MoldandMycotoxinIssuesinDairyCattle:Effects,PreventionandTreatment

L.W.WhitlowandW.M.Hagler,Jr.

Lon_Whitlow@ncsu.edu,Box7621
NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,Raleigh,NC27695

Summary

Moldsarefilamentous(fuzzyordustyappearing)fungithatoccurcommonlyinfeedstuffs,including
roughagesandconcentrates.
Moldscaninfectdairycattlecausingadiseasereferredtoasmycosis.Amycosisismostlikelywhencows
maybeimmunesuppressedduringstressfulperiods.Amycosiscanoccurinvariouslocationssuchasthe
lungs,mammarygland,uterusorintestine.Anintestinalinfectionmayresultinhemorrhagicbowel.
Moldsmayalsoaffectcattlebyproducingpoisonscalledmycotoxinsthataffectanimalswhenthey
consumecontaminatedfeedsresultinginamycotoxicosis.
Moldsarepresentthroughouttheenvironmentandtherefore,mycotoxinscanbeformedoncropsinthe
field,duringharvest,orduringstorage,processing,orfeeding.
Moldsporesareinthesoilandinplantdebrislyingreadytoinfectthegrowingplantinthefield.
Moldgrowthandtheproductionofmycotoxinsareusuallyassociatedwithextremesinweatherconditions
leadingtoplantstressorhydrationoffeedstuffs,insectdamage,poorstoragepractices,lowfeedstuff
quality,andinadequatefeedingconditions.
Fungalfielddiseasesarecharacterizedbyyieldloss,qualityloss,andmycotoxincontamination.
Managementofcropproductioncanreduce,butnottotallyprevent,theoccurrenceandconcentrationsof
mycotoxins.
Excellentsilagemanagementcanreducetheincidenceofmycotoxins.Standardsilagemakingpractices
shouldbefollowedtoincludehybridselection,reductionoffieldandharveststress,rapidfillingofthesilo,
useofaneffectivesilageadditive,tightpacking,covering,rapidfeedoutanddiscardingthespoilage.
TheU.N.sFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)estimatedthatworldwide,about25%ofcropsare
affectedannuallywithmycotoxins.
Becauseofmycotoxindegradationintherumen,dairycattlearemoreresistanttomycotoxinsthanare
monogastrics,butbecauseofgreaterfeedconsumptionandproductionstresses,maybemoresusceptibleto
mycotoxinsthanarebeefcattle.
Becauseruminantsconsumeforages,byproductfeedsandwetfeeds,theyareexposedtoabroaderrangeof
mycotoxinsatconcentrationsthatareperhapshigherthanarefoundindrygrainmixtures.
Themycotoxinsofgreatestconcerntodairycattleinclude:ergotsproducedinsmallgrains,fescueand
othergrassaflatoxin,whichisgenerallyproducedby Aspergillus molddeoxynivalenol,zearalenone,T2
toxin,andfumonisin,whichareproducedbyFusarium moldsandochratoxin,PRtoxin,mycophenolic
acidandroquefortineCproducedbyPenicilliummolds.
Therearemanyothermycotoxins,someofwhichmayalsoaffectdairycattleorcooccurwiththemore
commonmycotoxinsinfeeds.
Contaminatedfeedsoftencontainmultiplemycotoxins,alteringtheexpectedeffectsonthecow.
Asinglelargedoseofamycotoxincancauseanacutetoxicityincattle,butitismorelikelythattheeffects
arechronic,causedbylowlevelconsumptionovertime.
1
 Mycotoxinsaffectdairycowsbyreducingfeedconsumption,reducingnutrientutilization,alteringrumen
fermentation,suppressingimmunity,alteringreproduction,irritatingtissuesandcausingcellulardeath.
Diagnosiscanbedifficultbecausemycotoxinsresiduesarenoteasilydetectedinthecow,symptomsare
oftennonspecificandmaybetheresultofaseriesofeventsoropportunisticdiseases.
Feedanalysesofmycotoxinsarehinderedbythedifficultyingatheringrepresentativefeedsamples.
Obtainingrepresentativefeedsamplesisdifficultbecausemoldgrowthisinconsistent,andmycotoxinsare
nonuniformlydistributedwithinafeedstuff.
Feedanalysesformycotoxinsisimprovingbutcontinuestobeslowandexpensiveandgenerallylimitedto
onlyafewmycotoxins.
Notallmycotoxinscanbedetectedinroutinetestingbycommerciallaboratories.
Moldsporecountsandmoldidentificationcanbehelpfultodiagnosis.
Dietmanagementmayreducetheimpactofmycotoxins.Dietsshouldbeformulatedandfedtoreduce
nutritionalstress(suchastransitionaldiets),andtosupplysufficientprotein,energy,fiber,antioxidant
nutrients,andbuffers.
Experimentally,mycotoxinsbindershavebeeneffectiveatpartiallyreducingtheeffectsofsome
mycotoxin,butatthistime,noproductsareapprovedbytheFDAforsuchclaims.

Mycotoxins

Mycotoxinsaretoxicsecondarymetabolitesproducedbyfungi(molds)thatcauseanundesirableeffect
(mycotoxicosis)whenanimalsareexposed.Exposureisusuallybyconsumptionofcontaminatedfeeds,butmay
alsobebycontactorinhalation.Biologicaleffectsincludeliverandkidneytoxicity,centralnervoussystemeffects
andestrogeniceffects,tonameafew.Onlysomemoldsproducemycotoxinsandtheyarereferredtoastoxigenic.
Thefungaltoxinsarechemicallydiverse representingavarietyofchemicalfamiliesandrangeinmolecular
weightfromabout200to500.Therearehundredsofmycotoxinsknown,butfewhavebeenextensivelyresearched
andevenfewerhavegoodmethodsofanalysisavailable.Theprimaryclassesofmycotoxinsareaflatoxins,
zearalenone,trichothecenes,fumonisins,ochratoxinAandtheergotalkaloids.

MoldsCanCauseDisease

Amold(fungal)infectionresultingindiseaseisreferredtoasamycosis.Fungalpathogensinclude: Aspergillus
fumigatus,Candidaalbicans,Candidavaginitis, certainspeciesofFusariumandothers. Aspergillusfumigatusis
knowntocausemycoticpneumonia,mastitisandabortionsandhasbeenrecentlyproposedasthepathogenicagent
associatedwithmycotichemorrhagicbowelsyndrome(HBS)indairycattle(Puntenneyetal.,2003).Itisthought
thatAspergillusfumigatusisafairlycommonmoldinbothhay(Shadmietal.,1974)andsilage(Coleetal.,1977).
Whilehealthycowswithanactiveimmunesystemaremoreresistanttomycoticinfections,dairycowsinearly
lactationareimmunesuppressedandHBSismorelikelyinfreshcows(Puntenneyetal.,2003).Itistheorizedthat
withamycosis,mycotoxinsproducedbytheinvadingfungicansuppressimmunitythereforeincreasingthe
infectivityofthefungus. A.fumigatus producesseveralmycotoxins,includinggliotoxinandtremorgensthatare
toxictocattle. A.fumigatuscontaminatedsilagewasfoundtocontainfumigaclavineAandCandseveral
fumitremorgens(Coleetal.,1977).Cattleconsumingthissilagedemonstratedsymptomsincludinggeneralized
deteriorationtypicalofproteindeficiency,malnutrition,diarrhea,irritability,abnormalbehaviorandoccasional
death.Thehaywasfedtogoatsandratsandresultedinretardedgrowthandhistopathologicalchangesinthelivers
andkidneys.Gliotoxin,animmunesuppressant,hasbeenfoundtobepresentinanimalsinfectedwith A.fumigatus
(Baueretal.,1989).Gliotoxinisalsoshowntobeproducedinmiceassociatedwith A.fumigatus (Eichneretal.,
1988).Gliotoxinproducedby A.flavushasimmunosuppressive,antibacterialandapoptoticeffects.Gliotoxinis
showntoaffectrumenfermentation,reducingdigestibilityandVFAproduction invitro(Morgavietal.,2004).
Reevesetal.(2004)usinganinsectmodeldemonstratedthesignificanceofgliotoxininincreasingthevirulenceof
A.fumigatus.Niyoetal.(1988a,b)demonstratedthatinrabbits,T2toxindecreasedphagocytosisofA.fumigatus
conidiabyalveolarmacrophagesandincreasedseverityofexperimentalaspergillosis.Itispossiblethatgliotoxin,
T2toxin,orothermycotoxinssuppressimmunityandmaybeatriggertoincreasedinfectivitybythefungus
ultimatelyresultinginHBSorotherfungalinfections.Perhapsreducinganimalexposuretomycotoxinsandmoldy
feedsmaybeakeytocontrolofmycosessuchasHBS.Acommercialfeedadditivewithantifungalandadsorbent
propertiesappearstoreduceHBS(Puntenneyetal.,2003).
2
Moldgrowth,mycotoxinformation

Manyspeciesoffungiproducemycotoxinsinfeedstuffs.Moldscangrowandmycotoxinscanbeproducedpre
harvestorduringstorage,transport,processingorfeeding.Moldgrowthandmycotoxinproductionarerelatedto
plantstresscausedbyweatherextremes,toinsectdamage,toinadequatestoragepracticesandtofaultyfeeding
conditions.Ingeneral,environmentalconditionsheat,waterandinsectdamage causeplantstressand
predisposeplantsinthefieldtomycotoxincontamination.Computermodelstopredictmycotoxinconcentrationsin
cornpriortoharvestarebasedontemperature,rainfallandinsectpressure(Dowd,2004).

Becausefeedstuffscanbecontaminatedpreharvest,controlofadditionalmoldgrowthandmycotoxinformationis
dependentonstoragemanagement.Afterharvest,temperature,wateractivityandinsectactivityarethemajor
factorsinfluencingmycotoxincontaminationoffeedstuffs(Coulombe,1993).Moldsgrowoveratemperaturerange
of1040C(50104F),apHrangeof48andabove0.7aw(equilibriumrelativehumidityexpressedasadecimal
insteadofapercentage).

Moldscangrowonfeedscontainingmorethan1215%moisture.Inwetfeedssuchassilage,highermoisture
levelsallowmoldgrowthifoxygenisavailable.Becausemostmoldsareaerobic,highmoistureconcentrationscan
excludeairandhelppreventmoldgrowth.Theconditionsmostsuitableformoldgrowthandformycotoxin
formationarenotnecessarilythesame.Forexample,theFusariummoldsassociatedwithAlimentaryToxic
Aleukiahave beenreportedtogrowprolificallyat2530Cwithoutproducingmuchmycotoxin,butatnear
freezingtemperatures,theyproducelargequantitiesofmycotoxinswithminimalmoldgrowth(Joffe,1986).Field
applicationsoffungicidesmayreducemoldgrowth,thusreducingproductionofmycotoxins.However,thestress
orshockofthefungicidetothemoldorganismmayreducemoldgrowthandyetnotreducetheproductionof
mycotoxins(Boyaciogluetal.,1992GareisandCeynowa,1994Simpsonetal.,2001).

Aspergillus speciesnormallygrowatlowerwateractivitiesandathighertemperaturesthantheFusariumspecies.
Therefore,Aspergillusflavus andaflatoxinincornarefavoredbytheheatanddroughtstressassociatedwith
warmerclimates.Aflatoxincontaminationisenhancedbyinsectdamagebeforeandafterharvest.

Theindividual Penicilliumspecieshavevariablerequirementsfortemperatureandmoisture,butaremorelikelyto
growunderpostharvestconditions,incoolerclimates,inwetconditionsandatalowerpH. Penicilliummoldsare
amajorcontaminantofsilage,probablybecausetheyareacidtolerant.

TheFusariumspeciesareimportantplantpathogensthatcanproliferatepreharvest,butcontinuetogrowpost
harvest.Incorn,Fusariummoldsareassociatedwithearrotandstalkrot,andinsmallgrains,theyareassociated
withdiseasessuchasheadblight(scab).Inwheat,Fusariumisassociatedwithexcessivemoistureatfloweringand
earlygrainfillstages.Incorn,Fusariumgraminearum isreferredtoasaredearrotandismorecommonly
associatedwithacool,wetgrowingseasonandwithinsectdamage.Fusariumearrotsthatproducefumonisinsare
referredtoaspinkearrotsandvaryintheirenvironmentalrequirements.Theyaregenerallyassociatedwithdry
conditionsinmidseasonfollowedbywetweather(CAST,2003).

Mycotoxinoccurrence

Worldwide,approximately25%ofcropsareaffectedbymycotoxinsannually(CAST,1989),whichwould
extrapolatetobillionsofdollars(Trailetal.,1995).AnnualeconomiccostsofmycotoxinstotheU.S.agricultural
economyisestimatedtoaverage$1.4billion(CAST,2003).Economiclossesareduetoeffectsonlivestock
productivity,lossesincropsandthecostsandeffectsofregulatoryprogramsdirectedtowardmycotoxins.InNorth
CarolinafeedsamplessubmittedbyNorthCarolinafarmersoveranineyearperiodindicatethatmycotoxinsin
feedsincludingcornsilageandcorngrainoccurcommonlyatunsuitableconcentrations(Whitlowetal.,1998).

Mycotoxinoccurrenceandconcentrationsarevariablebyyear,whichisexpectedbecauseoftheannualvariationin
weatherconditionsandplantstressesknowntoaffectmycotoxinformation(Coulombe,1993).Itwasconcluded
thatmycotoxinsoccurfrequentlyinavarietyoffeedstuffsandareroutinelyfedtoanimals.Sometimes,mycotoxins
3
occuratconcentrationshighenoughtocausemajorlossesinhealthandperformanceofanimals.However,amore
likelyscenarioistofindmycotoxinsatlowerlevelsinteractingwithotherstressorstocausesubclinicallossesin
performance,increasesinincidenceofdiseaseandreducedreproductiveperformance.Totheanimalproducer,
thesesubclinicallossesareofgreatereconomicimportancethanlossesfromacuteeffects,butevenmoredifficult
todiagnose.

Mycotoxineffects

Althoughthepotentiallyharmfuleffectsoffeedingmoldygrainandfoodshasbeenknownformanyyears
(Matossian,1989),mycotoxicology,thestudyofmycotoxins,reallybeganin1960with theoutbreakofTurkeyX
diseaseintheU.K.ThisoutbreakwaslinkedtopeanutmealimportedfromBrazil(Sargeantetal.,1961).Because
ofanintensivemultidisciplinaryresearcheffort,abluefluorescenttoxinwasisolatedandmyceliaofA.flavus were
observed.A.flavus wassoonshowntoproducethesametoxiccompound(s)foundinthetoxicpeanutmeal.The
toxinwascharacterizedchemicallyandbiologicallyandwasgiventhetrivialnameaflatoxin.Aflatoxinwasshown
tobeverytoxicandcarcinogenicinsomeofthetestanimalspeciesused,anditresultedinatoxicmetabolitein
milkofdairycows(AllcroftandCarnaghan,19621963).Thediscoveryofaflatoxinandelucidationofsomeofits
effectsledtoresearchonotherlivestockhealthandproductionproblemslinkedwithmoldyfeedstuffsandtothe
discoveryofadditionalmycotoxins.

Mycotoxins,inlargedoses,canbetheprimaryagentcausingacutehealthorproductionproblemsinadairyherd.
Butmorelikely,mycotoxinsareafactorcontributingtochronicproblemsincludingahigherincidenceofdisease,
poorreproductiveperformance,orsuboptimalmilkproduction.Ruminaldegradationofmycotoxinshelpsto
protectthecowagainstacutetoxicity,butmaycontributetochronicproblems,associatedwithlongterm
consumptionoflowlevelsofmycotoxins.Ruminaldegradationofmycotoxinsmayhavehelpedmaskmycotoxin
effectsindairycowswhichwererecognizedinrecentyearsasproductionstresseshaveincreasedandasthe
industryhaspaidmoreattentiontomanagementdetails.

Mycotoxinsexerttheireffectsthroughseveralmeans:
1)reducedintakeorfeedrefusal
2)reducednutrientabsorptionandimpairedmetabolism
3)alteredendocrineandexocrinesystems
4)suppressedimmunefunction
5)alteredmicrobialgrowth.

Recognitionoftheimpactofmycotoxinsonanimalproductionhasbeenlimitedbythedifficultyofdiagnosis.The
progressionanddiversityofsymptomsareconfusing,makingdiagnosisdifficult(Hesseltine,1986Schiefer,1990).
Thedifficultyofdiagnosisisincreasedduetolimitedresearch,occurrenceofmultiplemycotoxins,nonuniform
distribution,interactionswithotherfactors,andproblemsofsamplingandanalysis.Becauseofthedifficultyof
diagnosis,thedeterminationofamycotoxinproblembecomesaprocessofeliminationandassociation.Certain
basicscanbehelpful(Schiefer,1990):

1)Mycotoxinsshouldbeconsideredasapossibleprimaryfactorresultinginproductionlossesandincreased
incidenceofdisease.
2)Documentedsymptomsinruminantsorotherspeciescanbeusedasageneralguidetosymptomsobservedinthe
field.
3)Systemiceffectsaswellasspecificdamagetotargettissuescanbeusedasaguidetopossiblecauses.
4)Postmortemexaminationsmayindicatenomorethangutirritation,edema,orgeneralizedtissueinflammation.
5)Becauseoftheimmunesuppressingeffectsofmycotoxins,increasedincidenceofdiseaseoratypicaldiseases
maybeobserved.
6)Responsestoaddeddietaryadsorbentsordilutionofthecontaminatedfeedmayhelpindiagnosis.
7)Feedanalysesshouldbeperformed,butaccuratesamplingisamajorproblem

Symptomsareoftennonspecificandmaybewideranging.Symptomsresultfromaprogressionofeffects,orof
opportunisticdiseases,makingadiagnosisdifficultorimpossiblebecauseofthecomplexclinicalresultswitha
4
widediversityofsymptoms.Symptomsvarydependingonthemycotoxinsinvolvedandtheirinteractionswith
otherstressfactors andanimalsmayexhibitfewormanyofavarietyofsymptoms.Themorestressedcows,such
asfreshcows,aremostaffectedperhapsbecausetheirimmunesystemsarealreadysuppressed.Symptomsmay
include:reducedproductionreducedfeedconsumptionintermittentdiarrhea(sometimeswithbloodyordark
manure)reducedfeedintakeunthriftinessroughhaircoatandreducedreproductiveperformanceincluding
irregularestrouscycles,embryonicmortalities,pregnantcowsshowingestrus,anddecreased conceptionrates.
Theregenerallyisanincreaseinincidenceofdiseasesuchasdisplacedabomasum,ketosis,retainedplacenta,
metritis,mastitis,andfattylivers.Cowsdonotrespondwelltoveterinarytherapy.

TheFDAregulatorycontrolprogramformycotoxinsisdiscussedbyWoodandTrucksess(1999).

Safelevelsofmycotoxins

Someofthesamefactorsthatmakediagnosisdifficultalsocontributetothedifficultyofestablishinglevelsof
safety.Theseincludelackofresearch,sensitivitydifferencesbyanimalspecies,imprecisioninsamplingand
analysis,thelargenumberofpotentialmycotoxinsandinteractionswithstressfactorsorothermycotoxins
(Hamilton,1984SchaefferandHamilton,1991).

Amycotoxinprovidedbyanaturallycontaminatedfeedappearsmoretoxicthanthesamelevelofapure
mycotoxinsupplementedintoacleandiet.Aflatoxinproducedfromculturewasmoretoxictodairycattlethanpure
aflatoxinaddedtodiets(Applebaumetal.,1982).Inswine,Fosteretal.(1986)demonstratedthatadietcontaining
pureaddeddeoxynivalenol(DON)waslesstoxicthandietswithsimilarconcentrationsofDONsuppliedfrom
naturallycontaminatedfeeds.SmithandMacDonald(1991)havesuggestedthatfusaricacid,producedbymany
speciesofFusarium,occursalongwithDONtoproducemoreseveresymptoms.LillehojandCeigler(1975)gave
anexamplewherepenicillicacidandcitrininwereinnocuousinlaboratoryanimalswhenadministeredalonebut
were100%lethalwhengivenincombination.Thesestudiesstronglysuggestthepresenceofotherunidentified
mycotoxinsinnaturallycontaminatedfeedsandthatmycotoxininteractionsareimportant.Itiswelldocumented
thatseveralmycotoxinsmaybefoundinthesamefeed(Hagleretal.,1984).Abbasetal.(1989)demonstrated
FusariumspeciesisolatedfromMinnesotacornproducedmultiplemycotoxins.Also,becauseanimalsarefeda
blendoffeedstuffsandbecausemoldsproduceanarrayofmycotoxins,manymycotoxininteractionsarepossible.
SpeijersandSpeijers(2004)havediscussedthecombinedtoxicityofmycotoxinsand,therefore,suggestdaily
tolerableintakelimitsforgroupsofmycotoxins.InteractionsofmultiplemycotoxinsarediscussedintheCAST
(2003)report.

Mycotoxininteractionswithotherfactorsmakeitdifficulttodeterminesafelevelsofindividualmycotoxins.
Mycotoxineffectsareaffectedbyfactorssuchasanimalspecies,gender,age,durationofexposureandstressesof
theenvironmentandproduction.Animalsunderenvironmentalorproductionstressmayshowthemore
pronouncedsymptoms.Withfescuetoxicity,morepronouncedsymptomsareexpressedduringheatstress(Bacon,
1995).Fumonisinat100partspermillionhasbeenshowntoreducemilkproductionindairycattle(Diazetal.,
2000)andinaseparatestudydidnotaffectaveragedailygaininbeefcattlefed148ppm(Osweileretal.,1993).
Whilenotadirectcomparison,thisdifferenceinresponsemaysuggestadifferenceinstresslevelsofearlylactation
dairycattlecomparedwithgrowingbeefcattle.

Jonesetal.(1982)demonstratedthatproductivitylossesincommercialbroileroperationscanoccurwhenaflatoxin
concentrationswerebelowthoselevelsofconcernestablishedbycontrolledresearchinlaboratorysituations.This
suggeststhatconditionsincommercialoperationsaredifferentthanlaboratoryconditionsandthatthetoxicityof
mycotoxinsmaybeinfluencedbyinteractionswiththoseconditions.Theknowndietaryfactorsthatinteractwith
mycotoxinsincludenutrientssuchasfat,protein,fiber,vitaminsandminerals(Brucatoetal.,1986Galvanoetal.,
2001Smithetal.,1971).Dietaryingredientssuchasclaypelletbindersadsorbsomemycotoxins,reducing
exposureoftheanimal.Thus,manyfactorsandinteractionsmakeitdifficulttorelatefieldobservationstothose
fromcontrolledresearch.

5
Becauseofpartialdegradationintherumen,mycotoxinsaregenerallylesstoxictoruminantsthantomostother
animals.However,mostmycotoxinsarenotcompletelydegraded,andsomeofthedegradationproductsremain
toxic(Kiesslingetal.,1984).Extentofruminaldegradationofmycotoxinsappearstobevariableandmaybe
reducedinfeedingsituationswhereruminalturnoverrateishigh orwhenrumenmicrobialpopulationisreduced.
Ruminaldegradationofmycotoxinsappearstobemoredependentonprotozoalthanbacterialactivity(Kiesslinget
al.,1984HusseinandBrasel,2001).EffectsofmycotoxinsinruminantsarereviewedbyJouany andDiaz(2005).

Conjugatedmycotoxinsinwhichamycotoxinisboundtoanothersubstance,suchassugars,maybemasked
duringlaboratoryanalysisandyettoxictoanimals.Bothzearalenone(Gareisetal.,1990)anddeoxynivalenol
(Berthilleretal., 2005)areknowntooccurinmaskedforms.Therefore,mycotoxicosescasesmayhaveoccurred
insituationswheremaskedmycotoxinsresultedinonlylowconcentrationsofmycotoxinsdetectedinthe
laboratory,yethigherlevelsexistedinthefeed.

ToxicityofIndividualMycotoxins

Aflatoxin

Aflatoxinsareextremelytoxic,mutagenic,andcarcinogeniccompoundsproducedby Aspergillusflavus and A.

parasiticus.AflatoxinB1isexcretedinmilkintheformofaflatoxinM1.TheFDAlimitsaflatoxin tonomore
than20ppbinlactatingdairyfeedsandto0.5ppbinmilk.Athumbruleisthatmilkaflatoxinconcentrationsequal
about1.7%(rangefrom0.8to2.0%)oftheaflatoxinconcentrationinthetotalrationdrymatter.Cowsconsuming
dietscontaining30ppbaflatoxincanproducemilkcontainingaflatoxinresiduesabovetheFDAactionlevelof0.5
ppb.Aflatoxinappearsinthemilkrapidlyandclearswithinthreetofourdays(Diazetal.,2004andFrobishetal.,
1986).

Symptomsofacuteaflatoxicosisinmammalsinclude:inappetance,lethargy,ataxia,roughhaircoat,andpale,
enlargedfattylivers.Symptomsofchronicaflatoxinexposureincludereducedfeedefficiencyandmilkproduction,
jaundice,anddecreasedappetite.Aflatoxinlowersresistancetodiseasesandinterfereswithvaccineinduced
immunity(DiekmanandGreen,1992).Inbeefcattle,Garrettetal.(1968)showedaneffectonweightgainand
intakewithdietscontaining700ppbaflatoxin,butifincreasesinliverweightsareusedasthecriteriafortoxicity,
100ppbwouldbeconsideredtoxictobeefcattle.Productionandhealthofdairyherdsmaybeaffectedatdietary
aflatoxinlevelsabove100ppb,whichisconsiderablyhigherthantheamountthatproducesillegalmilkresidues
(PattersonandAnderson1982,andMasrietal.,1969).Guthrie(1979)showedwhenlactatingdairycattleinafield
situationwereconsuming120ppbaflatoxin,reproductiveefficiencydeclinedandwhencowswerechangedtoan
aflatoxinfreediet,milkproductionincreasedover25%.Applebaumetal.(1982)showedmilkproductionwas
reducedincowsconsumingimpureaflatoxinproducedbyculture,butproductionwasnotsignificantlyaffectedby
equalamountsofpureaflatoxin.

Aflatoxinismoreoftenfoundincorn,peanutsandcottonseedgrowninwarmandhumidclimates.Aflatoxincanbe
foundinmoretemperateareas,aswasseeninthedroughtyearof1988whenaflatoxinwasseenin5%ofcorn
grainintheMidwesternU.S.(Russelletal.,1991).TheUSGeneralAccountingOfficehasconcludedthatindustry,
federalandstateprogramsareeffectiveindetectingandcontrollingaflatoxinandthatitisdoubtfulthatadditional
programsorlimitswouldreducetheriskofaflatoxininthefoodsupply.Aflatoxinregulationsworldwidehave
beenreviewedbyVanEgmondandJonker(2005).

Deoxynivalenol(DON)orVomitoxin

DeoxynivalenolisaFusariumproducedmycotoxin,commonlydetectedinfeed.Itissometimescalledvomitoxin
becauseitwasassociatedwithvomitinginswine.SurveyshaveshownDONtobeassociatedwithswinedisorders
including:feedrefusals,diarrhea,emesis,reproductivefailure,anddeaths.TheimpactofDONondairycattleis
notestablished,butclinicaldatashowanassociationbetweenDONandpoorperformanceindairyherds(Whitlow
etal.,1994).DairycattleconsumingdietscontaminatedprimarilywithDON(2.5ppm)haverespondedfavorably
(1.5kgmilk,P<.05)tothedietaryinclusionofamycotoxinbinder,providingcircumstantialevidencethatDON
mayreducemilkproduction(Diazetal.,2001).Fieldreportshelpsubstantiatethisassociation(Gotlieb,1997and
6
Seglar,1997).ResultsfromaCanadianstudyusing6firstlactationcowspertreatmentduringmidlactation
(average19.5kgmilk)showedthatcowsconsumingDONcontaminateddiets(2.6to6.5ppm)tended(P<0.16)to
producelessmilk(13%or1.4kg)thandidcowsconsumingcleanfeed(Charmleyetal.,1993).DONhadnoeffect
onmilkproductionin8cowsfedovera21dayperiod(Ingalls,1996).DONhasbeenassociatedwithaltered
rumenfermentation(Seelingetal.,2006)andreducedflowofutilizableproteintotheduodenum(Danickeetal.,
2005).Beefcattleandsheephavetoleratedupto21ppmofdietaryDONwithoutobviouseffects(DiCostanzoet
al.,1995).

Likeothermycotoxins,pureDONaddedtodiets,doesnothaveasmuchtoxicityasdoesDONsuppliedfrom
naturallycontaminatedfeeds,perhapsduetothepresenceofmultiplemycotoxinsinnaturallycontaminatedfeeds.
Thesemycotoxinscaninteracttoproducesymptomsthataredifferentormoreseverethanexpected.Forexample,
itisnowknownthatfusaricacidinteractswithDONtocausethevomitingeffects,whichearlierwasattributedto
DONaloneandresultedinuseofthetrivialnameofvomitoxinforDON(SmithandMacDonald,1991).Itis
believedthatDONservesasamarker,indicatingthatfeedwasexposedtoasituationconduciveformoldgrowth
andpossibleformationofseveralmycotoxins.

TheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationadvisorylevelfordeoxynivalenolinwheatandwheatderivedproducts
destinedfordairycattledietsisfornomorethan5ppmDONandtobeusedatlevelsbelow40%.

T2Toxin(T2)

T2toxinisaverypotentFusariumproducedmycotoxinthatoccursinalowproportionoffeedsamples(<10%).
Russelletal.(1991)found13%ofMidwesterncorngraincontaminatedwithT2toxininasurveyofthe1988
droughtdamagedcrop.EffectsofT2arelesswellestablishedincattlethaninlaboratoryanimals.Indairycattle,
T2hasbeenassociatedwithgastroenteritis,intestinalhemorrhages(Petrieetal.,1977Mirochaetal.,1976)and
death(Hsuetal.,1972andKosurietal.,1970).DietaryT2toxinat640ppbfor20days resultedinbloodyfeces,
enteritis,abomasalandruminalulcers,anddeath(Pieretal.,1980).Weaveretal.(1980)showedthatT2was
associatedwithfeedrefusalandgastrointestinallesionsinacow,butdidnotshowahemorrhagicsyndrome.Kegl
andVanyi(1991)observedbloodydiarrhea,lowfeedconsumption,decreasedmilkproduction,andabsenceof
estrouscyclesincowsexposedtoT2.Serumimmunoglobulinsandcomplementproteinswereloweredincalves
receivingT2toxin(Mannetal.,1983). Gentryetal.(1984)demonstratedareductioninwhitebloodcelland
neutrophilcountsincalves.McLaughlinetal.(1977)demonstratedthatprimarybasisofT2reducedimmunityis
reducedproteinsynthesis.GuidelinesforT2toxinarenotestablished,butavoidinglevelsabove100ppbmaybe
reasonable.Diacetoxyscirpenol,HT2andneosolaniolmayoccuralongwithT2toxinandcausesimilar
symptoms.

Zearalenone(ZEA)

ZearalenoneisaFusarium producedmycotoxinthathasachemicalstructuresimilartoestrogenandcanproduce
anestrogenicresponseinanimals.Zearalenoneisassociatedwithearandstalkrotsincornandwithscabinwheat.
ControlledstudieswithZEAathighlevelshavefailedtoreproducethedegreeoftoxicitythathasbeen associated
withZEAcontaminatedfeedsinfieldobservations.Acontrolledstudywithnonlactatingcowsfedupto500mg
ofZEA(calculateddietaryconcentrationsofabout25ppmZEA)showednoobviouseffectsexceptthatcorpora
luteaweresmallerintreatedcows(Weaveretal.,1986b).Inasimilarstudywithheifersreceiving250mgofZEA
bygelatincapsule(calculateddietaryconcentrationsofabout25ppmZEA),conceptionratewasdepressedabout
25%otherwise,noobviouseffectswerenoted(Weaveretal.,1986a).SeveralcasereportshaverelatedZEAto
estrogenicresponsesinruminantsincludingabortions(KellelaandEttala,1984Khamisetal.,1986Mirochaetal.,
1968Mirochaetal.,1974andRoineetal.,1971).Symptomshaveincluded vaginitis,vaginalsecretions,poor
reproductiveperformance,andmammaryglandenlargementofvirginheifers.Inafieldstudy,(Coppocketal.,
1990)dietswithabout660ppbZEAand440ppbDONresultedinpoorconsumption,depressedmilkproduction,
diarrhea,increasedreproductivetractinfections,andtotalreproductivefailure.NewZealandworkers(Towerset
al.,1995)havemeasuredbloodZEAandmetabolites("zearalenone")toestimateZEAintake.Dairyherdswithlow
fertilityhadhigherlevelsofblood"zearalenone".Individualcowswithinherdsexaminedbypalpationand
7
determinedtobecyclinghadlowerblood"zearalenone"levelsthandidcowsthatwerenotcycling.Inthisstudy,
reproductiveproblemsindairycattlewereassociatedwithdietaryZEAconcentrationsofabout400ppb.

Fumonisin(FB)

FumonisinB1producedbyF.verticillioides,wasfirstisolatedin1988.Itcausesleukoencephalomalaciainhorses,
pulmonaryedemainswine,andhepatotoxicityinrats.Itiscarcinogenicinratsandmiceandisthoughttobea
promoterofesophagealcancerinhumans(Rheederetal.,1992).Fumonisinsarestructurallysimilartosphingosine,
acomponentofsphingolipids,whichareinhighconcentrationsincertainnervetissuessuchasmyelin.Fumonisin
toxicityresultsfromblockageofsphingolipidbiosynthesisandthusdegenerationoftissuesrichinsphingolipids.

WhileFB1ismuchlesspotentinruminantsthaninhogs,ithasnowbeenshowntoxictosheep,goats,beefcattle,
anddairycattle.Osweileretal.(1993)fed18youngsteerseither15,31,or148ppmoffumonisininashortterm
study(31days).Withthehighestfeedinglevel,thereweremildliverlesionsfoundintwoofsixcalves,andthe
grouphadlymphocyteblastogenesisandelevatedenzymesindicativeofliverdamage.Dairycattle(Holsteinsand
Jerseys)feddietscontaining100ppmfumonisinforapproximately7dayspriortofresheningandfor70days
thereafterdemonstratedlowermilkproduction(6kg/cow/day),explainedprimarilybyreducedfeedconsumption
(Diazetal.,2000).Increasesinserumenzymeconcentrationssuggestedmildliverdisease.Becauseofgreater
productionstress,dairycattlemaybemoresensitivetofumonisinthanarebeefcattle.

Fumonisincarryoverfromfeedtomilkisthoughttobenegligible(Scottetal.,1994).AUSDA,APHISsurveyof
1995cornfromMissouri,Iowa,andIllinoisfoundthat6.9%containedmorethan5ppmfumonisinB1.Fumonisin
wasprevalentinMidwesterncornfromthewet1993seasonaswell.Cornscreeningscontainabout10timesthe
fumonisincontentoftheoriginalcorn.

U.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationguidanceforindustryonfumonisinlevelsinhumanfoodsandanimalfeeds
recommendsthatcornusedfordairypurposesshouldcontainnomorethan30ppmoftotalfumonisinsandlimited
to50%ofthediet.

Ergotalkaloids,includingfescuetoxicity

Oneoftheearliestrecognizedmycotoxicosesisergotismcausedbyagroupofergotalkaloids.Theyareproduced
byseveral speciesofClaviceps,whichinfecttheplantandproducetoxinsinfungalbodiescalledsclerotiaor
ergots,whicharesmallblackcoloredbodiessimilarinsizetothegrain.Ergotismprimarilycausesagangrenousor
nervousconditioninanimals.Symptomsaredirectlyrelatedtodietaryconcentrationsandincludereducedweight
gains,lameness,lowermilkproduction,agalactiaandimmunesuppression(Robbinsetal.,1986).Sclerotia
concentrationsabove0.3%arerelatedtoreproductivedisorders.

Fescueinfectedwith NeotyphodiumorEpichloe maycontaintoxicalkaloidsassociatedwithfescuetoxicity

(CAST,2003).Symptomsincludelowerweightgains,roughhaircoat,increasedbodytemperature,agalactia,
reducedconception,andgangrenousnecrosisoftheextremitiessuchasthefeet,tailandears.Fescueisamajor
pasturegrassintheU.S.,growingwidelythroughoutthelowerMidwestandupperSouth.Morethan20%ofUS
beefcattlegrazefescueandmorethanhalfofthefescueisendophyteinfected,makingthisaseriousproblemfor
cattleproducers.Endophytefreevarietiesareavailable,buttheyarenotashardyasinfectedvarieties.Fescue
infectedwithanonpathogenicendophyteappearstobemorefieldhardyandlesstoxic.

OchratoxinA

OchratoxinA (OTA)isproducedbyspeciesofPenicilliumand Aspergillus andisacausativeagentofkidney

diseaseinpigsthathasbeenreferredtoasmycotoxinporcinenephropathy(Krogh,1979).Theprimarytoxiceffect
isinhibitionofproteinsynthesis(Creppyetal.,1984).Incattle,OTAisrapidlydegradedintherumenandthus
thoughttobeoflittleconsequenceunlessconsumedbyyoungpreruminantcalves(Sreemannarayanaetal.,1988).
Withhighgraindiets,lessofthedietaryochratoxinmaybedegradedintherumenandthusbemoretoxicinthose
situations(Hohler,etal.,1999).Moldyalfalfahaycontaining A.ochraceuswasimplicatedasproducingOTA
8
associatedwithabortionsincattle(Stilletal.,1971).OTAinmoldyforagehasalsobeenimplicatedincattle
deaths(VoughandGlick,1993).

PRtoxin

PRtoxinisoneoftheseveralmycotoxinsproducedbyPenicilliummolds.PenicilliumgrowsatalowpHandin
cooldampconditionsandhasbeenfoundtobeamajorcontaminantofsilage. PRtoxin,producedby P.
roquefortii,hasbeensuggestedasthecausativeagentassociatedwithmoldycornsilageproblems(Seglar1997and
Sumarahetal.,2005).SurveysofgrassandcornsilageinEuropehavefoundanoccurrenceofP.roquefortii inup
to40%ofsamples(Auerbach,2003)andassociatedwithcattledisorders(Boysenetal.,2000).PRtoxin,caused
acutetoxicityinmice,ratsandcatsbyincreasingcapillarypermeabilityresultingindirectdamagetothelungs,
heart,liverandkidneys(Chenetal.,1982)andwasthesuspectedvectorinacasestudywithsymptomsofabortion
andretainedplacenta(Stilletal.,1972).OtherPenicilliumproducedmycotoxinsinsilages,suchasroquefortineC,
andmycophenolicacidhavebeenassociatedwith herdhealthproblems(Auerbach,1998ScudamoreandLivesay,
1998,andSumarahetal.,2005).

Patulin

Patulin isproducedbyPenicillium,Aspergillus and Byssochlamys(Duttonetal.,1984HackingandRosser,1981).

Patulinismostlikelytooccurinmoldyfruitssuchasapples,butmayalsobefoundingrains,especiallywetgrains,
andsilage.Patulinisantibioticagainstgrampositivebacteria.Addedtorumencontinuousculturesat0,20,40or
80mgperday,patulinreducedVFAproduction,fiberdigestionandbacterialyield(Tapiaetal.,2005).The
potentialforpatulintoxicityoflivestockisthoughttobelow,buttherearereportedcasestudiesoftoxicity
(SabaterVilaretal.,2004).

Citrinin

Citrinin cancooccurwithOTA,isproduced byboth Penicillium and Aspergillus andlikeOTA,citrinintargetsthe

kidney(Kitchenetal.,1977).Thetoxicityofcitrininwasreviewed,indicatingthatitisaparasympathomimetic
agent,causesnecrosisoftubularepithelialcellsinthekidney,and insomecases,hepatotoxicity(Hanikaand
Carlton,1994).

ForageMycotoxins

Manyothermycotoxinsmayaffectruminantsbutthereislessinformationaboutthemortheyareofless
consequence.Thereismuchlessinformationavailableaboutmycotoxinsinforages.Thearrayofmycotoxins
foundinforagesmaybedifferentthanthosefoundingrains,andareofmajorimportanceinmycotoxicosesof
ruminants.Mycotoxinsinforagesandassociatedmycotoxicosesincattlehavebeenreviewed(Lacey,1991
Gotlieb,1997ScudamoreandLivesay,1998Seglar,1997Whitlow,1997).ElShanwanyetal.(2005)isolated43
fungalspeciesbelongingto17generafrom40silagesamplescollectedinEgypt.Themostprevalentgenerawere
Aspergillus and Penicilliumfollowedby Fusariumand Gibberella. Moldswerefoundin206of233grassorcorn
silagesamplescollectedinGermanyduring199798(Schneweisetal.,2000). Penicilliumwasthedominantgenus
followedby Mucoraceae,Monascus and Aspergillus. Mycophenolicacidwaspresentin32%ofsamples.In25
hayandsilagesamplescollectedinMinnesota,WisconsinandIllinois,therewasahighincidenceofcyclopiazonic
acid,DON,FB,PRtoxinandalternariaTAtoxin(Yuetal.,1999).ItappearsthatA.flavusdoesnotgrowwellin
hayorsilagehowever,aflatoxinconcentrationsofupto5ppmhavebeenreported(KalacandWoolford,1982).
ThemostimportantpastureinducedtoxicosisintheU.S.istallfescuetoxicosiscausedbyendophyticalkaloids
(Bacon,1995).Otherforagetoxicosisoffungaloriginincludeergotism,perennialryegrassstaggers,slobbers
syndrome,ahemorrhagicdiseaseassociatedwithdicoumarolproducedinfungalinfectedsweetcloverandsweet
vernalgrassandsyndromesofunthriftinessandimpairedreproductionassociatedwith Fusarium(Cheeke,1995).

MycotoxinTesting

9
Analyticaltechniquesformycotoxinsareimproving.Severalcommerciallaboratoriesareavailableandprovide
screensforanarrayofmycotoxins.Costofanalyseshasbeenaconstraintbutcanbeinsignificantcomparedwith
theeconomicconsequencesofproductionandhealthlossesrelatedtomycotoxincontamination.Newer
immunoassayshavereducedthecostofanalyses.

Collectionofrepresentativefeedsamplesisaproblem,becausemoldscanproducelargeamountsofmycotoxinsin
smallareas,makingthemycotoxinconcentrationshighlyvariablewithinthelotoffeed(Whittaker,2003).
Variabilityofmycotoxinsfromcoresamplesofhorizontalsilosconfirmsthatmycotoxinscanbe highlyvariable
throughoutthesilo.Becausemycotoxinscanforminthecollectedsample,samplesshouldbepreservedand
deliveredtothelabquickly.Samplescanbedried,frozenortreatedwithamoldinhibitorbeforeshipping.

Theaccuratedeterminationofmycotoxinconcentrationsinfeedstuffsdependsonanumberoffactors.First,a
statisticallyvalidsamplemustbedrawnfromthelot(Whittaker,2003).Becausemycotoxinsarenotevenly
distributedingrainsandotherfeedstuffs,mostoftheerrorinasingleanalysisisduetosampling asmuchas
90%oftheerrorisassociatedwiththetakingoftheinitialsample.Propercollectionandhandlingofrepresentative
feedsamplesisessential.Sincemoldsgrowinhotspots,mycotoxinsarenotuniformlydistributedwithinafeed,
makingitdifficulttoobtainarepresentativesample,especiallyfromwholeseed,coursefeedsorfeedsnot
adequatelymixed.Oncecollected,samplesshouldbehandledproperlytopreventfurthermoldgrowth.Wet
samplesmaybefrozenordriedbeforeshipment,andtransittimeshouldbeminimized.

Thecollectedsamplemustshouldbefinelygroundandsubsampledforanalysisthisstepisthesecondlargest
sourceoferrorinananalysis.Finally,thesubsampleisextracted,theextractpurifiedusingoneofseveral
techniques,andthenthemycotoxinsaremeasured.Toxindeterminationmaybebythinlayerchromatography
plates,highperformanceliquidchromatography,gasliquidchromatography,enzymelinkedimmunosorbent
assays,andspectrophotometerorbyothertechniques.

Moldsporecountsmaynotbeveryusefulbuttheirpresenceisagrossindicationofthepotentialfortoxicity.Mold
identificationcanbeusefultosuggestwhichmycotoxinsmaybepresent.Becausetestsforsomepotentially
importantmycotoxinssuchasPRtoxinarenotgenerallyavailable,itiscurrentlyrecommendedtoanalyzesilages
formoldsporecountandmoldidentificationtoprovidesomeinsighttopossibleproblems.

Blacklightingforbrightgreenishyellowfluorescence(BGYF)isoftenusedasascreeningtechniqueforaflatoxin
incorngrain,butitisveryinaccurate.Newerandbettermethodsshouldbeused.Asfarasweareaware,
blacklightingiscompletelyinappropriateforothermycotoxins.

Generally,laboratoriesprovideanalysisforonlyalimitednumberofmycotoxins,perhapsincludingaflatoxin,
ochratoxin,DON,ZEA,fumonisinandT2toxin.Minimumdetectionlevelsmaybelimitedbecausethepurposeof
thelaboratoryisoftendirectedatfindinghighlevelsthatcauseacutetoxicityandseriousanimaldiseaseratherthan
lowlevelsassociatedwithchroniceffectssuchasproductionlosses,impairedimmunityandsignificanteconomic
losses.Analyticaltechniquesformycotoxinsareimproving,costsaredecreasingandseveralcommercial
laboratoriesareavailablethatprovidescreensforanarrayofmycotoxins.TheFederalGrainInspectionService
(USDAGIPSA)providesalistontheinternetofapprovedmycotoxintestsforgrainsandprovidesexcellent
backgroundmaterialsforthefeedindustry(atwww.usda.gov/gipsa/pubs/mycobook.pdf).Laboratorymethodscan
befoundinOfficialmethodsofanalysisofAOACInternational(Horwitz,2000).Analyticalprotocolsfor
mycotoxinsarepublished (TrucksessandPohland,2000).

Standardsforacceptableconcentrationsofmycotoxinsshouldbeconservativelylowduetononuniform
distribution,uncertaintiesinsamplingandanalysis,thepotentialformultiplesourcesofmycotoxinsinthediet,and
interactingfactorsaffectingtoxicity(Hamilton,1984).

PreventionandTreatment

10
Preventionofmycotoxinformationisessentialsincetherearefewwaystocompletelyovercomeproblemsonce
mycotoxinsarepresent.Droughtandinsectdamagearemostimportantininstigatingmoldgrowthandmycotoxin
formationinthefield.Therefore,varietieswithresistancetofungaldiseaseortoinsectdamage(Bthybrids)have
fewerfieldproducedmycotoxins.Varietiesshouldbeadaptedtothegrowingarea.Irrigationcanreducemycotoxin
formationinthefield.Whenharvesting,avoidlodgedorfallenmaterial,becausecontactwithsoilcanincrease
mycotoxins.Mycotoxinsincreasewithdelayedharvest,andwithlateseasonrainandcoolperiods.Damagedgrains
haveincreasedmycotoxinlevels,thusfordrygrainstorage,harvestingequipmentshouldbemaintainedtoavoid
kerneldamage.Mycotoxinconcentrationsaregreatestinthefines,andinbrokenanddamagedkernels,thus
cleaningcangreatlyreducemycotoxinconcentrationsinthefeedstuff.

Afterharvest,grainsshouldnotbeallowedtoremainatmoisturelevelsgreaterthan15to18%.Whilethereislittle
moldgrowthingrainbelow15%moisture,dryingtolevelsbelow14%andpreferablyto<13%helptocompensate
fornonuniformmoistureconcentrationsthroughoutthegrainmass.Hightemperaturesincreasetheamountoffree
moisture(wateractivity)inthegrainwhichistheprimarycauseofmoldgrowthinstorage.Storageshouldbe
sufficienttoeliminatemoisturemigration,moisturecondensationorleaks.Grainstoredformorethantwoweeks
shouldbekeptaeratedandcool.Aerationiscriticalbecauseasmoldsstarttogrowinisolatedspots,themoisture
producedbymetabolismissufficienttostimulatespreadofthemoldgrowth.Aerationreducesmoisturemigration
andnonuniformmoistureconcentrations.Commodityshedsshouldprotectfeedstuffsfromrainorotherwater
sources.Theyshouldbeconstructedwithavaporbarrierinthefloortoreducemoisture.Ifwetfeedsarestoredin
commodityshedsneardryfeeds,amethodmustbedevisedtopreventmoisturecontaminationofthedryfeed.
Bins,silosandotherstoragefacilitiesshouldbecleanedtoeliminatesourceofinoculation.Checkstoredfeedat
intervalstodetermineifheatingandmoldingareoccurring.Organicacidscanbeusedaspreservativesforfeedstoo
highinmoistureforproperstorage.

Itcanbedifficulttomakehayatmoisturelevelslowenoughtopreventmoldgrowth.Moldwillgrowin hayat
moisturelevelsabove12to15%.Hayharvestedathighmoistureswilltendtoequilibratetomoisturecontentsof
12to14%,butrateofmoisturelossisdependentonmoistureatharvest,airmovement,humidity,airtemperature,
baledensityandthestoragefacility.Rateofdrydownisenhancedbyventilation,creationofairspacesbetween
bales,reducedsizeofstacks,alternateddirectionofstackingandavoidanceofotherwetproductsinthesamearea.
Asmoldsandothermicroorganismsgrow,theyproduceheatandcausedeterioration.Heatingcanbegreatenough
tocausespontaneouscombustionandhayfires.

Preventionofmycotoxinsinsilageincludesfollowingacceptedsilagemakingpracticesaimedatpreventing
deteriorationprimarilybyquicklyreducingpHandeliminatingtheoxygen.Acceptedsilagemakingpractices
emphasize harvestingatthepropermoisturecontentchoppinguniformlyattheproperlength,fillingthesilo
rapidlypackingthesilagesufficientlytoexcludeairusinganeffectivefermentationaideandcovering
completelyandwell.Infiltrationofairafterensilingcanallowgrowthofacidtolerantmicroorganisms,anincrease
inthepHandthenmoldgrowth.Penicilliummoldsareacidtolerantandmaygrowifanyairispresent.Microbial
orotheradditivesthatreducepHrapidlycanreducemoldgrowthandmycotoxinformation.Ammonia,propionic
acid,sorbicacidandmicrobialorenzymaticsilageadditivesareshowntobeatleastpartiallyeffectiveatinhibiting
moldgrowth.AddedammoniamaypreventsilagefromreachingalowpH,butitcan reducemoldgrowththrough
directinhibition.Organicacidsprovidesomeoftheacidityneededforpreservationwithoutsolerelianceon
microbialproducedacids.Organicacidsmaybeusedtotreattheentiresilagemass,ortoselectivelytreattheouter
layersofthesilo.Organicacidsaresometimesusedduringfeedouttotreatthesilofeedingfaceand/ortheTMRin
anefforttoreducedeteriorationofthefeedingfaceandtoreduceheatinginthefeedbunk.Silosizeshouldbe
matchedtoherdsizeto insuredailyremovalofsilageataratefasterthandeterioration.Inwarmweather,itisbest
toremoveafootofsilagedailyfromthefeedingface.Thefeedingfaceofsilosshouldbecleanlycutanddisturbed
aslittleaspossibletopreventaerationintothesilagemass.Silage(orotherwetfeeds)shouldbefedimmediately
afterremovalfromstorage.Spoilageshouldnotbefedandfeedbunksshouldbecleanedregularly.

Aswithsilage,highmoisturegrainsorbyproductfeedsmustbestoredatpropermoisturecontenttoexcludeairand
storedinawellmaintainedandmanagedstructure.Wetfeedsmustbehandledinquantitieswhichallowthemto
befedoutwithin7to10days.Organicacidsareveryhelpfulinpreventingmoldinwetcommodityfeedsandcan
extendstoragelife.Discardanyspoilage.

11
Obviouslymoldyfeedshouldbeavoided.Spoilageordeterioratedsilagecanreducefeedconsumption,fiber
digestibilityandproduction.Ifunacceptablyhighlevelsofmycotoxinsoccur,dilutionorremovalofthe
contaminatedfeedispreferablehowever,itisoftenimpossibletocompletelyreplacesomefeedsintheration,
particularlytheforageingredients.Cleaningorammoniationofgrainscanreducemycotoxinconcentrations,but
thereisnopracticalmethodtodetoxifyaffectedforages.Chemical,physical,andbiologicalmethodsarereviewed
alongwithothermethodsformanagementanddetoxificationofmycotoxins(LopezGarciaandPark,1998Sinha,
1998).

ManagementstrategiestoreducemycotoxinsinanimalfeedshavebeenreviewedbyTrenholmetal.(1988).
Dietarystrategiestocounteracttheeffectsofmycotoxinshavebeenreviewed(Galvanoetal.,2001).Increasing
dietarylevelsofnutrientssuchasprotein,energyandantioxidantsmaybeadvisable.Animalsexposedtoaflatoxin
showmarginalresponsestoincreasedprotein.Insomesituations,poultryrespondtowatersolublevitaminsorto
specificminerals,butdataislackingforcattle.Acidicdietsseemtoexacerbateeffectsofmycotoxins,andtherefore
adequatedietaryfiberandbuffersarerecommended.Becausemycotoxinsreducefeedconsumption,feeding
managementtoencourageintakecanbehelpful.Drycows,springingheifersandcalvesshouldreceivethecleanest
feedpossible.Transitionrationscanreducestressinfreshcowsandreduceeffectsofmycotoxins.Strategicuseof
moldinhibitorscanbebeneficial.

Mycotoxinbinders

Reviews of mycotoxin binders have been published (Avantaggiato et al., 2005Ramos et al., 1996a Ramos and
Hernandez,1997Huwig etal. 2001,Whitlow2006).
Theadditionofmycotoxinbinderstocontaminateddietshasbeenconsideredthemostpromisingdietaryapproachto
reduceeffectsofmycotoxins(Galvanoetal.,2001).Thetheoryisthatthebinderdecontaminates mycotoxins inthe
feed by binding them strongly enough to prevent toxic interactions with the consuming animal and to prevent
mycotoxinabsorptionacrossthedigestivetract.Therefore,thisapproachisseenaspreventionratherthantherapy.
Potential absorbent materials include activated carbon, aluminosilicates (clay, bentonite, montmorillonite, zeolite,
phyllosilicates, etc.), complex indigestible carbohydrates (cellulose, polysaccharides in the cell walls of yeast and
bacteria such as glucomannans, peptidoglycans, and others), and synthetic polymers such as cholestryamine and
polyvinylpyrrolidoneandderivatives.

BinderEvaluationsandConcerns

Researchwithmycotoxinbindershasbeenconductedforover20years,andyetproductsarenotyetapprovedforthe
marketplaceandinformationforproducersislimited.Mycotoxinbindershavebeenevaluatedusingbothinvitroandin
vivosystems.Invitroevaluationshavebeenusefulasascreeningmethodforpotentialbinderproducts,providingan
ideaofbindingaffinityandcapacity.Invitromethodsarenotstandardizedandthereforearenotcomparableacrossall
laboratories.The in vitrotechniques have notproducedresults that correlate well with in vivoresults.Therefore, in
vitrodatashouldnotbeusedtomakedecisionsaboutproductstouseinpractice(Dolletal.,2004Diazetal.,2004
Garciaetal.,2003).In vivostudies have generally usedperformanceresponses orbiological markerssuchastissue
residues or changes in biochemical parameters to determine effectiveness of binders. These measurements can only
estimate binding indirectly. Because many factors and conditions of the study affect results, binders need to be
evaluatedwithdifferentinclusionrateswithdifferentmycotoxinsacrossanimalspecies,ages,andgendersandunder
differentenvironmentalconditions.However,ifcomparisonsaretobemadeacrossstudies,experimentalcriteriamust
bestandardized.Evenwithstandardization,productsmayvarysignificantlyby lots,resultingindifferentresultsinvitro
orinvivoandfromstudytostudy(Baileyetal.1998).Anynegativeeffects ofthebindershouldalsobeevaluated.
Gatheringthedefinitiveinformationiscomplex,expensive,timeconsuming,andthusfrustratingtoanindustrywaiting
forsolutions.

Charcoaloractivatedcarbon

12
Activatedcarbonisageneraladsorptivematerialwithalargesurfaceareaandexcellentadsorptivecapacity.Ithas
beenrecommendedasageneraltoxinadsorbingagentandisroutinelyrecommendedforvariousdigestivetoxicities
(TheMerckVeterinaryManual,EighthEdition,Merck&Co.,Inc.,
WhitehouseStation,NJ).Inoneofthefirststudiestotesttheconceptofmycotoxinbinding,activatedcharcoalata
highdosagewasshowntoreduceaflatoxicosisingoats(Hatch etal.,1982).Insubsequentstudies,theeffectsof
activatedcharcoalhavebeenvariable.Galvano etal.(1996)showedreducedaflatoxinresiduesinmilkofcows
consumingdifferentsourcesofcharcoal,butresponsestocharcoaldidnotexceedthatseenwithaclaybasedbinder
(ahydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicateorHSCAS).Likewise,Diazetal. (2004)showedthatlowlevels(45
g/cowdaily)ofactivatedcarbondidnotsignificantlyreducemilkaflatoxinresidues,whereasclaytypebinders
(225g/cowdaily)oranorganicpolymerofesterifiedglucan(10g/cowdaily)significantlyreducedmilkaflatoxin.
Responsestocharcoalwithbroilers(Edrington etal.,1997),turkeypoults(Edrington etal.,1996),rats(Abdel
Wahhabetal.,1999)andmink(Bonnaetal.,1991)alsosuggestthatcharcoalmaynotaseffectiveinbinding
aflatoxinasareclaybasedbinders.Activatedcharcoalmaybeimportantinbindingzearalenoneand/or
deoxynivalenol(Doll etal.,2004Bueno etal.,2005).Inaninvitrogastrointestinalmodel,activatedcarbon
reducedavailabilityofdeoxynivalenolandnivalenol(Avantaggiato etal.,2004).

Silicatebinders

Silicatesaredividedintosubclasses,notbytheirchemistries,butbytheirstructures.Mineralsindifferent
subclassesmayhavesimilarchemistries.Thesilicatesubclassesincludeneosilicates(singletetrahedrons),
sorosilicates(doubletetrahedrons),inosilicates(singleanddoublechains),cyclosilicates(rings),phyllosilicates
(sheets),andtectocilicates(frameworks).Silicatesinvestigatedasadsorbentmaterialsareclassifiedprimarilyas
phyllosilicatesandtectosilicates.Perhapsthemostextensivelystudiedofthesematerialsisonedesignateda
hydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicate(HSCAS).Severalreviewsareavailable(Bingham etal.,2003Kubena
etal.,1987Phillips,1999Phillipsetal.,1991RamosandHernandez,1997).Itissuggestedthatthisspecific
silicatemineralscanbindwithaflatoxinbychelatingthedicarbonylmoietyinaflatoxinwithuncoordinatedmetal
ionsintheclaymaterials(Phillipsetal.,1991).Othersilicatesthathavebeenstudiedincludebentonites,zeolites,
clinoptilolitesandvariousothersthatareoftennotcompletelycharacterized.Theclaygroupisasubcategoryofthe
phyllosilicates.Bentoniteisageneralclaymaterialoriginatingfromvolcanicashandcontainingprimarily
montmorilloniteasthemainconstituent.Montmorilloniteclayisahydratedsodiumcalciumaluminummagnesium
silicatehydroxide.Claysaresilicasheetsthataresimilartootherphyllosilicatesbutcontainahighconcentrationof
water.Zeolitesareclassifiedastectosilicatesconsistingofinterlockingtetrahedrons.Thezeolitestructureprovides
vacantspacesthatformchannelsofvarioussizesallowingmovementofmoleculesintoandoutofthestructure.
Zeolitescanloseandabsorbwaterwithoutdamagetotheircrystalstructures.Areferencetomineralsmaybefound
atAmethystGalleries,Inc.(http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/class.htm).
ClearlymuchofthepioneeringworkwithmycotoxinbinderswasdonewithsilicatesandspecificallywiththeHSCAS
materialstudiedatTexasA&MUniversity.Phillipsetal.(1988)screenedalargenumberofsilicatesandselectedone
ofthebettermaterialsforfurtherstudy.ThatspecificHSCASincludedat0.5%to2.0%ofthedietiswelldocumented
toadsorbaflatoxinandtopreventaflatoxicosisacross species, including chickens (Huff etal.,1992,Kubena et al.,
1987,1990a,b,1992,1993Ledouxetal.,1999Phillipsetal.,1988Scheideler,1993),turkeys(Kubenaetal.,1991),
swine (Colvin et al., 1989 Harvey et al., 1989 Lindemannet al., 1993), lambs (Harveyet al., 1991a), dairy cows
(Harveyetal.,1991b),dairygoats(Smith etal.,1994)andmink(Bonnaetal.,1991).ResponsestoHSCASappearto
bedosedependent(Smith etal.,1994).
ThisHSCASischaracterizedasanaflatoxinselectiveclay,isnotagoodadsorbentofothermycotoxins(Phillipset
al.,1999),andtherefore,isnotexpectedtobeprotectiveagainstfeedscontainingmultiplemycotoxins.Cyclopiazonic
acid,whichhascooccurredwithaflatoxin,isnotadsorbedbyHSCAS(Dwyeretal.,1997).Garciaetal. (2003),using
a silicate material, failed to show reduced ochratoxin toxicity but did demonstrate reduced T2 toxicity. Huff et al.
(1992)alsofailedtoseeabenefittoaddingHSCAStodietscontainingochratoxin.Wattsetal. (2003)showedthat1%
HSCASwasnotprotectivetochicksandpoultsreceivingdietscontaining1mgdeoxynivalenol,5mgmoniliformin,5
mgfumonisinB1,100gaflatoxinB11mgzearalenoneand0.5mgochratoxinperkgofdiet.HSCASwasprotective
tominkagainstzearalenone(Bursian etal., 1992).PattersonandYoung(1993)failedtoseeabenefittotheadditionof
HSCASinpigdietscontainingdeoxynivalenol.Huebneretal.(1999)andChestnutetal.(1992)foundthatclaysbind
wellwithergotamineinvitrohowever,invivostudieswithsheepshowedthatanHSCASaddedat2%ofthedietdid
notreducefescuetoxicity(Chestnut etal.,1992).
13
AbdelWahhabet al.(2005)showedthat montmorillonitebinds well withsterigmatocystin,a mycotoxinchemically
similar to aflatoxin. A clinoptilolite was effective in reducing the effects of aflatoxin in quail (Parlat et al., 1999).
VariousclayproductsincludingacalciumbentoniteweresimilarineffectivenesstoaHSCASinrestoringperformance
topigsconsumingaflatoxin(Schell etal.,1993aSchelletal.,1993b).Diaz etal. (2004)studiedtheefficacyofseveral
clay types to reduce aflatoxin residues in milk of dairy cows. Several products were effective however, a sodium
bentonitereducedmilkaflatoxinmorethanasimilaramountofcalciumbentonite.Diatomaceousearthhasshownthe
potentialinvitrotobindaflatoxin,sterigmatocystin,T2toxin,zearalenoneandochratoxin(NatourandYousef,1998).
ZeoliteshavenotproventoreducethetoxicityofT2toxin(Kubena etal.,1998Devorska andSurai,2001).
Anumberofstudieshaveexaminedchemicallymodifiedsilicates.Doll etal. (2004)examinedachemically
modifiedaluminosilicatethatshowedgoodbindingwithzearalenoneinvitroconfirmingpreviouswork(Lemke et
al.,1998TomasevicCanovicetal.,2003).Othershaveshownthatchemicalmodificationshaveincreasedthe
bindingofHSCASwithzearalenone(Pimpukdeeetal.,2004).Dakovic,etal.(2005)demonstratedadsorptionof
aflatoxin,ochratoxinandzearalenonebyanoctadecyldimethylbenzylammoniumtreatedzeolite.

Organicpolymersasbinders

Somecomplexindigestiblecarbohydrates(cellulose,polysaccharidesinthecellwallsofyeastandbacteriasuchas
glucomannans,andpeptidoglycans,andothers)andsyntheticpolymerssuchascholestryamineand
polyvinylpyrrolidonecanadsorbmycotoxins.
Indigestibledietaryfiberhasadsorbancepotentialformycotoxins.Alfalfafiberhasreducedtheeffectsofzearalenone
(JamesandSmith,1982StangroomandSmith,1984)inratsandswineandT2toxininrats(CarsonandSmith,1983).
Saccharomycescerevisiaeliveyeastwasshowntoreducethedetrimentaleffectsofaflatoxininbroilerdiets(Stanley et
al., 1993). The aflatoxin protective effect of live yeast was confirmed in rats, but thermolysed yeast was shown
ineffective (Babtista et al., 2002). Fibrous material from the yeast cell wall was shown to have a potential to bind
severalmycotoxins(Devegowdaetal.1998).Esterifiedglucomannanpolymerextractedfromtheyeastcellwallwas
shown to bind with aflatoxin, ochratoxin and T2 toxin, individually and combined (Raju and Devegowda 2000).
Additions of esterified glucomannan at 0.5 or 1.0 g/kg to diets supplying 2 mg of total aflatoxin resulted in dose
dependent responses in broiler chicks (Basmacioglu et al.2005). Addition of esterified glucan polymer to aflatoxin
contaminateddietsofdairycowshassignificantlyreducedmilkaflatoxinresidues(Diazetal.,2004)andyetthesame
productfailedtoreducemilkaflatoxininasubsequentstudy(Stroudetal.,2006).
The esterified glucan polymer may have the capability to bind several mycotoxins. Yiannikouris, et al. (2004)
demonstratedthemechanismofbindingwithzearalenone.AglucanpolymerboundbothT2toxinandzearalenonein
vitro(Freimundetal.,2003).Theglucanpolymerproductwasprotectiveagainstdepressioninantioxidantactivities
resulting from T2 toxin consumed by growing quail (Dvorska and Surai, 2001). A glucan polymer product has
protectedswine(Swamyetal.,2002),broilers(Swamyetal.,2004)andhens(ChowdhuryandSmith,2004)against
someofthedetrimentaleffectsofmultiplemycotoxins,butwithoutrestoringgrowthrate.Aravindetal.(2003)using
dietary additions of 0.5% esterified glucomannan, alleviated growth depression in broilers associated with naturally
contaminated diets containing aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone and T2 toxin. A glucan polymer product was
effectiveinpreventingaurofusarintoxicityinquail(Dvorskaetal.,2003).Aglucanpolymerproductdidnotalleviate
the toxic effects on mink consuming diets contaminated with fumonisin, ochratoxin, moniliformin and zearalenone
(Bursian etal.,2004).
Certain bacteria, particularly strains of lactic acid bacteria, propionibacteria and bifidobacteria, appear to have the
capacitytobind mycotoxins, includingaflatoxinandsomeFusarium produced mycotoxins (ElNezamietal., 2000,
2002a,2002bHaskard etal.,2001andOatley etal.,2000Yoonetal.,1999).Thebindingappearsto bephysicalwith
deoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscerpenol, nivalenol, and other mycotoxins associated with hydrophobic pockets on the
bacterialsurface.Researchreportsonthesubjectarelimited.

OtherBinders
A synthetic water soluble polymer, polyvinlypyrrolidone (PVP) has been investigated as a binder of mycotoxins.
Insufficient information is available to make any recommendations. PVP is reported to bind with aflatoxin and
14
zearalenoneinvitro(Alegakis etal.,1999).PVPdidnotalleviatethetoxicityofdeoxynivalenolseeninpigs(Friend et
al.,1984).
Cholestyramineresinisusedinhumanmedicineforthereductionofcholesterolandfunctionsthroughadsorptionof
bileacids.Cholestyraminehasproventoadsorbzearalenone(Ramosetal.,1996bDolletal.,2004)andfumonisins
(Solfrizzoetal.,2001).Inratsconsumingochratoxin,cholestyraminereducedplasmaochratoxinandincreasedfecal
ochratoxinexcretion(Kerkadietal.,1998).Inanotherinvivostudy,cholestyraminedidnotbindochratoxin(Bauer,
1994).Becauseofcost,cholestyramineuseisquestionable.
Anenzymefromapurebacterialstrainhasbeenisolatedthatcandeepoxidizesometrichothecenes(Binderetal.,
2000).

DesirableCharacteristicsofaBinder

Abindermustbeeffective atsequesteringthemycotoxin(s)ofinterest.Insomecases,itmaybeofvaluetobindone
specificmycotoxinandinothers,tobindmultiplemycotoxins.Abindershouldsignificantlypreventanimaltoxicity.
Thereshouldnotbeseriousdetrimentaleffectsontheanimal,oratleastdetrimentaleffectsshouldnotoutweighthe
benefits.Costsshouldrenderitsusepracticalandprofitable.Animal/productresiduesofmycotoxinsshouldnot
increase.Thereshouldbenodetrimentaleffectsontheanimalfoodproduct.Mycotoxinsinfeedsshouldnotbemasked
suchthatfeedcontaminationcannotbeverified.Thebindershouldbephysicallyusableincommercialfeed
manufacturingsituations.Binderuseandefficacyshouldbeverifiable.

Binder Conclusions

Thereisanexcellentpotentialforbinderstohelpmanagethemycotoxinproblem.Variousmaterialscanbind
mycotoxinsinfeedandthusreducetoxicexposuretoconsuminganimals.Noproductcurrentlymeetsallthe
characteristicsforadesirablebinder.Mycotoxincontrolmeasuresmayrequiremanyapproaches.Inadditiontobinders
ormultiplebinders,dietsmaybetreatedwithotherdecontaminationproducts.Animalsmayalsobesupplementedwith
antioxidantsandotherbeneficialsubstances. Responsesindairy cattletosomeoftheseproductshavebeenvery
encouraging.Overallresultsarevariablebytypeandamountofbinder,specificmycotoxinsandtheiramounts,
animalspecies,andinteractionsofotherdietaryingredients.NoadsorbentproductisapprovedbytheFDAforthe
preventionortreatmentofmycotoxicoses.Severaloftheseadsorbentmaterialsarerecognizedassafefeed
additives(GRAS)andareusedindietsforotherpurposessuchasflowagents,pelletbinders,etc.

LiteratureCited

Abbas, H.K.,C.J.Mirocha,T.Kommedahl,R.F.VesonderandP.Golinski.1989.Productionoftrichothecenesandnon
trichothecenemycotoxinsby Fusarium speciesisolatedfrommaizeinMinnesota.Mycopathologia.108:5558.
AbdelWahhab,M.A.,A.M.Hasan,S.E.Aly,andK.F.Mahrous.2005.Adsorptionofsterigmatocystinbymontmorilloniteand
inhibitionofitsgenotoxicityintheNiletilapiafish(Oreachromisnilaticus).MutatRes.582:2027.
AbdelWahhab, M.A., S.A. Nada, and H.A. Amra. 1999. Effect of aluminosilicates and bentonite on aflatoxininduced
developmentaltoxicityinrat.J.Appl.Toxicol.19:199204.
AlegakisA.K.,A.M.Tsatsakis,M.I.Shtilman,D.L.Lysovenko,andI.G.Vlachonikolis.1999.Deactivationofmycotoxins.I.
Aninvitrostudyofzearalenoneadsorptiononnewpolymericadsorbents.JEnvironSci.HealthB. 34:633644.
Allcroft,R.andR.B.A.Carnaghan.1962.Groundnuttoxicity: Aspergillusflavus toxin(aflatoxin)inanimalproducts.Vet.Rec.
74:863864.
Allcroft,R.andR.B.A.Carnaghan.1963. Groundnuttoxicity:anexaminationfortoxininhumanproductsfromanimalsfedtoxic
groundnutmeal.Vet.Rec.75:259263.
Applebaum,R.S.,R.E.Brackett,D.W.Wiseman,andE.L.Marth.1982.Responsesofdairycowstodietaryaflatoxin:feed
intakeandyield,toxincontent,andqualityofmilkofcowstreatedwithpureandimpureaflatoxin.J.DairySci.
65:15031508.
Aravind, K.L., V.S. Patil, G. Devegowda, B. Umakantha, and S.P. Ganpule. 2003. Efficacy of esterified glucomannan to
counteract mycotoxicosis in naturally contaminated feed on performance and serum biochemical and hematological
parametersinbroilers.Poult.Sci.82:571576.
Auerbach,H.,E.OldenburgandF.Weissbach.1998.Incidenceof Penicilliumroqueforti androquefortineCinsilages. J.Sci.
Fd.Agric.76:565572.
15
Auerbach,H.2003.Mouldgrowthandmycotoxincontaminationofsilages:sources,typesandsolutions.pp.247265.In:T.P.
LyonsandK.A.Jacques(Eds.)"NutritionalBiotechnologyintheFeedandFoodIndustries",NottinghamUniversity
Press,Nottingham.
Avantaggiato,G.,M.Solfrizzo,andA.Visconti.2005.Recentadvancesontheuseofadsorbentmaterialsfordetoxificationof
Fusariummycotoxins.FoodAdditivesandContaminants22:379388.
Babtista, A.S., J. Horii, M.A. CaloriDomingues, E.M. da Gloria, J.M. Salgado, and M.R. Vizioli. 2002. Thermolysed and
activeyeasttoreducethetoxicityofaflatoxin.Sci.Agric.59:257260.
Bacon,C.W.1995.Toxicendophyteinfectedtallfescueandrangegrasses:Historicperspectives.J.Anim.Sci.73:861864.
Bailey,R.H.,L.F.Kubena,R.B.Harvey,S.A.Buckley,andG.E.Rottinghous.1998.Efficacyofvariousinorganicsorbentsto
reducethetoxicityofaflatoxinandT2toxininbroilerchickens. Poult.Sci.77:16231630.
Basmacioglu,H.,H.Oguz,M.Ergul,R.Col,Y.O.Birdane.2005.Effect ofdietaryesterifiedglucomannanonperformance,
serumbiochemistryandhaematologyinbroilersexposedtoaflatoxin.CzechJ.Anim.Sci.50:3139.
Bauer,J.1994.MoglichkeitenzurEntgiftungmykotoxinhaltigerFuttermittel.Monatsh.Veterinarmed.49:175181.
Bauer,J.,A.Gareis,A.Gott,andB.Gedek.1989.Isolationofamycotoxin(gliotoxin)fromabovineudderinfectedwith
Aspergillusfumigatus.JMedVetMycol27:4550.
Berthiller,F.,c.DallAsta,R.Schuhmacher,M.Lemmens,G.AdamsandR.Krska.2005.Maskedmycotoxins:determination
ofadeoxynivalenolglucosideinartificiallyandnaturallycontaminatedwheatbyliquidchromatographytandemmass
spectrometry.J.Agric.FoodChem. 53:34213425.
Binder,E.M.,D.Heidler,G.Schatzmayr,N.Thimm,E.Fuchs,M.Schuh,R.Krska,andJ.Binder.2000.Microbial
detoxificationofmycotoxinsinanimalfeed.MycotoxinsandPhycotoxinsinPerspectiveattheTurnofthe
Millennium.Proceedingsofthe10th InternationalIUPACSymposiumonMycotoxinsandPhycotoxins,Guaruja,
Brazil.
Bingham, A.K., T.D. Phillips, and J.E Bauer. 2003. Potential for dietary protection against the effects of aflatoxins in animals.
JAVMA222:591596.
Bonna,R.J.,R.J.Aulerich,S.J.Bursian,R.HPoppenga,W.E.BraseltonandG.L.Watson.1991.Efficacyofhydratedsodium
calciumaluminosilicateandactivatedcharcoalinreducingthetoxicityofdietaryaflatoxintomink.ArchEnvironContam
Toxicol.20:441447.
Boyacioglu,D.,N.S.HettiarachchyandR.W.Stack.1992.Effectofthreesystemicfungicidesondeoxynivalenol(vomitoxin)
productionby Fusariumgraminearum inwheat.Can.J.PlantSci.72:93101.
Boysen,M.E.,KG.JacobssonandJ.Schnurer.2000.Molecularidentificationofspeciesfromthe Penicillium group
associatedwithspoiledanimalfeed.Appl.Environ.Microb.66:15231526.
Brucato,M.,S.F.Sundlof,J.U.BellandG.T.Edds.1986.AflatoxinB1toxicosisindairycalvespretreatedwithselenium
vitamineE.Am.J.Vet.Res.47:179183.
Bueno, D.J., L. di Marco, G. Oliver, A. Bardn. 2005. In vitro binding of zearalenone to different adsorbents. J. Fd. Prot.
68:613615.
Bursian, S.J., R.J. Aulerich, J.K. Cameron, N.K. Ames, and B.A. Steficek. 1992. Efficacy of hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicateinreducingthetoxicityofdietaryzearalenonetomink. J.Appl.Toxicol.12:8590.
Bursian,S.J.,R.R.Mitchell,B.Yamini,S.D.Fitzgerald,P.A.Murphy,G.Fernadez,G.E.Rottinghaus,L.Moran,K.Leefers,
and I. Choi. 2004. Efficacy of a commercial mycotoxin binder in alleviating effects of ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1,
moniliforminandzearalenoneinadultmink.Vet.HumanToxicol.46:122129.
CAST,CouncilforAgriculturalScienceandTechnology.1989."Mycotoxins:EconomicandHealthRisks".TaskForceReport
No.116.Ames,Iowa.
CAST,CouncilforAgriculturalScienceandTechnology.2003."Mycotoxins:RisksinPlantAnimalandHumanSystems".
TaskForceReportNo.139.Ames,Iowa.
Charmley,E.,H.L.Trenholm,B.K.Thompson,D.Vudathala,J.W.G.Nicholson,D.B.Prelusky,andL.L.Charmley.1993.
Influenceoflevelofdeoxynivalenolinthedietofdairycowsonfeedintake,milkproductionanditscomposition.J.
DairySci.6:35803587.
Carson,M.S.,andT.K.Smith.1983.Effectof feedingalfalfaandrefinedplantfibresonthetoxicityandmetabolismofT2
toxininrats.J.Nutr.113:304313.
Cheeke,P.R.1995.Endogenoustoxinsandmycotoxinsinforagegrassesandtheireffectsonlivestock.J.Anim.Sci.73:909
918.
Chen,F.C.,C.F.ChenandR.D.Wei.1982.AcutetoxicityofPRtoxin,amycotoxinfrom Penicilliumroqueforti. Toxicon.
20:433441.
Chestnut, A.B., P.D. Anderson, M.A. Cochran, H.A. Fribourg, and K.D. Gwinn. 1992. Effects of hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicateonfescuetoxicosisandmineralabsorption. J.Anim.Sci. 70:28382846.
Chowdhury,S.R.,andT.K.Smith.2004.EffectsoffeedingblendsofgrainsnaturallycontaminatedwithFusariummycotoxins
onperformanceandmetabolismof layinghens. PoultSci.83:18491856.
Cole,R.J.,J.W.Kirksey,J.W.Dorner,D.M.Wilson,J.C.Johnson,Jr.,A.N.Johnson,D.M.Bedell,J.P.Springer,K.K.Chexal,
J.C.ClardyandR.H.Cox.1977.Mycotoxinsproducedby Aspergillusfumigatus speciesisolatedfrommoldysilage.J.
Agric.FoodChem.25:826830.
16
Colvin, B.M., L.T. Sangster, K.D. Hayden, R.W. Bequer, and D.M. Wilson. 1989. Effect of high affinity aluminosilicate
sorbentonpreventionofaflatoxicosisingrowingpigs.Vet.Hum.Toxicol.31:4648.
Coulombe,R.A.1993.BiologicalActionof MycotoxinsJ.DairySci.76:880891.
Coppock,R.W.,M.S.Mostrom,C.G.Sparling,B.Jacobsen,andS.C.Ross.1990.Apparentzearalenoneintoxicationinadairy
herdfromfeedingspoiledacidtreatedcorn.Vet.Hum.Toxicol.32:246248.
Creppy,E.E.,R.RoschenthalerandG.Dirheimer.1984.InhibitionofproteinsynthesisinmicebyochratoxinAandits
preventionbyphenylalanine.Fd.Chem.Toxicol.22:883886.
Dakovic,A.,M.TomasevicCanovic,V.Dondur,G.E.Rottinghaus,V,MedakovicandS.Zaric.2005.Adsorptionof
mycotoxinsbyorganozeolites. ColloidsSurfBBiointerfaces.46:2025.
Danicke,S.,K.Matthaus,P.Lebzien,H.Valenta,K.Stemme,K. H.Ueberschar,E.RazzaziFazeli,JBohmandG.
Flachowsky.2005.Effectsof Fusariumtoxincontaminatedwheatgrainonnutrientturnover,microbialprotein
synthesisandmetabolismofdeoxynivalenolandzearalenoneintherumenofdairycows.J.An.Physiol.andAn.
Nutr.89:303315.
Devegowda,G.M.,V.L.N.Raju,andH.V.L.N.Swamy.1998.Mycotoxins:Novelsolutionsfortheircounteraction.Feedstuffs
70:1216.
Diaz,D.E.,W.M.Hagler,Jr.,J.T.Blackwelder,J.A.Eve,B.A.Hopkins,K.L.Anderson,F.T.Jones,andL.W.Whitlow.2004.
AflatoxinbindersII:reductionofaflatoxinM1inmilkbysequesteringagentsofcowsconsumingaflatoxininfeed.
Mycopathologia157:233241.
Diaz,D.E.,W.M.Hagler,Jr.,B.A.Hopkins,R.A.Patton,C.Brownie,andL.W.Whitlow.2001.Theeffectofinclusionofa
claytypesequesteringagentonmilkproductionofdairycattleconsumingmycotoxinscontaminatedfeeds.J.Dairy
Sci.84(abstr.):1554.
Diaz,D.E.,B.A.Hopkins,L.M.Leonard,W.M.Hagler,Jr.,andL.W.Whitlow.2000.Effectoffumonisinonlactatingdairy
cattle.J.DairySci.83(abstr.):1171.
DiCostanzo,A.,L.Johnston,H.Windels,andM.Murphy.1995.Areviewoftheeffectsofmoldsandmycotoxinsin
ruminants.Prof.Anim.Scientist12:138150.
Diekman,D.A.,andM.L.Green.1992.Mycotoxinsandreproductionindomesticlivestock.J.Anim.Sci.70:16151627.
Dll,S.,andSDnicke.2004. Invivodetoxificationoffusariumtoxins.Arch.Anim.Nutr.58:419441.
Dll,S.,S.Dnicke,H.Valenta,G.Flachowsky.2004.Invitrostudiesontheevaluationofmycotoxindetoxifyingagentsfor
theirefficacyondeoxynivalenolandzearalenone.Arch.Anim.Nutr.58:311324.
Dowd,P.2004.ValidationofaMycotoxinPredictingComputerProgramforU.S.MidwestGrownMaizeinCommercialFields.
Proc.Aflatoxin&FungalGenomicsWorkshop.Mycopathologia157:463(abstr.)
Dvorska,J.E.,andP.F.Surai.2001.EffectofT2toxin,zeoliteandmycosorbonantioxidantsystemsofgrowingquail.Asian
Aust.J.Anim.Sci.14:17521757.
Dvorska,J.E.,P.F.Surai,B.K.Speake,N.H.C.Sparks.2003.Protectiveeffectofmodifiedglucomannansagainstaurofusarin
inducedchangesinquaileggandembryo.Comp.Biochem.Physiol.PartC135:337343.
Dwyer,M.R.,L.F.Kubena,R.B.Harvey,K.Mayura,A.B.Sarr,S.Buckley,R.H.Bailey,andT.D.Phillips.1997.Effectsof
inorganicadsorbentsandcylcopiazonicacidinbroilerchicks.Poult.Sci.76:11411149.
Dutton,M.F.,K.Westlake,andM.S.Anderson.1984.Theinteractionbetweenadditives,yeastsandpatulinproductioningrass
silage.Mycopathologia87:2933.
Edrington,T..S.,L.F.Kubena,R.B.Harvey,andG.E.Rottinghous.1997.Influenceofasuperactivatedcharcoalonthetoxic
effectsofaflatoxinorT2toxiningrowingbroilers.Poult.Sci.76:12051211.
Edrington,T.S.,A.B.Sarr,L.F.Kubena,R.B.HarveyandT.D.Phillips.1996.Hydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicate
(HSCAS),acidicHSCAS,andactivatedcharcoalreduceurinaryexcretionofaflatoxinM1inturkeypoults.Lackofeffect
ofactivatedcharcoalonaflatoxicosis.Toxicol.Lett.89:115122.
Eichner,R.D.,U.TiwariPalni,P.WaringandA.Mullbacher.1988.pp.133137.Detectionoftheimmunomodulatingagent
gliotoxininexperimentalaspergillosis.In:J.MTorresRodrigues(Ed.)ProceedingsoftheTenthCongressof
InternationalSocietyofHumanandAnimalMycology,Barcelona.ProusScientific,Barcelona.
ElNezami,H.S.,A.Chrevatidis,S.Auriola,S.Salminen,andH.Mykknen.2002a.RemovalofcommonFusariumtoxinsin
vitrobystrainsofLactobacillusandPropionibacterium.FoodAddit.Contam.,19:680686.
ElNezami,H.S.,H.Mykknen,P.Kankaanp,S.Salminen,andJ.T.Ahokas.2000.Abilityof LactobacillusLactobacillusand
PropionibacteriumPropionibacterium strains to remove aflatoxin B1, from the chicken duodenum. J. Food. Prot. 63:549
552.
ElNezami, H.S., N. Polychronaki, S. Salminen, and H. Mykknen. 2002b. Bindingratherthan metabolism may explain the
interaction of two food grade Lactobacillus strains with zearalenone and its derivative azearalenol. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol.68:35453549.
ElShanawany,A.A.,M.E.MostafaandA.Barakat.2005.FungalpopulationsandmycotoxinsinsilageinAssiutandSohag
governoratesinEgypt,withaspecialreferencetocharacteristic Aspergillus toxins.Mycopathologia159:281289.
Foster,B.C.,H.L.Trenholm,D.W.Friend,B.K.ThompsonandK.E.Hartin.1986.Evaluationofdifferentsourcesof
deoxynivalenol(vomitoxin)fedtoswine.Can.J.Anim.Sci.66:11491154.
17
Freimund, S., M. Sauter and P. Rys. 2003.Efficient adsorption of the mycotoxinszearalenone and T2 toxin onamodified
yeastglucan.J.Environ.Sci.andHealth,PartB:Pesticides,FoodContaminants,andAgriculturalWastes.38:243255.
Friend, D.W., H.L. Trenholm, J.C. Young, B. Thompson, and K.E. Hartin. 1984. Effects of adding potential vomitoxin
(deoxynivalenol) detoxicants or a F. graminearuminoculated corn supplementto wheat dietsto pigs.Can. J. Anim. Sci.
64:733741.
Frobish,R.A.,B.D.Bradley.D.D.Wagner,P.E.LongBradleyandH.Hairston.1986.Aflatoxinresiduesinmilkofdairycows
afteringestionofnaturallycontaminatedgrain.J.FoodProt.49:781785.
Garcia,A.R.,E.Avila,R.Rosiles,andV.M.Petrone.2003.Evaluationoftwomycotoxinbinderstoreducetoxicityofbroiler
dietscontainingochratoxinAandT2toxincontaminatedgrain.AvianDiseases47:691699.
Gareis,M.,J.Bauer,J.Thiem,G.Plank,S.GrableyandB.Gedek.1990.Cleavageofzearalenoneglycoside,amasked
mycotoxin,duringdigestioninswine.Zentralbl.Veterinarmed.B.37:236240.
Gareis,M.andJ.Ceynowa.1994.InfluenceofthefungicideMatador(tebuconazole/triadimenol)onmycotoxinproductionby
Fusariumculmorum.LebensmittelUntersuchungForsch.198:244248.
Galvano,F.,A.Pietri,T.Bertuzzi,G.Fusconi,M.Galvano,A.Piva,andG.Piva.1996.Reductionofcarryoverofaflatoxinfrom
cowfeedtomilkbyadditionofactivatedcarbons.J.FoodProt.59:551554.
Galvano,F.,A.Piva,A.Ritieni,andG.Galvano.2001.Dietarystrategiestocounteracttheeffectsof mycotoxins:Areview.J
FoodProt. 64:120131.
Garrett,W.N.,H.Heitman,Jr.,,andA.N.Booth.1968.Aflatoxintoxicityinbeefcattle.Proc.Soc.Exp.Biol.Med.127:188
190.
Gentry,P.A.,M.L.Ross,andP.KC.Chan.1984.EffectofT2toxinonbovine hematologicalandserumenzymeparameters.
Vet.Hum.Toxicol.26:2424.
Gotlieb,A.1997.Causesofmycotoxinsinsilages.pp.213221. In:Silage:FieldtoFeedbunk,NRAES99,NortheastRegional
AgriculturalEngineeringService,Ithaca,NY.
Guthrie,L.D.1979.EffectsofAflatoxinincornonproductionandreproductionindairycattle.JDairySci.62(abstr.):134.
Hacking,A.andW.R.Rosser.1981.Patulinproductionby Paecilomyces speciesisolatedfromsilageintheUnitedKingdom.
J.Sci.Food.Agric.32:620623.
Hagler,Jr.,W.M.,K.TyczkowskaandP.B.Hamilton.1984.Simultaneousoccurrenceofdeoxynivalenol,zearalenoneand
aflatoxinin1982scabbywheatfromthemidwesternUnitedStates.Appl.Environ.Microbiol.47:151154.
Hamilton,P.B.1984.Determiningsafelevelsofmycotoxins.J.FoodProt.47:570575.
Hanika,C.andW.W.Carlton.1994.Toxicologyandpathologyofcitrinin.pp.4163.In:G.C.Llewellyn,W.V.Daschekand
C.EORear,(Eds.)BiodeteriorationResearch4.PlenumPress,New York.
Harvey, R.B., L.F. Kubena, T.D. Phillips, W.E. Huff, and D.E. Corrier. 1989. Prevention of aflatoxicosis by addition of
hydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicatetothedietsofgrowingbarrows.Am.J.Vet.Res.50:416420.
Harvey,R.B.,L.F.Kubena,T.D.Phillips,M.H.Elissalde,andW.E.Huff.1991a.Diminutionofaflatoxintoxicitytogrowing
lambsbydietarysupplementationwithhydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicate.Am.J.Vet.Res.52:152156.
Harvey,R.B.,T.D.Phillips,J.A.Ellis,L.F.Kubena,W.E.Huff,andH.D.Petersen.1991b.EffectsonaflatoxinM1residuesin
milk by addition of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to aflatoxincontaminated diets of dairy cows. Am. J. Vet.
Res.52:15561559.
Haskard C., H. ElNazami, P. Kankaanpaa, S. Salminen, and J. Ahokas. 2001. Surface binding of aflatoxin B1 by lactic acid
bacteria.Appl.Environ.Microbiol.67:30863091.
Hatch,R.C.,J.D.Clark,A.V.Jain,andR.Weiss.1982.Inducedacuteaflatoxicosisingoats.Treatmentwithactivatedcharcoalor
dualcombinationsofoxytetracycline,stanozolol,andactivatedcharcoal.Am.J.Vet.Res.43:644648.
Hesseltine,C.W.1986.Resumandfutureneedsinthediagnosisofmycotoxins.pp.381385.In:J.L.RichardandJ.R.
Thurston,(Eds.)"Diagnosisof Mycotoxicoses".MartinusNijhoffPublishers,Dordrecht,TheNetherlands.
Hohler,D.,KH.Sudekum,S.Wolffram.A.A.Frolich,andR.R.Marquardt.1999.J.AnimalSci.77:12171223.
Horwitz,W.(Ed.).2000.OfficialMethodsofAnalysisofAOACInternational.17thed.AssociationofOfficialAnalytic
ChemistsInternational,Gaithersburg,Maryland.
Hsu,I.C.,C.B.Smalley,F.M.Strong,andW.E.Ribelin.1972.IdentificationofT2toxininmoldycornassociatedwitha
lethaltoxicosisindairycattle.Appl.Microbiol.24:684690.
Huebner,H.J.,S.L.Lemke,S.E.Ottinger,K.Mayura,andT.D.Phillips.1999.Molecularcharacterizationofhighaffinity,high
capacityclaysfortheequilibriumsorptionofergotamine.FoodAdditivesandContam.16:159171.
Huff,W.E.,L.F.Kubena,R.B.Harvey,andT.D.Phillips.1992.Efficacyofhydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicatetoreduce
theindividualandcombinedtoxicityofaflatoxinandochratoxinA.Poult.Sci.71:6469.
Hussein,H.S.andJ.M.Brasel.2001.Toxicity,metabolismandimpactofmycotoxinsonhumansandanimals.Toxicology
167:101134.
Huwig,A.,S.Freimund,O.Kappeli,andH.Dutler.2001.Mycotoxindetoxicationofanimalfeedbydifferentadsorbents.
Toxicol.Lett. 122:179188.
Ingalls,J.R.1996.Influenceofdeoxynivalenolonfeedconsumptionbydairycows.Anim.FeedSci.Tech.60:297300.
James,L.J.,andT.K.Smith.1982.Effectofdietaryalfalfaonzearalenonetoxicityandmetabolisminratsandswine.J.Anim.Sci.
55:110118.
18
Joffe,A.Z.1986. "Fusarium Species:TheirBiologyandToxicology".JohnWileyandSons,Inc.,NewYork.
Jones,F.T.,W.M.Hagler,andP.B.Hamilton.1982.Associationoflowlevelsofaflatoxininfeedwithproductivitylossesin
commercialbroileroperations.PoultrySci.61:861868.
Jouany,JP.andD.E.Diaz.2005.Effectsofmycotoxinsinruminants.pp.295321,In:D.E.Diaz(Ed.)TheMycotoxinBlue
Book,NottinghamUniversityPress,Nottingham.
Kalac,P.andM.K.Woolford.1982.Areviewofsomeaspectsofpossibleassociationsbetweenthefeedingofsilageand
animalhealth.Br.Vet.J.138:305320.
Kallela,K.,andE.Ettala.1984.Theoestrogenic Fusarium toxin(zearalenone)inhayasacauseofearlyabortionsinthecow.
Nord.Vet.Med.36:305309.
Kegl,T., andA.Vanyi.1991.T2fusariotoxicosisinacattlestock.MagyarAllatorvosokLapja46:467471.
Kerkadi, A., C. Barriault, B. Tuchweber, A.A. Frohlich, R.R. Marquardt, G. Bouchardand, and I.M. Yousef. 1998. Dietary
cholestyramine reduces ochratoxin Ainduced nephrotoxicity in therat by decreasing plasma levels and enhancing fecal
excretionofthetoxin. J.Toxicol.Environ.Health3:231250.
Khamis,Y.,H.A.Hammad,andN.A.Hemeida.1986.Mycotoxicosiswithoestrogeniceffectincattle.Zuchthyg.21:233236.
Kiessling,K.H.,H.Patterson,K.Sandholm,andM.Olsen.1984.Metabolismofaflatoxin,ochratoxin,zearalenone,andthree
trichothecenesbyintactrumenfluid,rumenprotozoaandrumenbacteria.Appl.Environ.Microbiol.47:10701073.
Kitchen,D.N.,W.W.Carlton,andJ.Tuite.1977.OchratoxinAandcitrinininducednephrotoxicosisinbeagledogs.I.
Clinicalandclinicopathologicalfeatures.Vet.Pathol.14:154172.
Kosuri,N.R.,M.D.Grave,S.G.Yates,W.H.Tallent,J.J.Ellis,I.A.Wolff,andR.E.Nichols.1970.Responseofcattleto
mycotoxinsof Fusariumtricinctum isolatedfromcornandfescue.J.Am.Vet.Med.Assoc.157:938940.
Krogh,P.,F.Elling,C.Friis,B.Hald,A.E.Larsen,E.B.Lillehoj,A.Madsen,H.P.Mortensen,F.RasmussenandU.
Ravnskov.1979.PorcinenephropathyinducedbylongtermingestionofochratoxinA.Vet.Pathol.16:466475.
Kubena, L.F., R.B. Harvey, R.H. Bailey, S.A. Buckley, and G.E. Rottinghaus. 1998. Effects of a hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicate(TBind)onmycotoxicosisinyoungbroilerchickens.Poult.Sci.77:15021509.
Kubena, L.F., R.B. Harvey, T.D. Phillips, and N.D. Heidelbaugh. 1987. Novel approach to the preventive management of
aflatoxinsinpoultry.Pages302304. In:ProceedingsoftheUnitedStatesAnimalHealthAssociation,Richmond,VA.
Kubena, L.F., R.B. Harvey, T.D. Phillips, D.E. Corrier, and W.E. Huff. 1990b. Diminution of aflatoxicosis in growing
chickensbydietaryadditionofahydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicate.Poult.Sci. 69:727735.
Kubena, L.F., R.B. Harvey, W.E. Huff, D.E. Corrier, T.D. Phillips, and G.E. Rottinghaus. 1990a. Efficacy of a hydrated
sodiumcalciumaluminosilicatetoreducethetoxicityofaflatoxinandT2toxin.Poult.Sci.69:10781086.
Kubena,L.F.,R.B.Harvey,W.E.Huff,M.H.Elissalde,A.G.Yersin,T.D.Phillips,andG.E.Rottinghaus.1993.Efficacyofa
hydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicatetoreducethetoxicityofaflatoxinanddiacetoxyscirpenol.Poult.Sci.72:5159.
Kubena, L.F., R.B. Harvey, T.D. Phillips, and B.A. Clement. 1992. The use of sorbent compounds to modify the toxic
expressionofmycotoxinsinpoultry.Pages357360.In:ProceedingsXIXWorldsPoultryCongress.Vol1.
Kubena, L.F., W.E. Huff, R.B. Harvey, A.G. Yersin, M.H. Elissalde, D.A. Witzel, L.E. Giroir, T.D. Phillips, and H.D.
Petersen.1991.Effectsofahydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicateongrowingturkeypoultsduringaflatoxicosis.Poult.
Sci.70:18231830.
Lacey,J.1991.Naturaloccurrenceofmycotoxinsingrowingandconservedforagecrops.pp.363397.In:J.E.SmithandR.
E.Henderson(eds.),MycotoxinsandAnimalFoods.CRCPress,BocaRaton.
Ledoux, D.R., G.E. Rottinghaus, A.J. Bermudez, and M. AlonsoDebolt. 1999. Efficacy of a hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicatetoamelioratethetoxiceffectsofaflatoxininbroilerchicks.Poult.Sci. 78:204210.
Lemke,S.L.,P.G.Grant,andT.D.Phillips.1998.Adsorptionofzearalenonebyorganophillicmontmorilloniteclay.J.Agric.
FoodChem.46:37893976.
Lillehoj,E.B.,andA.Ciegler.1975.Mycotoxinsynergism.Pp.344358.In: D.Schlessinger(Ed.)"Microbiology",American
SocietyofMicrobiology,Washington,DC.
Lindemann, M.D., D.J. Blodgett, E.T. Kornegay, and G.G. Schurig. 1993. Potential ameliorators of aflatoxicosis in
weanling/growingswine.J.Anim.Sci. 71:171178.
LopezGarcia,R.,andD.L.Park.1998.Effectivenessofpostharvestproceduresinmanagementofmycotoxinhazards.Pages
407433.In: MycotoxinsinAgricultureandFoodSafety(Sinha,K.K., andD.Bhatnagar,eds.), MarcelDekker,Inc.,
NewYork,NY.
Mann,D.D.,G.M.Buening,B.Hook,andG.D.Osweiler.1983.EffectsofT2mycotoxinonbovineserumproteins.J.Am.
Vet.Med.Assoc.44:17571759.
Masri,M.S.,V.C.Garcia,andJ.R.Page.1969. TheaflatoxinM1contentofmilkfromcowsfedknownamountsofaflatoxin.
Vet.Rec.84:146147.
Matossian,M.K.1989."PosionsofthePast:Molds,EpidemicsandHistory".YaleUniversityPress,NewHaven.
McLaughlin,C.S.M.H.Vaughan,I.M.Campbell,C.M.Wei,M.E.Stafford,andB.S.Hansen.1977.Inhibitionofprotein
synthesisbytrichothecenes.p.261284. In J.V.Rodricks,C.W.Hesseltine,andM.A.Mehlman(ed.),Mycotoxinsin
humanandanimalhealth.PathotoxPublications,ParkForestSouth,Ill.
Mirocha,C.J.,J.Harrison,A.A.Nichols,andM.McClintock.1968.Detectionoffungalestrogen(F2)inhayassociatedwith
infertilityindairycattle.Appl.Microbiol.16:797798.
19
Mirocha,C.J.,S.V.Pathre,andC.M.Christensen.1976.Zearalenone.pp.345364. In:J.V.Rodricks,C.W.Hesseltine,and
M.A.Mehlman.(Eds.)MycotoxinsinHumanandAnimalHealth.Pathotox.Publ.,ParkForest,IL.
Mirocha,C.J.,B.Schauerhamer,andS.V.Pathre.1974.Isolation,detectionandquantitationofzearalenoneinmaizeand
barley.J.Assoc.Off.Anal.Chem.57:11041110.
Morgavi,D.P.,H.Boudra,J.P.JouanyandB.MichaletDoreau. 2004.Effectandstabilityofgliotoxin,an Aspergillus
fumigatus toxin,oninvitro rumenfermentation.Food.Addit.Contam.21:871878.
Natour, R.M., and S.M. Yousef. 1998. Adsorption efficiency of diatomaceous earth for mycotoxin. Arab Gulf J. Sci. Res.
16:113127.
Niyo,K.A.,J.L.Richard,Y.Niyo,andL.H.Tiffany.1988a.EffectsofT2mycotoxiningestiononphagocytosisof
Aspergillusfumigatusconidiabyrabbitalveolarmacrophagesandonhematologic,serumbiochemical,andpathologic
changesinrabbits.Am.J.Vet.Res.49:17661773.
Niyo,K.A.,J.L.Richard,Y.Niyo,andL.H.Tiffany.1988b.Pathologic,hematologic,serologic,andmycologicchangesin
rabbitsgivenT2mycotoxinorallyandexposedtoaerosolsof Aspergillusfumigatus conidia.Am.J.Vet.Res.
49:21512160.
Oatley,J.T.,M.D.Rarick,G.E.Ji,J.E.Linz.2000.BindingofaflatoxinB1 tobifidobacteriainvitro.J.FoodProt.63:1133
1136.
Osweiler,G.D.,M.E.Kehrli,J.R.Stabel,J.R.Thurston,P.F.Ross,andT.M.Wilson.1993.Effectsoffumonisincontaminated
cornscreeningsongrowthandhealthoffeedercalves.J.Anim.Sci.71:459466.
Parlat, S.S., A.. Yildiz, and H. Oguz. 1999. Effect of clinoptilolite on performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix
japonica)duringexperimentalaflatoxicosis.Br.Poult.Sci. 40:495500.
Patterson,D.S.P.,andP.H.Anderson.1982.Recentaflatoxinfeedingexperiments incattle.Vet.Rec.110:6061.
Patterson,R.,andL.G.Young.1993.Efficacyofhydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicates,screeninganddilutioninreducing
theeffectsofmoldcontaminatedcorninpigs. Can.J.Anim.Sci.73:615624.
Petrie,L.,J.Robb,andA.F.Stewart.1977.TheidentificationofT2toxinanditsassociationwithahemorrhagicsyndromein
cattle.Vet.Rec.101:326326.
Phillips,T.D.1999.Dietaryclayinthechemopreventionofaflatoxininduceddisease.Toxicol.Sci. 52:118126.
Phillips, T.D., L.F. Kubena., R.B. Harvey., D.R. Taylor, and N.D. Heidelbaugh. 1988. Hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicate:Ahighaffinitysorbentforaflatoxin.Poult.Sci.67:253260.
Phillips, T.D., B.A. Sarr, B.A. Clement, L.F. Kubena, and R.B. Harvey. 1991. Prevention of aflatoxicosis in farm animals via
selectivechemisorptionofaflatoxin.Pages223237.In:Mycotoxins,Cancerand Health,(Bray, G.A.,andD.H. Ryan,eds.),
LouisianaStateUniversityPress,BatonRouge.
PierA.C.,J.L.RichardandS.J.Cysewski.1980.Theimplicationofmycotoxinsinanimaldisease.J.Am.Vet.Med.Assoc.
176:719722.
Pimpukdee, K., B.Tengjaroenkul, P.Chaveerach, B. Mhosatanun. 2004. The characterization of clays and cetylpyridinium
exchangedclaysfortheirabilitytoadsorbzearalenone. ThaiJ.Vet.Med.34:2331.
Puntenney,S.B.,Y.Wang,andN.E.Forsberg.2003.Mycoticinfectionsinlivestock:Recentinsightsandstudiesonetiology,
diagnosticsandpreventionofHemorrhagicBowelSyndrome,In:SouthwestNutrition&ManagementConference,
Pheonix,UniversityofArizona,DepartmentofAnimalScience,Tuscon,pp.4963.
Raju,M.V.L.N.,andG.Devegowda.2000.Influenceofesterifiedglucomannanonperformanceandorganmorphology,serum
biochemistryandhaematologyinbroilersexposedtoindividualandcombinedmycotoxicosis(aflatoxin,ochratoxinandT
2toxin).Brit.Poult.Sci., 41:640650.
Ramos,A.J.,J.FinkGremmels,andE.Hernandez.1996a.Preventionoftoxiceffectsofmycotoxinsbymeansofnonnutritive
adsorbentcompounds.J.FoodProt.59:631641.
Ramos, A.J., and E. Hernandez. 1997. Prevention of aflatoxicosis in farm animals by means of hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicateadditiontofeedstuffs.Areview.Anim.FeedSci.Technol. 65:197206.
Ramos, A.J., E. Hernandez, J.M. PlaDelfina, M. Merino. 1996b. Intestinal absorption of zearalenone and invitro study of
nonnutritivesorbentmaterials.Int.J.Pharm.128:129137.
Reeves,E.P.,C.G.M.Messina,S.Doyle,andK.Kavanagh.2004.Correlationbetweengliotoxinproductionandvirulenceof
AspergillusfumigatusinGalleriamellonella. Mycopathologia158:7379.
Rheeder,J.P.,S.F.O.Marassas,P.G.Thiel,E.W.Sydenham,G.S.Spephard,andD.J.VanSchalkwyk.1992.Fusarium
moniliforme andfumonisins incorninrelationtohumanesophagealcancerinTranskei.Phytopathologh82:353357.
Robbins,J.E.,J.K.Porter,andC.W.Bacon.1986.Occurrenceandclinicalmanifestationsofergotandfescuetoxicoses.Pp.
6174.In:J.L.RichardandJ.L.Thurston(Eds)."DiagnosisofMycotoxicoses".MartinusNijhoffPublishers,
Dordrecht,TheNetherlands.
Roine,K.,E.L.Korpinen,andK.Kallela.1971.Mycotoxicosisasaprobablecauseofinfertilityindairycows.Nord.Vet.
Med.23:628 633.
Russell,L.,D.F.Cox,G.Larsen,K.Bodwell,andC.ENelson.1991.Incidenceofmoldsandmycotoxinsincommercialanimal
feedmillsinsevenMidwesternstates,198889.J.Anim.Sci.69:512.
20
SabaterVilar,M.,R.F.M.Maas,H.DeBosschere,R.DucatelleandJ.FinkGremmels.2004.Patulinproducedbyan
Aspergillusclavatus isolatedfromfeedcontainingmaltingresiduesassociatedwithalethalneurotoxicosisincattle.
Mycopathologia158:419426.
Sargeant,K.A.Sheridan,J.O'KellyandR.B.A.Carnaghan.1961.Toxicity associatedwithcertainsamplesofgroundnuts.Nature
192:10961097
Schaeffer,J.L.,andP.B.Hamilton.1991.Interactionsofmycotoxinswithfeedingredients.Dosafelevelsexist?pp827843.In:J.
E.SmithandR.S.Henderson(Eds.)"MycotoxinsandAnimalFoods".CRCPress.BocaRaton,Florida.
Scheideler,S.E.1993.Effects of varioustypes ofaluminosilicatesandaflatoxinB1 onaflatoxintoxicity,chickperformance,
andmineralstatus. Poult.Sci.72:282288.
Schell,T.C.,M.D.Lindemann,E.T.Kornegay,andD.J.Blodgett.1993a.Effectsoffeedingaflatoxincontaminateddietswith
and without clay to weanling and growing pigs on performance, liverfunction, and mineral metabolism. J. Anim. Sci.
71:12091218.
Schell,T.C.,M.D.Lindemann,E.T.Kornegay,D.J.Blodgett,andJ.A.Doerr.1993b.Effectivenessofdifferenttypesofclays
forreducingthedetrimentaleffectsofaflatoxincontaminateddietsonperformanceandserumprofilesofweanlingpigs.J.
Anim.Sci.71:12261231.
Schiefer,H.B.1990.Mycotoxicosisofdomesticanimalsandtheirdiagnosis.Can.J.Physiol.Pharmacol.68:987990.
Schneweis,I.,K.Meyer,S.HormansdorferandJ.Bauer.2000.Mycophenolicacidinsilage.Appl.Environ.Microbiol.
66:36393641.
Scott,P.M.,T.Delgado,D.B.Prelusky,H.L.Trenholm,andJ.D.Miller.1994.Determinationoffumonisininmilk.J.Environ.
Sci.Health.B29:989998.
Scudamore,K.A.andC.T.Livesay.1998.Occurrenceandsignificanceofmycotoxinsinforagecropsandsilage areview.J.
Sci.Fd.Agric.77:117.
Seglar,B.1997.Casestudiesthatimplicatesilagemycotoxinsasthecauseofdairyherdproblems.pp.242254. In:Silage:
FieldtoFeedbunk.NRAES99,NortheastRegionalAgriculturalEngineeringService,Ithaca,NY.
Seeling,K.,P.Lebzien,S.Danicke,JSpilke,K.H.SudekumandG.Flachowsky.2006.Effectsofleveloffeedintakeand
Fusariumtoxincontaminatedwheatonrumenfermentationaswellasonbloodandmilkparametersincows.J.An.
Physiol.andAn.Nutr.90:103115.
Shadmi, A.,R.VolcaniandT.A.Nobel.1974.Thepathogeniceffectonanimalsfedmouldyhayorgivenitsethericfraction.
Zentralbl.Veterinaermed.ReiheA.21:544552.
Simpson,D.R.,G.E.Weston,J.A.Turner,P.JenningsandP.Nicholson.2001.Differentialcontrolofheadblightpathogensof
wheatbyfungicidesandconsequencesformycotoxincontaminationofgrain.EuropeanJ.PlantPath.107:421431.
Sinha,K.K.1998.Detoxificationofmycotoxinsandfoodsafety.Pages381405.In:MycotoxinsinAgriculture andFood
Safety(Sinha,K.K.,andD.Bhatnagar,eds.), MarcelDekker,Inc.,NewYork.
Smith,E.E.,T.D.Phillips,J.A.Ellis,R.B.Harvey,L.F.Kubena,J.Thompson,andG.Newton.1994.Hydratedsodiumcalcium
aluminosilicatereductionofAFM1residuesindairygoatmilk.J.Anim.Sci.72:677682.
Smith,J.W.,C.H.HillandP.B.Hamilton.1971.Theeffectofdietarymodifications.onaflatoxicosisinthebroilerchicken.
PoultrySci.50:768771.
Smith,T.K.,andE.J.MacDonald.1991.Effectoffusaricacid onbrainregionalneurochemistryandvomitingbehaviorinswine.J.
Anim.Sci.69:20442049.
Solfrizzo, M., A. Visconti, G. Avantaggiato, A. Torres, and S. Chulze. 2001. In vitro and in vivo studies to assess the
effectivenessofcholestyramineasabindingagentforfumonisins. Mycopathologia151:14753.
Speijers,G.J.andM.H.Speijers.2004.Combinedtoxiceffectsofmycotoxins.Toxicol.Lett.153:9198.
Sreemannarayana,O.,A.A.Frohlich,T.G.Vitti,R.R.MarquartandD.Abramson.1988.Studiesofthe toleranceand
dispositionofochratoxinAinyoungcalves.J.AnimalSci.66:17031711.
Stangroom,K.E.,andT.K.Smith.1984.Effectofwholeandfractionateddietaryalfalfamealonzearalenonetoxicosisinratsand
swine.Can.J.Physiol.Pharmacol.62:12191224.
Stanley, V.G., R. Ojo S. Woldesenbet D.H. Hutchinson, and L.F.Kubena. 1993. The use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to
suppresstheeffectsofaflatoxicosisinbroilerchicks. Poult.Sci.72:18671872.
Still,P.,A.W.Macklin,W.E.Ribelin,andE.B.Smalley.1971.RelationshipofochratoxinAtofoetaldeathinlaboratoryand
domesticanimals.Nature234:563564.
Still,P.,R.D.Wei,E.B.SmalleyandF.M.Strong.1972.AmycotoxinfromPenicilliumroqueforti isolatedfromtoxiccattle
feed.Fed.Proc.31(Abstr.):733.
Stroud,J.,E.English,S.Davidson1,B.Hopkins,G.Latimer,W.Hagler,C.BrownieandL.Whitlow.2006. Effectoffeed
additivesonaatoxininmilkofdairycowsfedaatoxincontaminateddiets. J.DairySci.89(Suppl.1):129.
Sumarah,M.W.,J.D.MillerandB.A.Blackwell.2005.Isolationandmetaboliteproductionby Penicilliumroqueforti,P.
paneum andP.crustosum isolatedinCanada.Mycopathologia159:571577.
Swamy,H.V.L.N.,T.KSmith,E.J.,MacDonald,H.J.Boermans,andE.J.Squires.2002.Effectsof feedingablendofgrains
naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins on swine performance, brain regional neurochemistry, and serum
chemistryandtheefficacyofapolymericglucomannanmycotoxinadsorbent.J.Anim.Sci.2002.80:32573267.
21
Swamy, H.V.L.N., T.K Smith, N.A. Karrow, and H.J. Boermans. 2004. Effects of feeding blends of grains naturally
contaminatedwithFusariummycotoxinsongrowthandimmunologicalparametersofbroilerchickens.Poult.Sci.83:533
543.

Tapia,M.O.,M.D.Stern,A.L.Soraci,R.Meronuck,W.Olson,S.Gold,R.L.KoskiHulbertandM.J.Murphy.2005.Patulin
producingmoldsincornsilageandhighmoisturecornandeffectsofpatulinonfermentationbyruminalmicrobesin
continousculture.Anim.Feed.Sci.Technol.119:247258.

TomasevicCanovic,M.,A.Dakovic,G.Rottinghaus,S.Matijasevic,andM.Duricic.2003.Surfactantmodifiedzeolitenew
efficientadsorbentsformycotoxins.Micro.Meso.Materials.61:173180.
Towers,N.R.,J.M.Sprosen,andW.Webber.1995.Zearalenonemetabolitesincyclingandnoncyclingcows.pp.4647. In:
ToxinologyandFoodSafety.ToxinologyandFoodSafetyResearchGroup,RuakuraResearchCentre,Hamilton,
NewZealand.
Trail,F.,N.MahantiandJ.Linz.1995.Molecularbiologyofaflatoxinbiosynthesis.Microbiology141:755765.

Trenholm,H.L.,D.B.Prelusky,J.C.Young,andJ.D.Miller.1988.ReducingMycotoxinsinAnimalFeeds.Publication1827E,
Cat.No.A631827/1988E,AgricultureCanada,Ottawa.

Trucksess,M.W.andA.E.Pohland.2000.MycotoxinProtocolsMethodsinMolecularBiology(Series),HumanaPress,
Totowa,NewJersey.

VanEgmond,H.P.andM.A.Jonker. 2005.Worldwideregulationsonaflatoxins.pp.7793. In: H.B.Abbas,(Ed.)Aflatoxin

andFoodSafety.CRCPress,BocaRaton,FL.
Vough,L.R.andI.Glick.1993.Roundbalesilage.pp.117123.In:"SilageProductionfromSeedtoAnimal".NARES67,
NortheastRegionalAgriculturalEngineeringService,Ithaca,NY.

Watts, C.M., Y.C. Chen, D.R. Ledoux, J.N. Broomhead, A.J. Bermudez, and G.E. Rottinghaus. 2003. Effects of multiple
mycotoxinsandahydratedsodiumcalciumaluminosilicateinpoultry.Inter.J. Poult.Sci.2:372378.
Weaver,G.A.,H.J.Kurtz,J.C.Behrens,T.S.Robison,B.E.Seguin,F.Y.Bates,andC.J.Mirocha1986a.Effectofzearalenone
onthefertilityofvirgindairyheifers.Am.J.Vet.Res.47:13951397.
Weaver,G.A.,H.J.Kurtz,J.C.Behrens,T.S.Robison,B.E.Seguin,F.Y.Bates,andC.J.Mirocha.1986b.Effectofzearalenone
ondairycows.Am.J.Vet.Res.47:18261828.

Weaver,G.A.,H.J.Kurtz,C.J.Mirocha,F.Y.Bates,J.C.Behrens,T.S.Robison,andS.P.Swanson.1980.ThefailureofT2
mycotoxintoproducehemorrhagingindairycattle.Can.Vet.J.21:210213.

Whitlow,L.W.andW.M.Hagler,Jr.1997.MycotoxinsandspoilageEffectsofmycotoxinsontheanimal:Theproducers
perspective.pp.222232,In:Silage:FieldtoFeedbunk,NortheastRegionalAgriculturalEngineeringService,
NRAES99,Ithaca,NY.
Whitlow,L.W.2006.Evaluationofmycotoxinbinders.pp.132143 In:Zimmerman,N.G.(ed.)Proc.4th MidAtlantic
NutritionConference,UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark.

Whitlow,L.W.,W.M.Hagler,Jr.,andB.A.Hopkins.1998.MycotoxinoccurrenceinfarmersubmittedsamplesofNorth
Carolinafeedstuffs:19891997.J.DairySci.81(Abstr.):1189.

Whitlow,L.W.,R.L.Nebel,andW.M.Hagler,Jr.1994.Theassociationofdeoxynivalenolingrainwithmilkproductionloss
indairycows.pp.131139. In:G.C.Llewellyn,W.V.DashekandC.E.ORear,(eds.),BiodeteriorationResearch4.
PlenumPress,NewYork.

Whittaker,T.B.2003.Detectingmycotoxinsinagriculturalcommodities.MolecularBiotechnology23:6172.
Wood,G.E.,andM.W.Trucksess.1998.Regulatorycontrolprogramsformycotoxincontaminatedfood.pp.459451. In:K.K.
SinhaandD.Bhatnagar(eds.),MycotoxinsinAgricultureandFoodSafety.MarkelDekker,Inc.,New York.

Yoon, Y.,and Y.J. Baeck. 1999. Aflatoxin binding and antimutagenicactivities of Bifidobacterium bifidum HY strains and
theirgenotypes.KoreanJ.DairySci.21:291298.

Yu,W.,FY.Yu,D.J.UndersanderandF.S.Chu.1999.Immunoassaysofselectedmycotoxinsinhay,silageandmixedfeed.
FoodAgricult.Immunol.11:307319.
22