is planning to undertake another project requiring initial investment

of $50 million and is expected to generate $10 million in Year 1, $13 million in
Year 2, $16 million in year 3, $19 million in Year 4 and $22 million in Year 5.
Calculate the payback value of the project.
Solution:
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Cumulative
Year Cash Flow Cash Flow
0 (50) (50)
1 10 (40)
2 13 (27)
3 16 (11)
4 19 8
5 22 30
Payback Period
= 3 + (|-$11M| $19M)
= 3 + ($11M $19M)
3 + 0.58
3.58 years
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of payback period are:
1. Payback period is very simple to calculate.

2. It can be a measure of risk inherent in a project. Since cash flows that occur
later in a project's life are considered more uncertain, payback period
provides an indication of how certain the project cash inflows are.
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3. For companies facing liquidity problems, it provides a good ranking

of projects that would return money early.
Disadvantages of payback period are:
1. Payback period does not take into account the time value of money
which is a serious drawback since it can lead to wrong decisions. A
variation of payback method that attempts to remove this drawback is
called discounted payback period method.
2. It does not take into account, the cash flows that occur after the
payback period.
NEW TECHNOLOGIES
With the advancement of technology, novelty and innovation finds free play. Older
technology is being replaced by compact and efficient designs, which have low
cost and profound technology with improved features and mechanisms.
For a transformer, three factors need further modification:
Losses
Size
Cost
New designs of transformers are required to meet the specifications of the

consumer keeping in view the place of its installation. Latest
technology introduced in transformer is known as slim transformer.
SLIM TRANSFORMER
Merger of dry type and oil immersed transformer, using silicon oil as an
insulation medium
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SLIM Transformer uses the combination of the technologies of both dry type
and oil immersed transformer, functions same and becomes smaller and
compact than other. The SLIM transformer uses proven technologies in an
innovative design combining Nomex (insulating paper) thermal insulating
technology with a class K dielectric fluid(Silicon oil cooling medium). The
result is a transformer that is smaller in size, lighter in weight than dry and oil
immersed transformer and capable to handle severe overloads.
HISTORY:
The concept of SLIM transformers enabled by the use of Nomex as solid insulation
is the result of a tight cooperation between 2 companies, CG Power Systems and
DuPont. The success story started in 2000 by an agreement to focus development
on high temperature fluid filled transformers primarily Targeted to the wind
segment. This cooperation is as much at the technical level to always remain on the
front end of innovation and maximizing the benefit brought by Nomex, as in the
marketing level to jointly position by association of strong brands, to inform end -
users and to convince of the value of this concept vs. more conventional
technology. By using a high temperature solid insulation, Nomex and a high
temperature fluid, silicone, it was possible to design/develop what will be
identified as SLIM. The advantages provided by SLIM transformers are primarily:

smaller size, lower weight at a given power rating
capable of handling severe overloads

more reliability, more flexibility
With time and a growing market adoption the following features could be added
as proven in the field:

reduced fire hazard
requiring less servicing
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Installed Number Of Units

6000
5000
NUMBE
R OF
UNITS 4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
TIME
GLOBALLY INSTALLED WIND POWER PLANTS
2009 Global Installed Wind Power Capacity by Region

(MW)
EMEA 25%
APEJ
49%
AMERICANS
26%
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FEATURES:

Compact
Smaller in size and lighter in weight than other types of
transformer but have same function.

Overloads
Slim transformer is capable of handling severe overloads.

Environment friendly
Slim transformer is environment friendly. It has smaller
environmental footprint.

Reliable
Slim transformer is safer and reliable than that of others.

Extended life
It requires less servicing with an extended lifetime.

Technology
It is based on tried and testing technology.
AFTER SALE SERVICES:

Repairs
Maintenance

Installation & Commissioning

Supply of spare parts

Monitoring & Diagnosis

Substation operation
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CONCLUSION
Transformer is by far the most efficient electrical device employed for transference
of energy, accounting for minimum power dissipation and heat losses. The material
components of transformers differ from one another, depending upon the
specifications and surroundings which will serve as an application platform for it.
Every transformer has distinguished features depending on the construction and the
insulating material, with different dielectric strength and cooling mechanisms.
Each transformer is subjected to a number of tests and critically analyzed to ensure
that the transformer is in compliance with the given requirements. Cost-effective
solution to energy transference leads to total capitalized cost, which include the
total losses and material cost as two decisive parameters while manufacturing a
transformer. Total ownership cost includes all the investment modules including
installation and maintenance, which along with payback period helps the consumer
to make a well informed decision and obtain maximum benefit.
49

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Testing of Transformers

Some related terms..................................................................................................................................11

Type on basis of design............................................................................................................................21

Transformer is an electrical device used for transference of energy by exploiting the

ferromagnetic properties of a conducting core. Electromagnetic induction allows

The property is exploited at power stations where voltage is stepped up resulting in

decrease in current, allowing maximum power transfer at minimum cost with

transformers. Modifications in transformers are introduced to meet the required

specifications of the consumer, incooperating minimum losses, maximum output and

small size. Latest version of transformer which is in market is known as slim

transformer. Total capitalization cost of a transformer which provides a rough estimate

significant parameters taken in to account in detail in this report.

accessibility of electricity is our main focus of interest. The question of paramount

resolved by transformer which serves as an efficient mode of energy transference.

economic analysis is a prudent step towards harvesting maximum benefit with

minimum losses and therefore taken in to account while manufacturing a product.

Future refinement critically controls losses, size and cost.

the heart of the alternating current system

Originally it was invented by Otto Blthy, Miksa Dri, Kroly Zipernowsky of

William Stanley's First Transformer built in 1885. Single phase AC power.

1876 - Pavel Yablochkov uses induction coils in his lighting system

1881 - Charles F. Brush of the Brush Electric Company in Cleveland, Ohio

1880-1882 - Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti (English born with an Italian parent)

1885 - George Westinghouse orders a Siemens alternator (AC generator) and a

1886 - William Stanley uses his transformers in the electrification of downtown

1889 - Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first

1880s - Today - Transformers are improved by increasing efficiency, reducing

Why we need transformer?

Main use of transformer is voltage manipulation

Core type transformer:

Shell type transformers:

The short-circuit strength of the transformer is increased through the use

Shell type transformers bear more mechanical and dielectric strength.

4. Efficient cooling system:

Efficient cooling system is a distinguished trait of shell type transformers.

5. Protection against leakage flux:

These transformers have a complex design.

Some related terms

This is useful for interlayer insulation of transformer winding; provides

The most difficult insulation problem in HT transformer occur at

refrigerants. Because Nomex products are not digestible, they are

Transformers can be broadly classified in to two categories, which differ

insulating medium, mode of construction and place of application.

Types on basis of Design

TYPES ON BASIS OF COOLING MEDIUM:

On the basis of cooling agent, two type of transformers are:

Dry Type Transformer.

Oil Immersed Transformer

DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER:

There are two cooling methods.

OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMER:

Oil Natural Air Natural

OIL NATURAL AIR FORCED:

Oil Forced Air Forced

Oil Forced Water Forced:

OILS USED IN OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMER:

TYPES ON BASIS OF DESIGNS:

PAD MOUNTED TRANSFORMER:

POLE MOUNTED TRANSFORMER:

Transformers with several secondaries are used in television and

Transformer is subjected to a number of tests to ensure that it is in accordance

Transformer winding resistance measurement.

Open Circuit test: