Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
14-1
Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements
14-2
Hydrogen
14-3
Figure 14.1 Where does hydrogen belong?
14-4
Hydrogen and the Alkali Metals
14-5
Hydrogen and Group 4A
14-6
Hydrogen and the Halogens
14-7
Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry
14-8
Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry
14-9
Trends for the Period 2 Elements
14-10
Table 14.1 Trends in Atomic, Physical, and Chemical
Properties of the Period 2 Elements.
14-11
Table 14.1 Trends in Atomic, Physical, and Chemical
Properties of the Period 2 Elements.
14-12
Table 14.1 Trends in Atomic, Physical, and Chemical
Properties of the Period 2 Elements.
14-13
Table 14.1 Trends in Atomic, Physical, and Chemical
Properties of the Period 2 Elements.
14-14
Table 14.1 Trends in Atomic, Physical, and Chemical
Properties of the Period 2 Elements.
14-16
Figure 14.3 Overcoming electron deficiency in beryllium chloride.
14-17
Anomalous Behavior in Period 2
14-18
Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
14-19
Family Portrait
GROUP 1A(1): REACTIONS
Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents.
They always occur in nature as +1 cations rather than as free
metals.
Alkali metals reduce halogens to form ionic solids:
2E(s) + X2 3EX(s) (X = F, Cl, Br, I and E is the alkali metal).
Alkali metals react vigorously with H2O:
2E(s) + H2O(l) 2E+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
Alkali metals reduce H2 to form ionic hydrides.
2E(s) + H2(g) 2EH(s)
Alkali metals reduce O2 in air, and tarnish rapidly.
14-20
Properties of the Alkali Metals
14-21
Lithium floating in oil Potassium reacting with
floating on water. Alkali water. Alkali metals are
metals have low densities. very reactive.
14-22
Figure 14.4 Lattice energies of the Group 1A(1) and 2A(2) chlorides.
Lattice energy increases as the size of the cation decreases and its
charge increases.
14-23
Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals
14-24
Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
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14-25
Family Portrait
GROUP 2A(2) REACTIONS
The metals reduce O2 to form oxides:
3E(s) + O2(g) 3EO(s)
The larger metals reduce water to form H2 gas:
2E(s) + H2O(l) 2E2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) (E = Ca, Sr, Ba)
The metals reduce halogens to form ionic halides:
E(s) + X2 EX2(s) [X = F (not with Be), Cl, Br, I]
Most of the elements reduce H2 to form ionic hydrides:
E(s) + H2(g) EH2 (s) (E = all except Be)
14-26
Family Portrait
14-27
Figure 14.5 Three diagonal relationships in the periodic table.
14-28
Group 3A(13): The Boron Family Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
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14-29
Family Portrait
GROUP 3A(13) REACTIONS
14-30
Influence of Transition Elements on
Group 3A(13)
14-31
Features of Group 3A(13) Elements
14-32
Figure 14.6 The dimeric structure of gaseous aluminum chloride.
14-33
Highlights of Boron Chemistry
All boron compounds are covalent, and B forms a variety
of network covalent compounds with other elements.
14-34
Figure 14.7 The two types of covalent bonding in diborane.
14-35
Figure 14.8 The boron icosahedron and one of the boranes.
14-36
Beryllium and Aluminum
There is a diagonal relationship between Be and Al.
Both form oxoanions in strong base:
beryllate, Be(OH)42- and aluminate, Al(OH)4-.
Both have bridge bonds in their hydrides and chlorides.
Their oxides are
coatings that are impervious to water,
amphoteric, and
extremely hard with high melting points.
Some Al and all Be compounds have significant
covalent character.
14-37
Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
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14-38
Family Portrait
GROUP 4A(14): REACTIONS
The Group 4A(14) elements are oxidized by halogens:
E(s) + 2X2 EX4 (E = C, Si, Ge)
The +2 halides are more stable for tin and lead, SnX2 and PbX2.
The elements are oxidized by O2:
E(s) + O2(g) EO2 (E = C, S, Ge, Sn)
Pb forms the +2 oxide, PbO.
Oxides become more basic down the group.
Hydrocarbons react with O2:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Silica is reduced to form elemental silicon:
SiO2(s) + 2C(s) Si(s) + 2CO(g)
14-39
Table 14.2 Bond Type and the Melting Process in Groups
3A(13) to 5A(15)
14-40
Allotropes
14-41
Figure 14.9 Phase diagram of carbon.
14-42
Figure 14.10 Crystalline buckminsterfullerene and a buckyball (A)
and nanotubes (B).
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Nanotubes
14-43
Bonding in Group 4A(14) Compounds
14-44
Figure 14.11 Salt-like +2 chlorides and oily +4 chlorides show
greater metallic character of tin and lead in the
lower oxidation state.
14-45
Carbon in Organic Chemistry
The large number and wide variety of organic compounds
is due to the ability of C to bond to itself, and to form
multiple bonds.
14-46
Figure 14.12 Three of the several million known organic
compounds of carbon.
14-47
Inorganic Compounds of Carbon
Carbon bond with oxygen to form carbonates. Metal
carbonates such as CaCO3 are abundant in minerals.
14-48
Figure 14.13 Freon-12 (CCl2F2), a chlorofluorocarbon.
14-49
Highlights of Silicon Chemistry
14-50
Figure 14.14 Structures of the silicate anions in some minerals.
14-51
Figure 14.15 Quartz is a three-dimensional framework silicate.
14-52
Group 5A(15) Elements
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Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
14-54
Family Portrait
GROUP 5A(15) REACTIONS
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Family Portrait
GROUP 5A(15) REACTIONS
14-56
Figure 14.16 Two allotropes of phosphorous.
Red phosphorous
14-57
Patterns of Behavior in Group 5A(15)
14-58
Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrogen forms six stable oxides. DHf for all six oxides is
positive because of the great strength of the NN bond.
NO is produced by the oxidation of ammonia:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) +6H2O(g)
This is the first step in the production of nitric acid.
NO is converted to 2 other oxides by heating:
3NO(g) N2O(g) + NO2(g)
This type of redox reaction is called disproportionation.
NO2 is a component of photochemical smog.
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Table 14.3 Structures and Properties of the Nitrogen Oxides
14-60
Nitrogen Oxoacids and Oxoanions
14-61
Figure 14.17 The structures of nitric and nitrous acids and their
oxoanions.
14-62
Figure 14.18 Important oxides of phosphorous.
14-63
Oxoacids of Phosphorus
H3PO3 has only two acidic H atoms; the third is bonded to the
central P and does not dissociate.
14-64
Figure 14.19 The diphosphate ion and polyphosphates.
14-65
Group 6A(16) Elements
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Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
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14-67
Family Portrait
GROUP 6A(16) REACTIONS
14-68
Allotropes in the Oxygen Family
14-69
Figure 14.20 The cyclo-S8 molecule.
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Hydrides of the Oxygen Family
Oxygen forms two hydrides:
water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
H2O2 contains oxygen in a -1 oxidation state.
The hydrides of the other 6A elements are foul-smelling,
poisonous gases.
H2S forms naturally in swamps from the breakdown of organic
matter and is as toxic as HCN.
H2O and H2O2 can form H bonds, and therefore have
higher melting and boiling points than other H2E
compounds.
Hydride bond angles decrease and bond lengths
increase down the group.
14-71
Halides of the Oxygen Family
14-72
Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry
14-73
Figure 14.21 The dehydration of sugar by sulfuric acid.
14-74
Group 7A(17): The Halogens Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
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14-75
Family Portrait
GROUP 7A(17) REACTIONS
14-76
Reactivity of the Halogens
14-77
Figure 14.22 Bond energies and bond lengths of the halogens.
14-78
Figure 14.23 The relative oxidizing ability of the halogens.
14-79
Figure 14.23 continued
14-80
Interhalogen Compounds
14-81
Odd-numbered oxidation states:
14-82
Figure 14.24 Molecular shapes of the main types of interhalogen
compounds.
ClF ClF3
linear, XY
T-shaped, XY3
BrF5
IF7
Square Pentagonal
pyramidal, XY5 bipyramidal, XY7
14-83
Figure 14.25 Chlorine oxides.
lone e-
dichlorine monoxide
Cl2O
dichlorine heptaoxide
Cl2O7
chlorine dioxide
ClO2
14-84
Table 14.4 The Known Halogen Oxoacids*
14-85
Relative Strength of Halogen Oxoacids
14-86
Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases Family Portrait
KEY ATOMIC PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND REACTIONS
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14-87
Noble Gases
14-88
Figure 14.26 Crystals of xenon tetrafluoride (Xe(F4).
14-89