Metals:

- Bio accumulate:
o When toxic chemicals passes from the environment into the organisms cells and the organism absorbs
the toxic chemical at a rate greater than that at which the chemical is lost
- Bio magnification:
o Toxic chemical substances become more concentrated and potentially more harmful as they move up the
food chain
- Toxic Metals
o Include heavy metals lead, mercury, nickel
o Definition: a heavy metal has a high atomic weight with a specific gravity that exceeds the specific
gravity of water by 5 or more times at 4C
- 2014 CERCLA list of the top 20 Hazardous Substances
1. Arsenic
2. Lead
3. Mercury Inorganic Substances
4. Cadmium
5. Chromium, hexavalent
6. White Phosphorus
- Love Canal
o Hooker Chemicals dumped 21,000 tons of chemicals into a ditch from 1942-1953
o 1954, Hooker stopped dumping chemicals and covered it with dirt
o They sold the land and 800 homes and an elementary school was built
o Chemicals were leaching and the EPA found benzene + chloroform= serious health risk
Also found 2,3,7,8 tetrachloridibenzo-p-dixon
o Under President Carter led to the passage of the federal Superfund Act
- High and Low Levels of Contact
o High: occupational setting
(e.g among person who work with metals)
o Low: May result from contact with the ambient environment
(e.g among persons who work with metals)
- Potential Exposure Media
o Air
o Soil/Dust
o Water
o Biota/Food
- Essential Metals with Potential of Toxicity
o Metals that are in our body that are essential for our health but can be lethal if overexposed/consumed
Ex: Cobalt, Chromium(III), Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Manganese, Selenium, Zinc
- Major Toxic Metals with Multiple Effects
o Ingestion or contact these metals are toxic
Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, Nickel
- Copper, Zinc, Iron
o Essential Metals for human nutrition and health
o Obtained from food, drinking water and dietary supplements
- Iron
o O2 transport and growth of cells
o About 66% of iron of the body is used in Hemoglobin (RBCs)
o Anemia: too little iron
o Excessive amounts= vomiting, diarrhea, damage to the intestines
o Iron Toxicity: low blood pressure, lethargy, liver injury, seizures
 - Chromium
o Naturally occurring element in the earths crust
(e.g. rocks, soil, materials of volcanic origin)
o Most common forms
Chromium (o)
Chromium (III)= essential nutrient
Chromium (VI)= classified as a carcinogen (Can cause cancer in the living tissue)
Exposure: digestive problems, damage to the organs such as kidney and liver
Produces skin ulcers
Inhaling can cause respiratory problems= runny nose, nose bleeds
- Erin Brockovich
o Advocated for residents against electric power company accused of contaminating the towns water with
hexavalent chromium
- Arsenic
o Varies in toxicity depending upon its chemical form
o Used in pesticides, wood preservation and manufacturing processes
o Exposure can come from ingestion and inhalation
o Exposure= lung cancer when inhaled, cerebrovascular disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes ( long
term exposure), skin, bladder, kidney and liver cancer when ingested; still births, preterm births,
abortions
Bangladesh has the highest Arsenic exposure in the world
- Lead
o Sources: gasoline; tap water; leaded batteries; painting surface; imported pottery that is used in food
service
o Exposure= serious CNS effect; lead poisoning is one of the most common environmental pediatric
health problems in US increased likelihood of decrease in IQ and behavioral difficulties
- Flint Water Crisis
o Lack of corrosion control
- Mercury
o Naturally occurring metal that is highly toxic
o Used to medically treat syphilis as an agricultural fungicide and for fillings in cavities
o Released into the environment as a by-product of industrial processes
o Exposure: microorganism in bodies of water ingest these small amounts of mercury and the process of
bioaccumulation causes the mercury to become more concentrated in aquatic intervertbrates
Minamoto Disease: numbness of the extremities, deafness, poor vision and drowsiness
Pesticides
- Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
o Organic, carbon based chemical substances. Once released into the environment, they:
Remain intact for long periods of time
Become wildly distributed
Accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms
Are toxic to both humans and wildlife
o Dirty Dozen but later added 9 more chemicals
9 pesticides
3 industrial chemicals and combustion by product
- Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane: DDT
o Used to control insects and harmful mosquitos that carry malaria during 1940s-1960s
o 1972 prohibited it in the US because of health effects
 Linked to: cancer, reproductive effects, impaired lactation, falling sperm count, impaired
neurological function
o 1995: DDT in fish tissue
o 1990-2000: DDT in breast milk across the world
o DDT became more concentrated as it moved up the food chain
Bald Eagle- as top carnivore it feeds on fish
Affected Bald Eagles ability to reproduce; eagle eggs had thin shells- broken easily
Population decreased to 4,000 and was listed as endangered
- EPA banned DDT in 1972
o Eagle population increased rapidly and now the bald eagle is listed as threatened
- Endangered Species Act
o Provides a program for the conservation of threatened and endangered plants and animals and the
habitats in which they are found
Endangered Species: any species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant
Threatened Species: any species that is likely to become an endangered species within the
foreseeable future
- US Fish and Wildlife Services
o Maintains the list of 632 species (326 are plants) and 190 threatened species (78 are plants)
- FIRFA of 1996
o Provides federal control of pesticide, distribution, sale and use
Gives EPA authority to conduct research on pesticide usage
Require users (ex: farmer, utility company) to register when purchasing pesticides
All pesticides must be registered by EPA
Pesticides must be properly labeled
- Characteristics of Hazardous Substances on the CERCLA Priority List
o The agency of toxic substances and disease registry (ATSDR) has identified a list of the top 20
hazardous substances
The list is revised every 2 years
o Pose the most significant potential threat to human health because they
1. Have known or suspected toxicity and
2. Exposure occur frequently
o Several organic compounds are featured in this list
- Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
o A group of over 100 different chemicals that are formed during the incomplete burning of coal, oil, gas,
garbage or other organic substances (e.g tobacco, charbroiled meat)
- Scale of Pesticide Use in the US
o Since 1959, 50 fold increase in pesticide use
Most present pesticides are 10-100x more toxic than those used in 1950s
o Most of the insecticide and herbicide are used in crops cotton and corn
o 25% of pesticide use in the US is in houses, gardens, lawns, parks, swimming pools and golf courses
o Average lawn receives 10x more pesticides than equivalent area of cropland
o Each year:
250,000 people are in ERs with pesticide poisoning
2.4 million tons of pesticides are used
25,000 commercial pesticide products
600 active chemicals mixes with 1200 solvents, inactive ingredients
- Advantages of Pesticides
o Save human lives (malaria, bubonic plague, typhoid fever)
o Increases food supplies
o Increase profit for farmers
 o Work fast
o Safer and more effective pesticides continually develop
- Disadvantages of Pesticides
o Accelerate the development of genetic resistance to pesticides by pest organisms
o Some kill natural predators and parasites that control pests
o They dont stay put
Only 0.1 to 2% of stuff applied reaches target insect. 5% reaches target plant, the restinto air,
water, wildlife
o Harm Wildlife
Each year pesticides wipe out about 20% of honeybee population, damage another 15%, losing
US farmers $200 million/year
Kill 6-14 million fish
Kill 67 million birds/year
o Threaten human life (bio magnification)
Poison 3.5-5 million workers in developing countries and at least 300,000 in the US
Causes 20,000-40,000 deaths (25 in the US) per year
In food, causes about 4,000-20,000 cases of cancer/year in US; genetic mutation, birth defects,
CNS disorders, endocrine disorders
- Types of Pesticides
o 1. Insecticide
A pesticide compound specifically used to kill or prevent the growth of insects
o 2. Herbicide
A chemical pesticide designed to control or destroy plants, weeds or grasses
Interferes with photosynthesis
Creates excess growth hormones
Kill soil microorganisms
Examples:
Atrazine (interferes with photosynthesis)
Paraquat (interferes with photosynthesis)
Agent Orange
o 3. Fungicide
A pesticide that is used to control, deter, or destroy fungi
o 4. Nematocide
A chemical agent that is destructive to nematodes (round worms)
o 5. Rodenticide
A chemical or agent used to destroy rats or other rodent pests, or to prevent them from damaging
food, crops, ect
- Who is at risk with Pesticide Exposure?
o Agriculture workers
o Pets
o Children
o Livestock
o Sensitive subpopulations pregnant women, older people, people with ill health and impaired immunity
- Major Classes of Pesticides and Insecticides
o Organophosphates (OP)
Causes neurotoxic effects; some are nerve agents
Appear in a wide variety of products: spray bottles, powders
Tend not to persist in the environment
Example: malathion approved for direct application to food crops such as fruit
o Organocarbamates
 Dissipate quickly from the environment as a result of breaking down into other substances
Days to weeks
Approved for controlling garden pests (snails, wasps)
An ingredient in some products applied to furry pets to control ticks and fleas
o Organochlorides
Characteristically unstable and fat soluble- persist in the environment and bio accumulate in the
food chain
Half-life of 2-10 years
Associated with suppression of the immune system and cancer
o Pyrethroids
Stays in the environment from days to weeks
Have great ability to paralyze and kill flying insects
Interfere with transmission of neural impulses via action on sodium channels
Generally have low concentrations of the active ingredient
Used inside the home in aerosol cans, insecticide bombs, ect.
May be inhaled as a result of spraying and may be ingested in foods
- Methods of Pest control
o Cultivation Practice
o Genetic Engineering
o Other Methods
Plant toxins
Microbes toxic to plants
Control of pest populations by natural predators, parasites, or pathogens
Pheromones to lure pests into traps
Release of sterile males
- Integrated Pest Management
o Each crop and its pests evaluated as parts of an ecological system
o Control program developed to include a mix of cultivation, biological and chemical control methods
o Goal to keep each pest population just below size that causes economic loss
- Organic
o Foods produced without hormones, antibiotics, herbicides, insecticides, chemical fertilizers, genetic
modification or germ killing radiation
- Methyl Isocyanate (MIC)
o An intermediate chemical used for the manufacture of carbonate pesticides
o When acute exposure occurs, MIC is extremely toxic to life forms
o MIC release in Bhopal, India
In 1984, killed more than 3,800 people
- Dioxins
o Refers to a family of chemical compounds that are unintentional byproducts of certain industrial, non-
industrial and natural processes, usually involving combustion.
o A total of 419 compounds in the dioxin family are known to exist.
Scientists regard only about 30 of these as being the most poisonous.
o Stable, persistent and bio accumulate within the food chain
o Forest fires and volcanic eruptions emit dioxins into the environment
o Human activities that produce dioxins:
Incineration of industrial and municipal wastes
Burning of some fuels
Bleaching the wood pulp for paper manufacturing process
Tobacco combustion
o Health Effects of exposure to dioxin depends on:
 Duration, frequency of exposure, when exposure occurred, concentration of the agent and route
of entry into the body
o Health Effects of exposure to dioxin include:
Skin rashes, skin discoloration, excessive body hair, liver damage, cancer risks, endocrine risks,
reproductive and developmental effects
- Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
o Common uses before being banned:
Lubricant
Insulating fluid in transformers and capacitors
o Tend to bioaccumulate in animals used for food, and in turn impact human health
o Health Effects of PCB:
Cause cancer in animals and are designed as probable human carcinogen
May impact the immune system, reproductive system and childrens intellectual development
May limit the development of the immune response to the Epstein Barr virus and other viral and
bacterial infections
- Organic Solvents
o Refers to a liquid capable of dissolving other substances, the solvent does not change in forming a
solution
o Modes of exposure
Inhaling vapors during use
Ingesting them in foods
Smoking cigarettes
Working in a factory- chronic exposure
Using foods and cosmetics packed in certain types of plastics
- Chemicals Used in Plastics Manufacturing
o Styrene
Used for the manufacture of polystyrene resins, which are components of many types of plastics
Short term inhalation of styrene can produce CNS effects such as muscle weakness, and
problems concentrating on tasks; irritation of the respiratory tract
Possibly a carcinogen
o Vinyl Chloride
Used mainly for the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, which is an ingredient in plastic products
such as pipes, vinyl sidings for houses, plastic coatings and upholstery
CLASSIFIED as a human carcinogen
- Agent Orange
o Used during Vietnam War
o 19 million gallons of defoliants sprayed on 3.6 million acres in Vietnam and Laos
o Contained small amounts of dioxin
o Health Effects included:
Associated with several forms of cancer
Hodgkins Disease, Chronic Lymphocytic leukemia, non-Hodgkins lymphoma and soft
tissue sarcoma
- Environmental Estrogens
o Some organic chemicals may have estrogenic activity (ex: chlorinated hydrocarbon)
o DDT can be called an endocrine disruptor acts as an antagonist to androgen
o May have abnormal influences on the reproductive systems of exposed humans and animals
o May act as cancer promoters by having influence ono onset of female cancers that are thought to be
caused by estrogenic activity
Radiation
- Radiation
o Refers to energy traveling through space. Two types: Ionizing and Non Ionizing
o Ionizing Radiation
Has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms thus creating ions
Its properties are used to generate electric power, to kill cancer cells and in many manufacturing
processes
Ex: alpha, beta particles, gamma rays
Sources of exposure on Earth: Radon (55%), natural sources (26%), Medical X-rays (11%), ect
Amounts if Ionizing Radiation received annually by US residents: 54% (total anthropogenic) and
46% (total natural)
Anthropogenic (man-made) Sources of Ionizing Radiation
X-rays and other procedures used in medicine
Consumer products
Nuclear power generator
Radioactivity from the production and detonation of nuclear weapons
Natural Sources of Ionizing Radiation
Cosmic rays
Other forms of radiation that impinge upon earth from outer space
Radiation from Geologic formations that contain radioactive elements such as uranium,
from which radon gas is formed as a decay product

o Non-Ionizing Radiation
Has enough energy to move atoms in a molecule around or cause them to vibrate, but not enough
to remove electron
Ex: microwave radiation, UV radiation
- Ionization
o Process where an electron is ejected from an atom, which becomes electrically charged
o Ionization Radiation: any radiation that is capable of forming ions by ejecting electron from atoms
Alpha particles
Stopped by a sheet of paper
Main sources
o Uranium mining wastes have high concentrations of uranium and radium
o Mining and current methods for processing phosphate or for fertilizer
Uses
o Radium 226treat cancer
o Polonium 210--static eliminator in paper mills
o Americium 241smoke detectors
Health Effects
 o Inner exposure from inhalation or ingestion much more concerning than Outer
exposure (eyes and open wounds must be carefully protected)
Beta Particles
Stopped by a layer of clothing or a millimeter of aluminum
Main Sources
o Used in medical imaging, diagnostic and treatment procedures
o Industrial instruments
o May enter the environment during a nuclear reactor accident and find its way
through the food chain
Uses
o Iodine 131treat thyroid disorders
o Phosphorus 32used in molecular bio and genetic research
o Strontium 90radioactive tracer
o Carbon 14dating organic matter
Health Effects
o Inhaled and ingested beta particle emitters are greatest concern
o Can cause damage to the molecular level, disrupt cell function
o Travel further into tissues
Gamma Rays and X-rays
Stopped by several feet or concrete or a few inches of lead
- Unit of Radioactivity
o Conventional unit Curie (Ci): 1 Ci= 37 billion nuclear disintegrations/second
o SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq): 1 Bq= 1 nuclear disintegrations/second
- Radon
o Natural source of ionizing radiation
o #2 leading cause of lung cancer after ETS
o Colorless/Odorless gas that is produced naturally by the decay or natural radioactive material in Earth
o Sweeps into home through uranium containing soil and in water from wells
Radon gas further decays into short-lived daughter products that attach to particles and can be
deposited in the deep lung.
When these decay, they cause radiation exposures to nearby lung tissue.
It is estimated that 5-20 thousand lung cancer deaths are caused by radon annually in the US.
Usually <1% of indoor air comes from the soil
HOWEVER houses with low indoor air pressures & poorly sealed foundations may draw
20% from soil
- Non Ionizing Radiation
o Radiation that has enough energy to move atoms in a molecule around or cause them to vibrate, but not
enough to remove electrons
Ex: sound waves, visible light, microwaves
o Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR)
Part of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by the sun
Subdivided into UVA, UVB, UVC UVB considered to the form that is most harmful for
health
o Effects of UV Radiation
Temporary conditions include burns and temporary blinding
Long term consequences: photo aging of the skin, non-melanoma skin cancer, malignant
melanoma, retinal damage
- Radiofrequency Radiation and Cell Phone
o Cell phones emit low levels of radiofrequency energy (RF)
Large amounts can increase body temperatures and cause tissue damage
 Even a small adverse health effect could have substantial implications for population health
- Classification of Carcinogens
o Group 1: carcinogenic to humans
o Group 2A: probably carcinogenic to humans
o Group 2B: possibly carcinogenic to humans
o Group 3: not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans
o Group 4: probably not a carcinogenic to humans
- Chapter 6 Text book Notes:
o Melanosis: dermatologic condition that can cause the darkening of the skin of the entire body
Problem in some areas of Bangladesh and India where levels of arsenic in the groundwater
exceed WHO standards
o Beryllium
Classified carcinogen; most hazardous level for a cancer causing substance
Beryllium residues from emissions from coal-burning power plants may contaminate agriculture
products
Widely used in industry because of its special properties lighter than aluminum but stronger
than steel
o Cadmium
Found in all soils and rocks (and coals and fertilizers)
Released as a by-product of the mining industry, manufacture of pesticides and fertilizers,
combustion of coal and iron and steel production
Known to bio accumulate in shellfish and some mushrooms
Not regarded as essential for life processes
Lots of health effects potentially associated with cadmium/ Itai-itai disease
- Chapter 7: Textbook Notes