A Figure 2.

1 What weapon are thesewood ants

shootinginto the air?

to BiologY
Connection
A Chemicol
defend them
$ ike other animals, ants have structures and mechanisms that
or thousands, and the col-
Lfrorn attack. Wood ants live in colonies of hundreds
with enemies.
ony as a whole has a particularly effective mechanism for dealing
air from their
Wiren threatened, the ants shoot volleys of formic acid into the
upon the potential invaders (Figure 2'1)' This
abdomens, and the acid rains down
and in fact got its name from the
substanceis produced by many speciesof ants
formic acid isn't shot
Latin word {or ant,formica.Eor quite a few ant species,the
ants againstmicrobial
out, but probably servesas a disinfectant that protects the
parasites.Scientistshave long known that chemicals play a major role in insect
against predators.
communication, the attraction of mates, and defense
relevant chemistry
Researchon ants and other insects is a good example of how
packaged into
is to the study of life. Unlike college courses, nature is not neatly
physics, and so forth. Biologists specialize
individual sciences-biology, chemistry,
are natural systems to
in the study of life, but organisms and their environments
is multidisciplinary'
which the concepts of chemistry and physics apply' Biology
introduces some basic concepts of chemistry that apply to
This unit of chapters
to cells, we will cross
the study of life. Somewhere in the transition from molecules
chapter focuses on the chemical
the blurry boundary between nonlife and life. This
components that make up all matter'
C O N CEPT
2,"I TheElements
of Life
Of the 92 natural elements, about 20-25% are essential
Mofter
consists elements
ofchemicol in elements that an organism needs to live a healthy life and
pure
formondincombinotions
colled reproduce. The essentialelements are similar among organ-
isms, but there is some variation-for example, humans
compounds need 25 elements,but plants need only 17.
Organismsare composed of matter, which is anything that fust four elements-oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen
takesup spaceand has mass.oMatter exists in many forms. (H), and nitrogen (N)-make up 96% of living matter. Cal-
Rocks,metals,oils, gases,and living organisms are a few ex- cium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (I(), sulfur (S), and a
amplesof what seemsto be an endlessassortment of matter. few other elements account for most of the remaining4o/o
of an organism's mass.Trace elements are required by an
Elements
ondCompounds organism in only minute quantities. Some trace elements,
such as iron (Fe),are needed by all forms of life; others are
Matteris made up of elements. An element is a substance
required only by certain species.For example, in vertebrates
thatcannotbe broken down to other substancesby chemi-
(animals with backbones),the element iodine (I) is an es-
calreactions.Today, chemists recognize 92 elements oc-
sential ingredient of a hormone produced by the thyroid
curringin nature; gold, copper, carbon, and oxygen are
gland. A daily intake of only 0.15 milligram (mg) of iodine is
examples. Each element has a symbol, usually the first letter
adequatefor normal activity of the human thyroid. An io-
or two of its name. Some symbols are derived from Latin or
dine deficiency in the diet causesthe thyroid gland to grow
German;for instance, the symbol for sodium is Na, from the
to abnormal size, a condition called goiter.'Where it is avail-
Latinword natrium.
able, eating seafoodor iodized salt reduces the incidence of
A compound is a substanceconsisting of two or more
goiter. All the elements needed by the human body are listed
differentelementscombined in a fixed ratio. Table salt, for
in Table 2.1.
example, is sodium chloride (NaCl), a compound composed
Some naturally occurring elements are toxic to organ-
of the elementssodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) in a 1:1 ratio.
isms. In humans, for instance,the element arsenic has been
Puresodium is a metal, and pure chlorine is a poisonous gas,
linked to numerous diseasesand can be lethal. In some areas
Whenchemicallycombined, however, sodium and chlorine
of the world, arsenic occurs naturally and can make its way
forman ediblecompound. Water (HrO), another com-
into the groundwater. As a result of using water from drilled
pound,consistsof the elements hydrogen (H) and oxygen
(O)in a 2:1 ratio. These are simple examples of organized
matterhaving emergent properties: A compound has char-
acteristicsdifferent from those of its elements (Figure 2.2).
Percentageof Body Mass
I Element sY'*l (includingwater)

Oxygen o 65.0%

-m
Carbon 18.5%
96.3o/o
Hydrogen H 9.5o/o

)iTe:: N 3.3%
Calcium 1.5%

Phosphorus P 1.0%

Potassium K 0.4o/o

Sodium Chlorine Sodiumchloride S ul fu r s 0.3o/o 3.-lo/o

Sodium Na 0.2%
I Figure2.2 The emergentpropertiesof a compound.The
metal sodium with the poisonous
combines gaschlorine,
formingthe Chlorine cl 0.2%
e d i bco
l e m pound
s odiumc hl o ri d eo,r ta b l es a l t.
Magnesium Mg 0.1o/o

*lneverydaylanguagewe tend to substitute the term weight for mass, al-
thoughthe two are not identical. Mass is the amount of matter in an object,
whereasthe weight of an object is how strongly that mass is pulled by grav-
iry Theweight of an astronaut walking on the moon is approximately 7othe
weight on Earth, but his or her mass is the same. However, as long
astronaut's
asweareearthbound, the weight of an object is a measure of its mass; in ev-
erydaylanguage, therefore,we tend to use the terms infglshpnocrhh,
: Traceel ements(l essthan 0.0.]%of mass):B oron(B ),chromi um(C r),c obal t
: (C o),copper(C u),fl uori ne (F),i odi ne(l ), i ron (Fe),manganes e(Mn), mol y b-
: denum (Mo),sel eni um(S e),si l i con(S i ),ti n (5n),vanadi um(V),z i nc (Zn)
@ Givenwhat you know about the human
body, what do you think could account for the high percentageof oxy-
gen (65.0%)?

CHAPTER2 The ChemicalContext of Life 29

 ?"?
CONCEPT

Anelemenl's properties onthe

-e:!qn'q=1"'
A Figure 2.3 Serpentine plant community.
Theseplantsare growing on serpentinesoil,which containselements
toxicto plants.
Theinsetsshowa close-upof serpen-
thatareusuallv
lily.
tinerockandoneof the plants,a TiburonMariposa
wells in southern Asia, millions of people have been inadver-
tently exposed to arsenic-ladenwater. Efforts are under way
to reduce arsenic levels in their water supply.
Evolution
CoseStudy: lo Toxic
of Toleronce
Elements
Some specieshave become adapted to en-
ffi
vironments containing elements that are usually toxic; an
example is serpentineplant communities. Serpentineis a
jade-like mineral that contains elevatedconcentrations of
elements such as chromium, nickel, and cobalt. Although
most plants cannot survive in soil that forms from serpen-
tine rock, a small number of plant specieshave adaptations
that allow them to do so (Figure 2'3). Presumably,variants
of ancestral,nonserpentine speciesarose that could sur-
vive in serpentine soils,and subsequentnatural selection
resulted in the distinctive array of specieswe see in these
areas today. Researchersare studying whether serpentine-
adapted plants could take up toxic healy metals in con-
taminated areas,concentrating them for safer disposal.
CONCEPT CHECK 2. I
depend
of itsotoms
slruclure
Each element consists of a certain type of atom that is dif-
ferent from the atoms of any other element. An atom is the
smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an
element. Atoms are so small that it would take about a mil-
lion of them to stretch acrossthe period printed at the end
of this sentence.We symbolize atoms with the same abbre-
viation used for the element that is made up of those atoms.
For example, the symbol C stands for both the element car-
bon and a single carbon atom.
Porticles
Subotomic
Although the atom is the smallest unit having the proper-
ties of an element, these tiny bits of matter are composed
of even smaller parts, called subatomic particles.Using
high-energy collisions, physicists have produced more than
a hundred types of particles from the atom, but only three
kinds ofparticles are relevant here: neutrons, protons, and
electrons. Protons and electrons are electrically charged'
Each proton has one unit ofpositive charge,and each elec-
tron has one unit of negative charge.A neutron, as its name
implies, is electrically neutral.
Protons and neutrons are packedtogether tightly in a
densecore, or atomic nucleus, at the center of an atom;
protons give the nucleus a positive charge.The rapidly mov-
ing electronsform a "cloud" ofnegative chargearound the
nucleus,and it is the attraction between opposite chargesthat
keepsthe electronsin the vicinity of the nucleus.Figure 2'4
Cloudof negative Electrons
charge(2 electrons) n
t / \
, a Nu c le u s .
,/
,NN

I @ Ex ploinhowt obles o l t h o s
##
emergeni properfies.(See Concept I.1 )
2. ls o troce element on essentiolelement? Exploin.
2
EEffiffi ln humons, iron is o troce element required (a) Thismodelrepresentsthe ( b ) I n t h i s m o r esi m p l i fi e dm o d e l ,
for the proper functioning of hemoglobin, the molecule asa cloudof
two electrons the electronsare shown
thot corries oxygen in red blood cells.Whot might be the negativecharge. as two smallyellowspheres
effects of on iron deficiencY? o n a ci r cl ea r o u n dth e n u cl e u s
4 @ Exploinhow noturolselection A Figure 2.4 Simplifiedmodelsof a helium(He)atom.The
might hove ployedo rolein the evolutionof speciesihot heliumnucleus (brown)and2 protons
o{ 2 neutrons
consists (pink)
ore tolerontof serpentinesoils.(ReviewConcept 1.2) Twoelectrons (yellow) the nucleus.
existoutside Thesemodels arenot
theygreatly
to scale; overestimate to
in relation
the sizeof the nucleus
F o r su g g e ste d o n swe r s,see A ppendi x A
cloud.
the electron

30 UN lT o N E The ChemistrY of Life

showstwo commonly used models of the structure of the he-
lium atom as an example.
The neutron and proton are almost identical in mass,
eachabout 7.7 x I0 2a gram (g). Grams and other conven-
tional units are not very useful for describing the mass of ob,
jectsthat are so minuscule. Thus, for atoms and subatomic
particles(and for molecules, too), we use a unit of measure-
ment called the dalton, in honor of )ohn Dalton, the British
scientistwho helped develop atomic theory around 1800.
(The dalton is the same as the atomic mass unit, or 6.mL!,a
unit you may have encountered elsewhere.)Neutrons and
protonshave massesclose to 1 dalton. Becausethe mass of
an electron is only about 1/2,000 that ofa neutron or pro-
ton, we can ignore electrons when computing the total mass
o f a n a t om .
Atomic
Number
ondAtomic
Moss
Atoms of the various elements differ in their number of
subatomicparticles. All atoms of a particular element have
the samenumber of protons in their nuclei. This number
of protons, which is unique to that element, is called the
atomic number and is written as a subscript to the left
of the symbol for the element. The abbreviation ,He, for
example,tells us that an atom of the element helium has 2
protonsin its nucleus. Unless otherwise indicated, an atom
is neutral in electrical charge, which means that its protons
mustbe balancedby an equal number of electrons.There-
fore,the atomic number tells us the number of protons
andalso the number of electrons in an electrically neutral
atom.
W'ecan deduce the number of neutrons from a second
quantity,the mass number, which is the sum of protons
plusneutrons in the nucleus of an atom. The mass number
iswritten as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol,
Forexample,we can use this shorthand to write an atom of
heliumas fHe. Becausethe atomic number indicates how
manyprotons there are, we can determine the number of
neutronsby subtracting the atomic number from the mass
number.Accordingly, the helium atom r4Hehas 2 neutrons.
Forsodium (Na):
. Mass number: number of protons * neutrons
/ :23 for sodium
??u"
\
\Atomic
number: number of protons
: number of electrons in a neutral atom
: 11 for sodium
Number of neutrons: mass number - atomic number
:2 3 - IL : 1 2 fo r s o d i u m
Thesimplest atom is hydrogen |H, which has no neutrons; it
consists
of a single proton with a single electron.
Becausethe contribution of electrons to mass is neg-
ligible, almost all of an atom's mass is concentrated in its
nucleus. And since neutrons and protons each have a mass
very close to 1 dalton, the mass number is an approximation
of the total mass of an atom, called its atomic mass. So we
might say that the atomic mass of sodium (]lNa) is 23 dal-
tons, although more precisely it is 22.9898daltons.
lsotopes
All atoms of a given element have the same number of
protons, but some atoms have more neutrons than other
atoms of the same element and therefore have greater mass.
These different atomic forms of the same element are called
isotopes of the element. In nature, an element occurs as a
mixture of its isotopes.As an explanatory example,let's con-
sider the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element
carbon, which has the atomic number 6. The most common
isotope is carbon-12, tlc, which accounts for about 99o/o of
the carbon in nature. The isotope tlc has 6 neutrons. Most
of the remainingTo/oof carbon consists of atoms of the iso-
1!C,
tope with 7 neutrons. A third, even rarer isotope, 1lC,
has 8 neutrons. Notice that all three isotopes ofcarbon have
6 protons; otherwise, they would not be carbon. Although
the isotopes of an element have slightly different masses,
they behaveidentically in chemical reactions. (The num-
ber usually given as the atomic mass of an element, such as
12.01 daltons for carbon, is actually an averageof the atomic
massesof all the element's naturally occurring isotopes,
weighted according to the abundance of each.)
12C 13C
Both and are stable isotopes,meaning that their
nuclei do not have a tendency to lose subatomic particles, a
processcalled decay.The isotope tnC, however, is unstable,
or radioactive. A radioactive isotope is one in which the
nucleus decaysspontaneously,giving offparticles and en-
ergy. W'hen the radioactive decay leads to a changein the
number of protons, it transforms the atom to an atom of a
different element, For example, when an atom of carbon-14
(lac) decays,it becomes an atom of nitrogen (laN;. Radioac-
tive isotopes have many useful applications in biology.
Rodiosctive
Trocers
Radioactiveisotopes are often used as diagnostic tools in
medicine. Cells can use radioactive atoms just as they would
use nonradioactive isotopes of the same element. The ra-
dioactive isotopes are incorporated into biologically active
molecules,which are then used as tracers to track atoms
during metabolism, the chemical processesof an organism.
For example, certain kidney disorders are diagnosedby in-
jecting small dosesof radioactively-labeledsubstancesinto
the blood and then analyzing the tracer molecules excreted
in the urine. Radioactivetracers are also used in combina-
tion with sophisticated imaging instruments, such as PET
CHAPTERZ The ChemicalContext of Life 3l
 { F i g u re 2 .5 A P E T
scan,a medicalusefor
radioactiveisotoPes.
PET, an acronym for
positron-emission tomog-
of
raphy,detectslocations
intense chemical activitY
in the body.Thebright
yellowspotmarksan area
with an elevated level
of radioactively labeled
g l u c o s ew,hi chi n turn
i n d i c a tehsi ghmetabol i c
activity, a hallmark of can-
cerous tissue.
scannersthat can monitor growth and metabolism of can-
cers in the body (Figure 2.5).
Although radioactive isotopes are very useful in biologi-
cal research and medicine, radiation from decaying isotopes
also posesa hazard to life by damaging cellular molecules'
The severity of this damage depends on the type and
amount of radiation an organism absorbs' One of the most
serious environmental threats is radioactive fallout from
nuclear accidents.The dosesof most isotopes used in medi-
cal diagnosis,however, are relatively safe'
Dating
Rodiometric
Researchersmeasure radioactive decay in
ffiqfitffiffif'{il
fossilsto date these relics ofpast life' Fossilsprovide a large
body of evidencefor evolution, documenting differences
between organisms from the past and those living at present
and giving us insight into speciesthat have disappearedover
time. While the layering of fossil beds establishesthat deeper
(in
fossilsare older than more shallow ones, the actual age
years) of the fossilsin each layer cannot be determined by
position alone. This is where radioactive isotopes come in'
A "parent" isotope decaysinto its "daughter" isotope at a
fixed rate, expressedas the half-life of the isotope-the time
it takes for 50o/o ofthe parent isotope to decay' Each radioac-
tive isotope has a characteristic half-life that is not affected
by temperature, pressure' or any other environmental vari-
able. Using a process called radiometric dating, scientists
measure the ratio of different isotopes and calculate how
many half-lives (in years) have passedsince an organism was
fossilized or a rock was formed. Half-life values range from
very short for some isotopes,measured in secondsor days'
to extremely long-uranium-238 has a half-life of 4'5 billion
yearsl Each isotope can best "measure" a particular range of
years:Uranium 238 was used to determine that moon rocks
are approxim ately4.5 billion years old, similar to the esti-
mated age of Earth' In the Scientific Skills Exercise'you can
work with data from an experiment that used carbon-l4 to
determine the age of an important fossil' (You'll learn more
about radiometric dating of fossils in Chapter 25')
32 u NlT oNE TheChem is t r Yof Lif e
TheEnergy of Electrons
Levels
The simplified models of the atom in Figure 2'4 greatly ex-
aggeratethe size of the nucleus relative to that of the whole
if un atom of helium were the size of a typical football
"iom.
stadium, the nucleuswould be the size of a pencil eraserin
the center of the field. Moreover, the electrons would be like
two tiny gnats buzzing around the stadium' Atoms are mostly
empty space.When two atoms approach each other during a
chemical reaction, their nuclei do not come closeenough to
interact. Of the three subatomic particleswe have discussed,
only electrons are directly involved in chemical reactions'
An atom's electronsvary in the amount of energythey pos-
sess.Energy is defined as the capacityto causechange-for
instance, by doing work. Potential energy is the energy that
l
matter possesses becauseof its location or structure' For
example, water in a reservoir on a hill has potential energy be-
:
cause of its altitude. When the gates of the reservoir's dam are
:
opened and the water runs downhill, the energycan be used
l
to do work, such as moving the bladesof turbines to gener-
l
l ate electricity. Becauseenergy has been expended, the water
has less energy at the bottom of the hill than it did in the
l
reservoir. Matter has a natural tendency to move toward the
l
lowest possiblestate of potential energy;in our example,the
water runs downhill. To restore the potential energyof a res-
ervoir, work must be done to elevatethe water against gravity'
The electrons of an atom have potential energy due to
.
their d.istancefrom the nucleus (Figure 2'6)' The negatively
:
:
: (a) A ballbouncingdown a flight
. of stairsprovidesan analogY
l for energylevelsof electrons,
becausethe ballcan cometo
restonly on eachstep, not
l betweenstePs.
l T h i r ds h e l l( h i g h e set n e r g Y
l l e v e li n t h i s m o d e l )
'
Secondshell(nexthighest
f t5iil?il".
l energylevel)
I
l
Firstshell(lowestenergY
l level) t"'td
l ,,#
Atomrc
i nucl eus "*ffis#
' (b) An electroncan movefrom one shellto anotheronly if the.energy
i
it gainsor losesis exactlyequalto the differencein energybetween
th6 energylevelsof the iwo shells.Arrowsin this modelindicate
l
someof ihe stepwisechanqesin potentialenergythat arepossible
:
A Figure 2.6 Energy levels of an atom's electrons' Electrons
exist6nly at fixed levelsof potentialenergycalledelectronshells'
 Calibratmqa Stan/ard RadioactirelsotopeDecayCurre an/ lnterpretlnq Data
When Did Neqnderfhqls Become Exfincl? Neanderthals (Homo
neanderthalensis)were livingin Europeby 350,000yearsago, perhaps 1.0
'6
coexistingwith earlyHomo sapiensin partsof Eurasiafor hundredsor 0.9
thousands of years.Researchers soughtto more accuratelydetermine
theextentof their overlapby pinningdown when Neanderthals became
.c 0.8
O)
extinct.Theyusedcarbon-'14datingto determinethe age of a Nean- .c 0.7
.c
derthalfossilfrom the most recent(uppermost)archeological layercon- ru
tainingNeanderthalbones.ln this exercise you will calibratea standard E 06
carbon-14 decaycurveand use it to determinethe age of this Neander- o 0.5
o-
thalfossil.The age will help you approximatethe lasttime the two spe-
0.4
ciesmayhavecoexistedat the sitewhere this fossilwas collected. .!?
0.3
o
How lhe Experimenl Wqs Done Carbon-14('oC)is a radioactive c
isotopeof carbonthat decaysto raNat a constantrate 1aCis presentin
0.2
F
the atmosphere in smallamountsat a constantratiowith both 13Cand e 0.1
'C, two other isotopesof carbon.When carbonis taken up from the 0
t ' ,C, t 3C,
atmosphe re by a p lan t d ur ingphot os y nt hes is and la C i s o t o p e s 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 101
areincorporated into the plant in the sameproportionsin which they (half-lives)
Timebeforepresen[
werepresentin the atmosphere.Theseproportionsremainthe samein
thet issue os f an a nima lth at eat st he plant .W hile an or ganis mi s a l i v e ,
the'oCin its body constantlydecaystoraN but is constantlyreplaced
by new carbon. from the environment.Oncean organismdies,it stops b e g i n n i n go f t h e n u m b e rd o n o t c o u n t a s s i g n i f i c a ndt i g i ts)Al
, so
takingin n ew'a C b ut th el oC in it s t is s uesc ont inuest o dec a yw write eachdecimalnumberin scientificnotation.
, hilethe
'tC in its tissuesremainsthe samebecauseit is not radioactive and does 2. Recallthat 14Chasa half-lifeof 5,730 years.To calibratethe x-axisfor
notdecay.Thus,scientists can calculatehow long the pool of originai 'oC decay,write the time beforepresentin yearsbelow eachhalf-life.
raChasbeen
decayingin a fossrlby measuringthe ratio of 14Cto12C 3. The researchers found that the Neanderthal fossilhad approximately
andcomp arin git to th e ra t ioof 14Ct o 12Cpr es entor iginallyi n t h e O.O07B a s m u c h l a Ca s f o u n d o r i g i n a l l yi n t h e a t m osp h e r e(.a )U si n g
atmosphere. The fractionof 'uC in a fossilcomparedto the orrginalfrac- the numberson your graph,determinehow many half-lives have
tionof raCcan be convertedto yearsbecausewe know that the half-life p a s s e ds i n c et h e N e a n d e r t h adl i e d ( b ) U s i n gy o u r r aCca l i b r a ti o o
nn
of rac is 5,730years-in other words, half of the 1aCin a fossildecays thex-axis,what is the approximateage of the Neanderthal fossilin
every5,730years. years(roundoff to the nearestthousand)?(c)Approximately when
did Neanderthals becomeextinctaccordingto this study?(d) The
Dolq from lhe Experimenl The researchers found that the Neander- researchers cite evidencethat modernhumans(H. sapiens) became
thalfossilhad approximately 0.OO7B(or,in scientificnotation,7.8 x established in the sameregionas the lastNeanderthals approximately
3)
10 as much ra C
a s th e at m os pher eThe ques t r ons
will guid ey o u 39,000*42,000yearsago. What doesthis suggestabout the overlap
throughtranslatingthis fractioninto the age of the fossil. of Neanderthaa l sn d m o d e r nh u m a n s ?
Inferprel lhe Dqfq 4 . C a r b o n - 1 4d a t i n gw o r k sf o r f o s s i l su p t o a b o u t 7 5 ,0 0 0ye a r so l d ;
1. A standardgraph of radioactiveisotopedecayis shown at the top of fossilsolderthan that containtoo little'oC to be detected.Most dino-
the right column.The graph line showsthe fractronof the radioactive saurswent extinct65.5 millionyearsago. (a) Can laC be usedto date
isotopeovertime (beforepresent)in unitsof haif-lives. d i n o s a u rb o n e s ?E x p l a i n(.b ) R a d i o a c t i vuer a n i u m - 23 5h a sa h a l f- l i fe
Recallthat
a half-lifersthe amount of time it takesfor half of the radioactive of 704 millionyears.lf it was incorporatedinto dinosaurbones,could
isoto peL ode ca y.L ab el ingeac hdat a point wit h t he c or r es p o n d i n g it be usedto date the djnosaurfossils?Explain.
fractionswill help orientyou to this graph.Draw an arrow to the
dalapoint for half-life: 1 and write the fractionof 14Cthat will R versionof thisScientific
i.1".'' SkillsExercise
canbe assigned
in
remainafter one half-life.Calculatethe fractionof laC remainingat MasteringBiology.
eachhalf-lifeand write the fractionson the graph neararrowspoint-
DatafromR.Pinhasiet a ., Revised
ageof lateNeanderthal
occupation
andtheendof
ingto the data points Converteachfractionto a decimalnumber proceedings
theMiddlePaleolithic
in thenorihernCaucasus, of theNational
Academy
andro un do ff to a maxjm umof t hr ees ignif ic antdigit s( z er o sa t t h e USA141:8611-8616 (201
of Sciences 1).do 10.1073/0nas.
10 189381
08

charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged
nucleus. It takes work to move a given electron farther away
from the nucleus, so the more distant an electron is from the
nucleus, the greater its potential energy. Unlike the continu-
ous flow of water downhill, changes in the potential energy
of electrons can occur only in steps of fixed amounts. An
electron having a certain amount of energy is something like
a ball on a staircase (Figure 2.Ga). The ball can have differ-
ent amounts of potential energy, depending on which step
it is on, but it cannot spend much time between the steps.
Similarly, an electron's potential energy is determined by its
energy level. An electron can exist only at certain energy lev-
els, not between thenr.
An electron's energy level is correlated with its average
distance from the nucleus. Electrons are found in different
electron shells, each with a characteristic average distance
and energy level. In diagrams, shells can be represented by
concentric circles (Figure 2.6b). The first shell is closest to the
nucleus, and electrons in this shell have the lowest potential
energy. Electrons in the second shell have more energy, and

CHAPTER2 The ChemicalContextofLife 33

 with hydrogen, the simplest atom, we can imagine building
electronsin the third shell even more energy'An electron
the atoms of the other elementsby adding 1 proton and 1
can move from one shell to another, but only by absorbing
il or losing an amount of energy equal to the differencein po-
tential energy between its position in the old shell and that
electron at a time (along with an appropriate number of neu-
trons). Figure 2.1, anabbreviatedversion of what is called
theperiodic table o;fthe elements,shows this distribution of
in the new shell.When an electron absorbsenergy' it moves
electronsfor the first 18 elements,from hydrogen (1H)to
to a shell farther out from the nucleus.For example,light en-
argon (ruAr).The elementsare arranged in three rows' or
ergy can excite an electron to a higher energy level' (Indeed'
periods, corresponding to the number of electron shellsin
this is the first step taken when plants harness the energy of
their atoms. The left-to-right sequenceof elementsin each
sunlight for photosynthesis,the processthat produces food
row correspondsto the sequentialaddition of electronsand
from carbon dioxide and water. You'll learn more about pho-
protons. (SeeAppendix B for the complete periodic table')
tosynthesisin Chapter 10.) When an electron losesenergy' it
"falls back" to a shell closer to the nucleus,and the lost energy Hydrogen's 1 electron and helium's 2 electrons are lo-
cated in the first shell' Electrons, like all matter' tend to exist
is usually releasedto the environment as heat' For example'
in the lowest availablestate of potential energy' ln an atom,
sunlight exciteselectrons in the surfaceofa car to higher
this state is in the first shell. However, the first shell can hold
energy levels. W'hen the electrons fall back to their original
no more than 2 electrons; thus, hydrogen and helium are the
levels,the car's surfaceheats up. This thermal energy can be
only elements in the first row of the table' In an atom with
transferred to the air or to your hand ifyou touch the car'
more than 2 electrons,the additional electrons must occupy
higher shells becausethe first shell is full' The next element'
Distribution
Electron Properties
0ndChemicol Iithium, has 3 electrons. Two of these electrons fill the first
shell, while the third electron occupiesthe second shell' The
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the dis-
second shell holds a maximum of 8 electrons' Neon, at the
tribution of electrons in the atom's electron shells' Beginning

l--"-----'"--'"
f--'"'-::-*''-l
Helium
I Atomic number---.
Hydr ogen --t--.-tHe

t 1H ; ::.-
1 ?/

I Atomrcmass Elementsymbol/
:-. o \-)
frrst i

Etectron--l-
I
:
i
s hell
o distribution ;
diagram i
O

^** **-*a;- -il;;,;

;il;* q Be
I
; o
B^o' ^^
sB
ron I Carbon
'rrh^n
6c;rNiro
I Niitrooen
trogen I O xygen
Oxvqen I Flluor
F u o ri ne
eF
ine I N eon
r oNe
:Li 1
: \ oo oo
Second
o
oo
o
oo OO
o
J. 33 33 I oo I oo
o1.' .} o
she ll
ra) r.]
\,;/
t:)
\:,,;/ o .Oo oO"i.O31.O3 o\J o

O OO OO
io10;"] ^
,r

P hosphorus S ul f-ur C hl or ine Ar gon

I sodium M agnes ium Al u m i num
^'";;'ii""' ";;i
S i l i con
,,,; ,os ,'a'.
I t'N' rzMg i , ,i , "ct i oo
o o 1 o i oo 90 99 i
1 o
oo r oo i Soq i: 9 'I oo : oo
Third : oo oo
oo oo 1 oo I o ooo i o-o
i ?-'
oo uu
oo
shell 1 o r :)o o rl]\ o^
? (l lo o ! a
a a
3o ol O 3o oo'\,, oo a ., / ; ; ; ; (, oo
o \Jo o \-l o" o\,/ou v uv

oo oo oo oo
oo oo

concentriccircles.Thesediagramsare a con- shell.As electronsare added,they occupythe

A Figure 2.7 Electrondistributiondia- lowestavailableshell'
gramsfor the first 18 elementsin the pe- venientwav to picturethe distributionof an
periodic table(see a tomselelectrons
atom's among
ecl rol l sdrl itselectron rsi l J,but
shells,
l or l q rL>creLLrurr)r uut
iiodic table. In a standard ffi w r,ut i stheatomi c numberof
magnes i um?
A ppendix fo
B ) ,inf orn a ti o n r e a c e
h l e m e ni ts th ese si mpl i fi ed model s do not accuratel y repre- Y _ . many i t have?
A na<it
does
$:;;;i;r* ;;; rt, How^^^^ . protons andetecrrons hatrc z
presented asshownfor heliumin the insetln $i?:, *^^,, ,,^t^^-^
The elementsare";;;;;;"&
-. -. manyvalence
How
arrangedin rows, How many electronshells?
the diagrams in thistable,electrons arerep- electrons.
shells as each the
representing filling of an electron electrons?
resented asyellowdotsandelectron

34 u NlT oNE TheChem is t r Yof Lif e

endofthe secondrow, has B electronsin the secondshell,
oo
givingit a total of 10 electrons. oo shell
----First
o
The chemical behavior of an atom depends mostly on Neon,with two filled : o
shells('1O electrons)
the number of electrons in its outermosl shell. We call those \second
oo shell
outerelectronsvalence electrons and the outermost elec-
tron shell the valence shell. In the caseof lithium, there is (a) Electrondistribution diagram. An electrondistribution
only 1 valence electron, and the second shell is the valence diagramis shown herefor a neon atom, which hasa total of 10
electrons.Eachconcentriccirclerepresents an electronshell,
shell.Atoms with the same number of electrons in their
t n t o e l e c t r o no r b i t a l s .
w h i c hc a n b e s u b d i v i d e d
valenceshells exhibit similar chemical behavior. For ex-
ample,fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl) both have 7 valence
electrons,and both form compounds when combined with FirstshelI S e c o n ds h e l l
the elementsodium (Na): Sodium fluoride (NaF) is com-
monlyadded to toothpaste to prevent tooth decay,and, as
described earlier,NaCl is table salt (seeFigure 2.2).An atom
with a completed valence shell is unreactive; that is, it will
not interact readily with other atoms. At the far right of the
i

periodictable are helium, neon, and argon, the only three I v l-!t' 'f
|.a:-!
elementsshown in Figure 2.7 that have full valence shells.
Theseelementsare said tobe inert, meaning chemically
unreactive.All the other atoms in Figure 2.7 ate chemically z
reactivebecausethey have incomplete valence shells. 2s orbitai Three2p orbitals

(b) Separateelectron orbitals. The three-dimenstonal shapes

0rbitols
Electron
In the early 1900s,the electron shells of an atom were visual-
izedasconcentric paths ofelectrons orbiting the nucleus,
somewhatlike planets orbiting the sun. It is still convenient
to usetwo-dimensional concentric-circle diagrams, as in
Figure2.7,to symbolize three-dimensional electron shells.
However,you need to remember that each concentric circle
represents only the averagedistance between an electron in
thatshelland the nucleus.Accordingly, the concentric-circle
diagrams do not give a real picture of an atom. In reality,
wecan never know the exact location of an electron' What
wecando instead is describe the spacein which an electron
spends most of its time. The three-dimensional spacewhere
anelectronis found 90% of the time is called an orbital.
Eachelectron shell contains electrons at a particular en-
ergylevei,distributed among a specific number of orbitals
ofdistinctiveshapesand orientations.Figure 2.8 showsthe
orbitalsof neon as an example, with its electron distribu-
tiondiagramfor reference.You can think of an orbital as a
component ofan electron shell.The first electron shell has
onlyonesphericals orbital (called 1s),but the secondshell
hasfour orbitals: one large spherical s orbital (called 2s) and
threedumbbell-shapedp orbitals (called 2p orbitals). (The
thirdshelland other higher electron shells also have s and p
aswell as orbitals of more complex shapes.)
orbitals,
No more than 2 electronscan occupy a singleorbital. The
firstelectronshell can therefore accommodate up to 2 elec-
tronsin its s orbital. The lone electron of a hydrogen atom
occupies the 1s orbital, as do the 2 electrons ofa helium
atom.The four orbitals of the second electron shell can hold
representelectronorbitals-the volumesof spacewherethe
electronsof an atom are most likelyto be found. Eachorbital
holdsa maximumof 2 electrons. The first electronshell,on the
left, hasone spherical(s)orbital,designated1s.The second
s h e l l ,o n t h e r i g h t ,h a so n e l a r g e rs o r b i t a l( d e s ig n a te2ds fo r
t h e s e c o n ds h e l l )p l u st h r e ed u m b b e l l - s h a p eodr b r ta l sca l l e d
p orbitals(2p for the secondshell) The three 2p orbitalslie at
r i g h t a n g l e st o o n e a n o t h e ra l o n g i m a g i na r y x - ,y- , a n d z- a xe s
of the atom. Each2p orbitalis outlinedherein a differentcolor
1s,2s,and
2p orbi tal s
, (c) Superimposed electronorbitals.Toreveal
thecomplete
I pictureof the electron the ls
of neon,we superimpose
orbitals
I of t he
l the2sandthree2p or bit als
orbi talof thefi rstsheland
i second shel l .
ffi Figure 2.8 Electronorbitals.
up to 8 electrons,2in each orbital. Electronsin eachofthe
four orbitals have nearly the same energy,but they move in
different volumes of space.
The reactivity of an atom arisesfrom the presenceof un-
paired electrons in one or more orbitals of its valence shell.
As you will seein the next section, atoms interact in a way
that completes their valence shells.When they do so, it is
the unpaired electrons that are involved.

C H A P T E R2 T h e C h e m i c a l C o n te xto fL i fe 35
 Hvdroqenatoms(2 H)
CONCEPT CHECK 2. 2
'| . A lithium otom hos 3 protons ond 4 neutrons Whot is iis Q In eachhydroqen.
atom, the singleelectron
moss number? is held in its orbitalbY @ @
hos 7 proions' ond.the most common its attractionto the
- A nitrogen otom
2.
isotope proton In the nucleus.
itotopJof nitrogen hos 7 neutrons A rodiooctive
Write the otomic number ono
of niirogen hos B neutrons
o chemicol
moss n"umberof this rodiooctive nitrogen os
I

symbol with o subscript ond superscrlpT' tt

How mony elec-
3, How mony electrons does fluorine hove?
tron shells? Nome ihe orbitols thot ore occupied How $ wnen two hYdrogen
shell? atomsaPProacn eacn
mony electrons qre needed to fill the volence
other,the electronof @
4. gUffi ln Figure 27,iI Iwoor more elemenis ore in eachatomisalso @
lf iwo or
the some row,wnoT do they hove in common? attractedto the Proton
in the some column' whot do they
more elements ore in the othernucleus
hove in common? I

For suggesled onswers,see Appendix A

T
I
@ ffre two electrons
CONCEPTT " S becomesharedln a
covalentbond,
Theformotion ofmolecules
ondfunction f o r m i n ga n H 2
@ @

depend between
bonding
onchemicol
molecule.

0t0ms -ll.1l,l3i[,,
atoms' we can I Figure 2'9 Formationof a covalentbond'
Now that we have looked at the structure of
how atoms
move up the hierarchy of organization and see
Atoms electrons'
combine to form molecules and ionic compounds' the line representsa single bond, a pair of shared
can interact with certain to rePresenting the
with incomplete valence shells A space-fiiling model comes closest
completes its familiar with
other atoms in such a way that each partner actual shape of the molecule' You may also be
valence 2'15'
valence shell: The atoms either share or transfer ball-and-siick models, which are shown in Figure
usually result in atoms staying in its second electron shell and
electrons. These interactions Oxygen has 6 electrons
called chemical bonds' complete its valence
close together, held by attractions therefore needs 2 more electrons to
bonds fwo
The strJngest kinds of chemical bonds are covalent shell. Two oxygen atoms form a molecule by sharing
are
and ionic bonds (when in dry ionic compounds)' pairs of valenceelectrons(Figure 2'10b)' The atoms
a double bond (O:O)'
ihus joined by what is called
Bonds a bonding
Covqlent Each atom that can share valence electrons has
bonds the
electrons capacity corresponding to the number of covalent
A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence give the atom
what happens atom can form. W'hen the bonds form, they
by two atoms. For example, let's consider in the valence shell' The
Recall a full complement of electrons
when two hydrogen atoms approach each other' is 2' This bond-
electron in the first shell' but bonding capacity of oxygen, for example'
that hydrogen has 1 valence equals
When the two hydrogen ing caplcity is called the atom's valence and usually
the shell's capacity is 2 electrons' complete the
to overlap' the number of unpaired electrons required to
atoms come close enough for their 1s orbitals shell' See if you can determine
Each hydrogen atom's outermost (valence)
they can share their electrons (Figure 2'9)' and carbon by
with 2 electrons in what amounts to the valencesofhydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen'
atom is now associated 2'7'
more atoms held together studying the electron distribution diagrams inEigute
a completed valence shell' Two or oxygen' 2;
this case a hy- You can seethat the valence ofhydrogen is 1;
by covalent bonds constitute a molecule' in However, the situation is more
nitrogen, 3; and carbon, 4.
drogen molecule. row of the periodic
a hydro- comflicated for elements in the third
rlgtr. 2.1oa shows severalways of representing valence of 3' as
Hr, simply indicates table. lhosphorus, for example, can have a
gen molecul e.Its molecularformwla, electrons
hydrogen. EIec- we would predict from the presenceof 3 unpaired
Inat tne molecule consists of two atoms of that are biologically
distribution dia- in its valence shell. ln some molecules
tron sharing can be depicted by an electron single
symbols important, however, phosphorus can form three
gram or by a fewis d'ot structure' in which element
the valence electrons U or" rarandonedoubl ebond' Theref or e'it canalsohavea
Ir" ,rrr.orrrrded by dots that represent
valence of 5.
(H: H). 'We can also use a structuralformula' H-H' where

36 u NlT o NE TheChem is t r Yof Lif e

 Nameand Becauseoxygen (O) is more electronegativethan hydrogen (H),
Electron Lewis Dot Space-
Molecular shared electronsare pulled more toward oxygen
Distribution Structureand Filling
Formula Diagram Structural Model
Formula
T hi s r e su l tsi n a
p a r ti a l n e g a ti ve
(a) Hydrogen(H2).
c h a r g e o n th e
Twohydrogenatoms H: H oxygen and a
shareone pair of p a r ti a l p o si ti ve
electrons,
forming chargeon
a singlebo nd . H- H
t h e h yd r o g e n s.

(b)Oxygen(o2). H zo
Twooxygen atoms A Figure 2.11 Polarcovalentbondsin a water molecule.
share two pairsof
electrons,forming
a d o u ble
bond.
itself. In a covalent bond between two atoms of the same
element, the electrons are shared equally becausethe two
(c)Water (HzO).
Twohydrogen atoms have the same electronegativity-the tug-of,war is at
atomsand one a standoff. Such a bond is called a nonpolar covalent bond.
oxygenatom are For example, the single bond of H, is nonpolar, as is the
loinedby sing le
bonds,forminga o-H double bond of Or. However, when an atom is bonded to a
moleculeof water I more electronegativeatom, the electrons of the bond are not
n
shared equally. This type of bond is called a polar covalent
bond. Such bonds vary in their polarity, depending on the
(d)Methane(CH/.
Fourhydrogen H relative electronegativity of the two atoms. For example,the
.+^*.
oLUilr) LdrrJoLt>ty
--^.-+;-{., H: C: H bonds between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms of a water
thevalence
of n moleculeare quite polar (Figure 2.11).
onecarbon
atom,forming n Oxygen is one of the most electronegativeelements,at-
methane. I tracting shared electrons much more strongly than hydro-
H- C- H
I gen does. In a covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen,
H
the electrons spend more time near the oxygen nucleus than
they do near the hydrogen nucleus. Becauseelectrons have
I Figure2.10 Covalentbondingin four molecules. Thenumber a negative charge and are pulled toward oxygen in a water
ofelectrons
required
to complete an atoms valence
shellgenerally
determines
howmanycovalent bondsthatatomwillform.Thisfigure molecule, the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge (in-
showsseveral
waysof indicating
covalentbonds. dicated by the Greek letter 6 with a minus sign, 6-, or "delta
minus"), and each hydrogen atom has a partial positive
charge (6*, or "delta plus"). In contrast, the individual bonds
The moleculesH, and 02 are pure elements rather than
of methane (CHn) are much lesspolar becausethe electro,
compoundsbecausea compound is a combination of two or
negativities of carbon and hydrogen are similar.
moredffirenl elements. W'ater, with the molecular formula
HrO,is a compound. Two atoms of hydrogen are needed to
satisf,t the valence of one oxygen atom. Figure 2.1Ocshows lonicBonds
thestructureof a water molecule. (Water is so important In some cases,two atoms are so unequal in their attraction
to life that Chapter 3 is devoted entirely to its structure and for valence electrons that the more electronegativeatom
behavior.) strips an electron completely away from its partner. The
Methane,the main component of natural gas,is a com- two resulting oppositely charged atoms (or molecules) are
poundwith the molecular formula CH4. It takes four hy- called ions. A positively charged ion is called a cation, while
drogenatoms, each with a valence of 1, to complement one a negatively charged ion is called an anion. Becauseof their
atomof carbon,with its valenceof 4 (rigure 2.10d). (We opposite charges,cations and anions attract each other; this
willlook at many other compounds of carbon in Chapter 4.) attraction is called an ionic bond. Note that the transfer of
Atoms in a molecule attract shared bonding electrons to an electron is not, by itsell the formation of a bond; rather,
varyingdegrees,depending on the element. The attraction it allows a bond to form becauseit results in two ions of op-
ofa particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond is posite charge.Any two ions of opposite charge can form an
calledits electronegativity. The more electronegativean ionic bond. The ions do not need to have acquired their
atomis, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward charge by an electron transfer with each other.

C H A P T E R2 T h e C h e m i c a l C o n t e xto fL i fe 37
 @ rhe lon e va lenc e elec t r on of a s odium Q E a c hr e s u l t i n g i o n h a s a c o m p l e t e d
a three-dimensional lattice. Unlike a
a tom is tra nsfer r ed t o join t he 7 v alenc e v a l e n c es h e l l .A n i o n i c b o n d c a n f o r m covalent compound, which consistsof
e lectron so f a c hlor ine at om . b e t w e e n t h e o p p o s i t e l yc h a r g e d i o n s .
molecules having a definite size and
number of atoms, an ionic compound
does not consist of molecules.The
formula for an ionic compound, such
as NaCl, indicates only the ratio of ele-
3@3 ments in a crystal of the salt. "NaCl" by
oo itself is not a molecule.
Not all salts have equal numbers of
Na cl Na* cl- cations and anions. For example,the
Sod iumato m Chlor ineat om S o d i u mi o n i on
C hl ori de
(a cation) (anani on) ionic compound magnesium chloride
(MgClr) has two chloride ions for each
S o d i u mc h l o r i d e( N a C l ) magnesium ion. Magnesium (rrMg)
must lose 2 outer electrons if the atom
A Figure 2.12 Electron transfer and ionic bonding. The attractionbetweenoppositelycharged
atoms,or ions,is an ionicbond. An ionicbond can form betweenany two oppositelychargedions, is to have a complete valenceshell,so
even if they havenot beenformed by transferof an electronfrom one to the other. it has a tendency to become a cation
with a net charge of 2+ (Mg2+).One
This is what happens when an atom of sodium (rtNa) magnesium cation can therefore form ionic bonds with two
encountersan atom of chlorine (trCl) (rigure 2.12).A so- chloride anions (Cl ).
dium atom has a total of 11 electrons, with its single valence The term ion also applies to entire molecules that
electron in the third electron shell. A chlorine atom has a are electrically charged.In the salt ammonium chloride
total of 17 electrons, withT electrons in its valence shell. (NH4CI), for instance,the anion is a single chloride ion (Cl ),
W'hen these two atoms meet, the lone valence electron of but the cation is ammonium (NHn*), a nitrogen atom cova-
sodium is transferred to the chlorine atom, and both atoms lently bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The whole ammo-
end up with their valence shells complete. (Becausesodium nium ion has an electrical charge of 1* becauseit has given
no longer has an electron in the third shell, the second shell up 1 electron and thus is I electron short.
is now the valence shell.) The electron transfer between the Environment affects the strength of ionic bonds. In a dry
two atoms moves one unit of negative charge from sodium salt crystal, the bonds are so strong that it takes a hammer
to chlorine. Sodium, now with 11 protons but only 10 elec- and chisel to break enough ofthem to crack the crystal in
trons, has a net electrical charge of 1*; the sodium atom two. If the same salt crystal is dissolvedin water, however,
has become a cation. Conversely,the chlorine atom, having the ionic bonds are much weaker becauseeach ion is par-
gained an extra electron, now has 17 protons and 18 elec- tially shielded by its interactions with water molecules.Most
trons, giving it a net electrical charge of 1-; it has become a drugs are manufactured as salts becausethey are quite stable
chloride ion-an aniorr. when dry but can dissociate (come apart) easilyin water, (In
Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic the next chapter, you will learn how water dissolvessalts.)
compounds, or salts. W'e know the ionic compound sodium
chloride (NaCl) as table salt (Figure 2.13). Saltsare often
found in nature as crystals of
WeokChemicol
Bonds
various sizesand shapes.Each In organisms, most of the strongest chemical bonds are co-
salt crystal is an aggregateof valent bonds, which link atoms to form a cell's molecules.
vast numbers of cations and But weaker bonding within and between molecules is also
anions bonded by their electri- indispensable,contributing greatly to the emergent proper-
cal attraction and arranged in ties of life. Many large biological molecules are held in their
functional form by weak bonds. In addition, when two mol-
eculesin the cell make contact, they may adhere temporarily
by weak bonds. The reversibility of weak bonding can be an
advantage:Two molecules can come together, respond to
A Figu re 2 .13 A s odium one another in some way, and then separate.
chloride (NaCl)crystal. The Severaltypes of weak chemical bonds are important in
sod iumion s(Na ")and c hlor ide organisms. One is the ionic bond as it exists between ions
ions(Cl-)are held togetherby ionic
bo nd s.The fo rmulaNaClt ellsus ciissociatedin water, which we just discussed.Hydrogen
that the ratio of Na* to Cl- is 1:1. bonds and van der W'aalsinteractions are also crucial to life,

38 u NtT o NE TheChem is t r v of Lif e

 gecko's body weight. This discovery has inspired development
Water(H2O) of an artificial adhesive called Geckskin'": A patch the size of
This hy dr o g e n b o n d an index card can hold a 700 pound weight to a wall!
resultsfrom the
Van der W'aalsinteractions, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds
attraction between
the partial positive in water, and other weak bonds may form not only between
c har geon th e molecules but also between parts of a large molecule, such
hydrogen atom of
wat er and t h e as a protein. The cumulative effect of weak bonds is to rein-
par t ial neg a t i v e force the three-dimensional shape of the molecule. (You will
c har ge on t h e learn more about the very important biological roles of weak
Ammon ia(NH3 ) nitrogen atom
of am m oni a . bonds in Chapter 5.)

A Fi gur e2. 14
Moleculor
Shope
ondFunction
A hydrogen bond. A molecule has a characteristic size and precise shape,
@Sfr (usestructuralformulas;show
Drawfivewater molecules. which are crucial to its function in the living cell. A mol-
partial
charges.)
Showhow theymakehydrogenbondswith eachother. ecule consisting of two atoms, such as H2or C.2,is always
linear, but most molecules with more than two atoms have
Hydrogen
Bonds more complicated shapes.These shapesare determined by
the positionsof the atoms'orbitals (Figure 2.15).When an
Amongweakchemical bonds, hydrogen bonds are so central
to the chemistry of life that they deserve special attention.
'ffhen a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to an electro- Fourhybrid
orbitals
negativeatom, the hydrogen atom has a partial positive Threep orbitals
chargethat allows it to be attracted to a different electronega-
/\
tiveatom nearby. This attraction between a hydrogen and
/t\
\Z
anelectronegativeatom is called a hydrogen bond. In living
cells,the electronegativepartners are usually oxygen or nitro-
genatoms.Referto Figure 2.14 to examine the simple caseof
hydrogenbonding between water (HrO) and ammonia (NH). Tetrahedron
(a) Hybridizationof orbitals.Thesingles andthreep orbitals
of a
valenceshellinvolvedin covalent
bondingcombine to formfour
Von
derWoals
lnteroctions teardrop-shapedhybridorbitals.
Theseorbitalsextendto thefour
Evena moleculewith nonpolar covalent bonds may have cornersof an imaginary (outlined
tetrahedron in pink).
positivelyand negatively charged regions. Electrons are not
always evenlydistributed; at any instant, they may accumulate Space-Filling Ball-and-Stick Hybrid-Orbital
Model
bychancein one part of a molecule or another. The results Model Model (withball-and-stick
modelsuperimposed)
areever-changingregions ofpositive and negative charge
thatenableall atoms and molecules to stick to one another. U n b o n d ed
Thesevan der Waals interactions are individually weak electron
andoccuronly when atoms and molecules are very close to- parr

gether.When many such interactions occur simultaneously,

however, they can be powerful: Van der Waals interactions Water (H2O)
allowa geckolizard (below) to walk straight up a wall! The

s
anatomy of the gecko's foot-including many minuscule hair,
likeprojectionsfrom the toes and strong tendons underlying
theskin-strikes a balance between maximum surface con-
tactwith the wall and necessarystiffness of the foot. The van
der Waals interactions between the
foot molecules and the molecules Methane (CHq)
of the wall's surface are so
numerous that despite (b) Molecular-shape models.Threemodelsrepresenting
molecular
their individual shapeareshownfor waterandmethane. Thepositions
of the
hybridorbitals
determine
the shapes
of the molecules.
weakness,together
they can support the A Figure 2.15 Molecularshapesdue to hybridorbitals.

C HA PTER 2 The Chemical Context of Life 39

 Key
its valence shell
atom forms covalent bonds, the orbitals in I carbon I Nitrogen
valence electrons
undergo rearrangement' For atoms with : Hydrogen ur
Sulf
the single s and
in botil s and'p oibit"l, (review Figure 2'8)' I Oxygen
hybrid orbitals shapedlike
ihr"" porbitais form four new
region of the atomic
identical teardrops extending from the NaturalendorPhin
larger ends of
nucleus(Figure 2.15a).lf we connect the
of a geometric
the teardrops with lines, we have the outline Morphine
a pyramid with a triangular base'
shape called a tetrahedron,
of the hybrid orbitals in
For'tate. molecules (HrO), two
hydrogens
the oxygen'svalence shell are shared with
(rigure-z.rsb). The result is a molecule shaped roughly like
of 104'5"'
a V with its two covalent bonds at an angle
the shape of a com-
The methane molecule (CH+) has
orbitals ofthe car-
pleted tetrahedron becauseall four hybrid
(seeFigure 2'75b)'
to., atom are shared with hydrogen atoms
Thec ar bonnuc l e u s i s a tth e c e n te r,w i th i ts fourcoval ent
portion
01
bonds radiating to hydrogen nuclei at the
corners ofthe (a) Structures of endorphinand morphine'Theboxed
'-' molecule on targe
(left)brndsto receptormolecules
multiple carbon ih" endorphin
tetrahedron. Larger molecules containing ;;ilt i^ th; b;.in.Theboxedportionof the morphine
molecule
that make up living
atoms, including many of the molecules (right)isa closematch.
overall shapes' However' the tet-
matter, have more complex
to four other atoms
rahedral shapeof a carbon atom bonded
is often a repeating motif within such molecules' Natural
how biological
Molecular shape is crucial: It determines endorphin
to one another with spec-
molecules recognizeand respond
temporarily to each
ificity. Biological molecules often bind
if their shapes are
other by forming weak bonds, but only
opiates' drugs such
complementary. Consider the effects of
Opiates re- ndorphin
as morphine and heroin derived from opium'
binding to specific re- B r a i nc e l l
lleve pain and alter mood by weakly
cells' Why would
ceptor molecules on the surfaces of brain and morpnlne
that are (b) Binding to endorphin receptors' Both endorphin
brain cells carry receptors for opiates' compounds can bind to endorpnln on
receptors the of a braincell'
surface
of endorphins
not made by the bodyl tn 7975, the discovery
are signaling molecules A F i q u r e 2 . l 6 A m o | e c u l a r m i m i c . M o r p h i n e a ffe ctsp a i n p e r ce p -
answered this question' Endorphins endorphtns
the receptors' re- *.'i.O .rn"oonal stateby mimickingthe brain'snatural
made by the pituitary gland that bind to
times of stress'
lieving pain and producing euphoria durisng
have shapes similar to en-
such as intense exercise' Opiates /.1 A
to endorphin recep-
dorphins and mimic them by binding coNcEPT / '4 +
endorphins have
tors in the brain. That is why opiates and
.{@ddt

similar effects (Figure 2'16)' The role of molecular

shape
Chemicol ondbreok
moke
reoctions
how biological organization
in brain chemistry illustrates
one of bi-
bonds
chemicol
leads to a match between structure and function'
leading to
ology's unifYing themes' The making and breaking of chemical bonds'
are called chemical
changesin the composition of matter'
hydrogen
re.ct"ions. An example is the reaction between
CONCEPT C HECK 2. 3
and oxygen molecules that forms waterl
- H foil to moke sense
1 . Why does the structure H - C: C
chemicollY?
of mognestum @@ ------.t
Whot holds the otoms together in o crysiol
chloride (MgCl2)?
lf youwereo phormoceuticol reseorcher' i
3. Str!!fifl i;*
ililTurolou wontto leornihe three-dimensionol 2HzO
shopes of noturolly occurring signoling
molecules? ZHz + o2 -:>
For suggesfed onswers,see Appendix A Reactants Reaction Product

40 UN lT o N E The ChemistrY of Life

 This reaction breaks the covalent bonds of H, and 02
andforms the new bonds of HrO. When we write a chemi_
calreaction,we use an arrow to indicate the conversion of
the starting materials, called the reactants, to the products.
The coefficientsindicate the number of molecules involved;
for example, the coefficie nt 2 in front of the H, means that
the reaction starts with two molecules of hydrogen. Notice
that all atoms of the reactants must be accounted for in the
products.Matter is conserved in a chemical reaction: Reac-
tionscannot create or destroy atoms but can only rearrange
(redistribute)the electrons among them.
Photosynthesis,which takes place within the cells of
greenplant tissues,is an important biological example of
how chemical reactions rearrange matter. Humans and
otheranimals ultimately depend on photosynthesis for food A Figure 2.17 Photosynthesis: a solar-poweredrearrange_
ment of matter. Elodea,a freshwater plant,producessugarb! rear_
andoxygen,and this process is at the foundation of almost rangingtheatomsof carbondjoxide andwaterin thechemical process
all ecosystems.The following chemical shorthand summa- knownasphotosynthesis,whichtspowered by sunlight.
Muchof the
rizesthe processof photosynthesis: sugartsthenconvertedto otherfoodmolecules. Oxygen gas(Or)isa
by-productof photosynthesis;
noticethe bubbles of Or-containing
gas
6 CO2+ 6 H2O --+ C6H12O.+ 6 02 escapingfromthe leaves
submerged in water.

The raw materials of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide fi fxpbin how thisphotorelates to the reactants
andproducts in the
(CO), which is taken from the air, and water (HrO), which equationfor photosynthesisgivenin thetext.(youwill learnmoreabout
photosynthesisin ChapterI 0.)
is absorbedfrom the soil. Within the plant cells, sunlight
powersthe conversion ofthese ingredients to a sugar called
giucose(C6H12O6) and oxygen molecules (Or), a by-product
reactants and products are equal in concentration, but only
thatthe plant releasesinto the surroundings (Figure 2.17).
that their concentrations have stabilized at a particular ratio.
Althoughphotosynthesis is actually a sequenceof many
The reaction involving ammonia reachesequilibrium when
chemicalreactions,we still end up with the same number
ammonia decomposesas rapidly as it forms. In some chemi-
andtypesof atoms that we had when we started. Matter has
cal reactions, the equilibrium point may lie so far to the
simplybeen rearranged, with an input of energy provided by
right that these reactions go essentiallyto completion; that
sunlight.
is, virtually all the reactants are converted to products.
All chemical reactions are reversible,with the products of
We will return to the subject of chemical reactions after
theforward reaction becoming the reactants for the reverse
more detailed study of the various types of molecules that
reaction.For example, hydrogen and nitrogen molecules can
are important to life. In the next chapter, we focus on water,
combineto form ammonia, but ammonia can also decom-
the substancein which all the chemical processesof organ,
poseto regeneratehydrogen and nitrogen:
isms occur.
3H 2 + N r= 2 N H 3

Thetwo opposite-headedarrows indicate that the reaction CONCEPT CHECK 2.4

isreversible.
Oneofthe factors affecting the rate ofa reaction is the
concentrationof reactants. The greater the concentration
ofreactantmolecules, the more frequently they collide with
oneanotherand have an opportunity to react and form
products. The same holds true for products. As products ac-
cumulate, collisions resulting in the reversereaction become
morefrequent. Eventually, the forward and reverse reac-
tionsoccur at the same rate, and the relative concentrations
ofproductsand reactants stop changing. The point at which
thereactionsoffset one another exactly is called chemical
equilibrium. This is a dynamic equilibrium; reactions are
stillgoingon, but with no net effect on the concentrations of
Ieactantsand products. Equilibrium does not rneanthat the
l. ffi Considerthe reoction be-
tween hydrogen ond oxygen thot forms woter, shown
with boll-ond-stickmodels ot the beginning of Concept
2.4.Study Figure2.10 ond drow ihe Lewisdot srrucrures
represenfing this reoction.
2. Which type of chemicol reoction occurs foster oi equi_
librium, the formotion of products from reoctonrs or reoc_
tonts from products?
3. Write on equotion thot uses the producis of pnorosyn-
thesis os reoctonts ond the reoctonts of photosynthesis
os products.Add energy os onother product.Thisnew
equotion describes o process thot occurs in vour cels.
Describethis equotion in words.How does ihis equotion
relote io breoihlng?
For suggested onswers,see Appendix A.

C HA PTER 2 The Chemical Context of Life 4l

 Molecules consist of two or more covalently bonded atoms'
The attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond is
its electronegativity. If both atoms are the same, they have,the
same electronegativity and share a nonpolar covalent bond'
CO NCE P 2.
TI Electrons of a pblar covalent bond are pulled closer to the morr
electronegative atom.
consists
Motler inpureformondin
elemenls
ofchemicol An ion forms when an atom or molecule gains or loses an elec-
colled
combinolions (pp.29-30)
compounds tron and becomes charged. An ionic bond is the attraction be-
tween two oppositely charged ions.
down chemically to other sub-
' Elements cannot be broken
stances. A compound contains two or more different elements lonic bond
in a fixed ratio.bxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen make
up approximately 960/oof living matter. +-
Electron
your diet differ
ffi m what way does the needfor iodineor iron in

'@
o---.
o transfer RR
oo formsions
from your need for calcium or phosphorus? X
s@3 ---.+ ^
; e9
e g t e T ' q ,? oo

properties
Anelemenl's depend of ilsoloms
onlheslruclure Na* cf
Na cl
(pp.30-36) Sodium atorn C hl onne atom S odi umi on
(a cation) (ananion)
i on
C hl ori de

element, has the following

' An atom, the smallest unit of an
components: * 'Weak bonds reinforce the shapesof large molecules and help
Nucleus molecules adhere to each other' A hydrogen bond is an attrac-
tion between a hydrogen atom carrying a partial positive charg
+\ (6+) and an electronegative atom (6-). Van der Waals interac-
\El ectrons( charge)
^
(J tions occur between transiently positive and negative regions ol
form negativecloud
molecules.
and determi ne
behavi or
chemi cal
o A molecule's shape is determined by the positions of its atoms'
valence orbitals. Covalent bonds result in hybrid orbitals, which
are responsible for the shapesof H2O, CHu, and many more
complex biological molecules. Shapeis usually the basisfor the
An electrically neutral atom has equal numbers of electrons and
recognition of one biological molecule by another.
protons; the number of protons determines the atomic number.
the atomic mass is measured in daltons and is roughly equal to ffi /n t"t t of electron sharingbetweenatoms, comparenonpolar co-
the mass number, the sum of protons plus neutrons. Isotopes valentbonds,polar covalentbonds,and the formationof ions
of an element differ from each other in neutron number and
therefore mass. Unstable isotopes give off particles and energy
a o * " rrr 2 . 4
as radioactivity.
In an atom, electrons occupy specific electron shells; the elec- 0ndbreok
m0ke
reoclions bonds
chemicol
trons in a shell have a characteristic energy level. Electron dis-
Chemicol
tribution in shells determines the chemical behavior of an atom' (pp.40-41)
An atom that has an incomplete outer shell, the valence shell, is . Chemical reactions change reactants into products while con
reactive. serving matter. All chemical reactions are theoretically revers--
Electrons exist in orbitals, three-dimensional spaceswith spe- ible. Chemical equilibrium is reached when the forward and
cific shapesthat are components of electron shells. reversereaction ratesare equal.
Draw the electron distribution diagramsfor neon (roNe)
@Tl ffi WHrt would happen to the concentrationof products if more reac
and argon (1sA). L)sethesediagramsto explain why theseelementsare tants were added to a reaction that was in chemicalequilibrium?How
chemically un reactive. would this addition affect the equilibrium?

2 .3
"o *"r r r
depend
of molecules
0ndfunclion
Theformotion on
bonding
chemicol belweenoloms(pp.36-40) l - E 1 l E L '! ; K N O WL E D G E / C O M F REH TN SION

interact and complete their 1. In the term trace element, the adjective trace r,:'eansthat
" Chemical bonds form when atoms
valence shells. Covalent bonds form when pairs ofelectrons are a. the element is required in very small amounts.
shared. b. the element can be used as a label to trace atoms through
an organism's metabolism.
H. + H. - - ---> H :H :o.*.o: ------>o::o c . the element is very rare on Earth.
Double d. the element enhances health but is not essential for the or-
Sin g le
covalent bond covalent bond ganism'slong-term survival.

42 UNIT o NE TheChem is t r y of Lif e

 2. Comparedwith "P, the radioactive isotope 32phas l I. S C IE N TIFIC IN QU IR Y
a. a differentatomic number. Female silkworm moths (Bombyx mori) attract males by
b. one more proton. emitting chemical signals that spread through the air. A male
c. one more electron. hundrerls of meters away can detect these molecules and fly
d. one more neutron. toward their source. The sensory organs responsiblefor this
3. The reactivity ofan atom arises from behavior are the comblike antennae visible in the photograph
^
a. the averagedistance ofthe outermost electron shell from shown here. Each filament of an antenna is equipped wilh
the nucleus. thousands of receptor cells
b. the existenceofunpaired electrons in the valence shell. that detect the sex attrac-
c. the sum ofthe potential energies ofall the electron shells. tant. Based on what you
d. the potential energy ofthe valence shell. learned in this chapter,
propose a hypothesis to
4, Which statement is true of all atoms that are anions?
account for the ability of
a. The atom has more electrons than protons.
the male moth to detect
b. The atom has more protons than el-ectrons.
a specific molecule in the
c. The atom has fewer protons than does a neutral atom ofthe
presenceof many other
sameelement.
molecules in the air. What
d, The atom has more neutrons than protons.
predictionsdoes your hy-
5. Which of the following statements correctly describes any pothesis make? Design an
chemicalreaction that has reached equilibrium? experiment to test one of
a. The concentrations ofproducts and reactants are equal. these predictions.
b. The reaction is now irreversible. 1 2 . WR I T EA B o U T A T H E M E : o R G A N I Z A T I o N
c. Both forward and reverse reactions have halted.
While waiting at an airport, Neil Campbell once overheard this
d. The rates ofthe forward and reverse reactions are equal.
claim: "It's paranoid and ignorant to wbrry about industry or
agriculture contaminating the environment with their chemi-
LF V f t ?; APPL i{Al'! # r u, r Af d&LYF i 5 cal wastes.After all, this stuff is just made of the same atoms
6, We can represent atoms by listing the number-of protons, that were already present in our environmentl'Drawing on
your knowledge of electron distribution, bonding, and -emer-
neutrons,and electrons-for example, 2p*, 2no,2e for helium.
gent properties (seeConcept 1.1),write a short essay(100_150
Which of the following represents ihe trO isotope of oxygen?
words) countering this argument.
a.7P-,2n ",9 e-
b. 8p -,I\n',Be * 13.
c. 9p-,9 n",-9e
d. L0 pt,g nu ,ge
7. The atomic number of sulfur is 16. Sulfur combines with hv-
dro-genby covalent bonding to form a compound, hydrogen
sulfide.Basedon the number of valence electrons in a sulfur
atom,predict the molecular formula of the compound.
a. HS c. HrS
b. HS2 d. H4S
8. W.hatcoefficients must be placed in the following blanks so
that ali atoms are accounted for in the products?
C6H'2O6+_ C2H6O+_ CO2
a. 2;I c. I;3
b. 3;1 d. 2; 2
9.EESrc Draw Lewis dot structures for each hypothetical
moleculeshown below, using the correct number of valence
electronsfor each atom. Determine which molecule makes
sensebecauseeach atom has a complete valence shell and each This bombardier beetle is spraying a boiling hot liquid that
bond has the correct number of eleitrons. Explain what makes contains irritating chemicals, used as a defensemechanism
the other molecules nonsensical,considering the number of against its enemies. The beetle stores two sets of chemicals
bondseachtype ofatom can make. separatelyin its glands. Using what you learned about chemis-
try in this chapter, propose a possible explanation for why the
HH HH
beetle is not harmed by the chemicals it itores and what causes
lt tl the explosive discharge.
H-O-C-C:O H- C -H -C :o
I I For selected answers, seeAppendix A.
(a) H (b) H

LEVFi" iJ: SYIUT'i-itr5 i Sl f, il,{\L[-g$"T

$* i$
I O ,E V OLUTIONCONNECTI O N
MasteringS**l*gy'
The_ percentagesof naturally occurring elements making up Students Go to MasteringBiologyfor assignments, the eText,and the
the-humanbody (see Table 2.1) are similar to the percentages StudyAreawith practicetests,animations,and activitres.
of theseelements found in other organisms. Howiould you ac- InstructorsGo to MasteringBiology for automaticallygradedtutorialsand
count for this similarity among organisms? questrons
thatyou canassign to yourstudents, plusInstructor
Resources.

CHAPTER2 The ChemicalContext of Life 43