PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves

AS unit 2
Phya2
mechanics
materials
waves
Unit 2 PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves Dr. MB Cuthbert (20/04/2015) Page
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GCE PHYSICS
AS Examination
Unit 1 . PHYA1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Written Examination . 70 marks, 6 or 7 structured questions
1 hours
40% of the total AS marks
20% of the total A-Level marks available June
Unit 2 . PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves

Written Examination . 70 marks, 6 or 7 structured questions
1 hours
Unit 3 Investigative and Practical Skills in AS Physics

PHA3X, Externally Marked Route X . 55 marks
Practical Skills Verification (PSV . teacher verification)
Externally Marked Practical Assignment (EMPA . 55 marks)
10% of the total A-Level marks available June only
A2 Examination
Unit 4 . PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics

Written Examination . 75 marks,
1 hours
Section A is 25 multiple choice questions, each worth one mark.
Section B is a written paper of 4/5 structured questions and consists of 50 marks.
Unit 5 . One of Units PHA5A, PHA5B, PHA5C, PHA5D

Written Examination . 75 marks.
1 hours
Section A: Nuclear and Thermal Physics . 40 marks
Compulsory section 4/5 structured questions
Section B one of the following options.
Each paper has 4/5 structured questions and 35 marks.
Options: A - Astrophysics
B - Medical Physics
20% of the total A-Level marks (Section A 10%, Section B 10%) Available June only
Unit 6 . Internal Assessment Investigative and Practical Skills in A2 Physics

PHA6X, Externally Marked Route X . 55 marks
Practical Skills Verification (PSV . teacher verification)
Externally Marked Practical Assignment (EMPA . 55 marks)
10% of the total A-Level marks Available June only
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Unit 2 PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves
This AS module is about the principles and applications of mechanics, materials and waves. The first section
introduces vectors and then develops knowledge and understanding of forces and energy from GCSE Additional
Science. In the second section, materials are studied in terms of their bulk properties and tensile strength. The final
section extends GCSE studies on waves by developing in-depth knowledge of the characteristics, properties and
applications of waves, including refraction, diffraction, superposition and interference.
Mechanics
Statics
Syllabus extract:
Scalars and vectors
The addition of vectors by calculation or scale drawing.
Calculations will be limited to two perpendicular vectors.
The resolution of vectors into two components at right angles to each other; examples should
include the components of forces along and perpendicular to an inclined plane.
Conditions for equilibrium for two or three coplanar forces acting at a point; problems may be
solved either by using resolved forces or by using a closed triangle.
Scalars and Vectors

Central to the study of mechanics is the idea of the vector quantity that not only has a value, but direction as well.
Any quantity that does not specify a direction is a scalar.
Vector Scalar Unit

Displacement Distance Metres (m)
Velocity Speed Metres per second (ms-1)
Acceleration Metres per second2 (ms-2)
Momentum Newton seconds (Ns)
Force Newtons (N)
Work , Energy Joules (J)
Voltage Volts (V)
Temperature Degrees Celsius (oC), Kelvin (K)
Frequency Hertz (Hz)
Adding Vectors
A vector can be represented on paper by an arrow drawn to scale.
Tail Head
If the force vectors of 3N and 4N are in the same direction, they simply add together.
The heavy arrow indicates the resultant force.

The resultant force is the force that has the
same effect as the two component forces
added together.
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If the vectors are in opposite directions, we
subtract. We can see that the resultant is
now just 1 N.
If the two vectors are at 90o use

Pythagoras Theorem.
Resultant2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25. 4N
\ Resultant = (25) = 5 N
5N
3N
The direction of any vector is found at its tail. To find the direction of the 5N resultant vector we use trigonometry to
determine the size of one of the angles at its tail. To work out the angle we use the tan function:
tan q = = 0.75 q = tan-1(0.75) = 36.9 o The resultant vector is an angle of 36.9 0 to the 4N vector.
You need to understand trigonometrical functions in order to resolve vectors, and to work out the angles that the
resultants make.
Sines, cosines and tangents are ratios between the sides of a triangle for a given angle.
sin = opposite
hypotenuse
hypotenuse
opposite
cos = adjacent
hypotenuse

adjacent tan = opposite
adjacent
Resolution of Vectors
We can resolve any vector into two components at 90 o to each other. They are called the vertical and the
horizontal components. The resultant has the same effect as the two components added together.
F x = F cos q F y = F sin q
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Consider a car going up a hill. (assume a frictionless surface). The Weight on the car can be resolved into two
components. One component (W sin ) is the downhill force acting on the car and is parallel to the inclined plane.
The second component (W cos ) is the force exerted by
the car on the road and is perpendicular to the inclined
plane. If the car is stationary on the inclined plane then
there must be a friction force acting up the plane, the W cos
same size as the downhill force acting on the car. The
plane exerts a perpendicular upwards reaction force.

Vector calculations can be done using scale drawing.
W = mg
Use a sharp pencil W sin
Choose a scale for both vectors and stick to
it
Measure the angles with a protractor.
Equilibrium for Coplanar Forces
Forces in equilibrium mean that they are balanced. Coplanar forces act in the same plane. Two balanced
forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the other.
We can see easily from the free

body diagram that the resultant
force is zero.
If we are considering three
coplanar forces in equilibrium, use
the triangle of forces rule:
If 3 forces acting at a point
can be represented in size
or direction by the sides of
a closed triangle, then the
forces are in equilibrium,
provided they are drawn
head-to-tail.
In statics (when the forces

are balanced or in
equilibrium), the resultant of all the forces is zero.
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Turning Effects of a Force
Syllabus extract:
Moments
Moment of a force about a point defined as force perpendicular distance from the point to the
line of action of the force;
Torque.
Couple of a pair of equal and opposite forces defined as force perpendicular distance between
the lines of action of the forces.
The principle of moments and its applications in simple balanced situations.
Centre of mass; calculations of the position of the centre of mass of a regular
lamina are not expected.
If we have hinged or pivoted body,

any force applied changes the
rotation of that body about the pivot.
The turning effect is called a moment.
The equation is: Moment = force perpendicular distance Units are Newton metres (Nm).
Moments have a direction. As they are turning effects, we can talk of clockwise and anti-clockwise moments. By
convention, clockwise is positive.
Consider a trap door held by a piece of string, BC. P is the weight

of the trap door from its centre of mass and Q is the tension in the
string. The trap door is hinged about point O.
The perpendicular distance of the line of action of force Q is the

length of the line OC.
If the trap door has length x then this diagram can be redrawn as
follows: x Q sin
Moment of P about O = P x x O
Moment of Q about O = Q sin x x
Anticlockwise moment = clockwise moment P
Q sin x x = P x x This is the Principle of Moments.
Centre of Gravity
We treat objects as point masses referring to a single point

called the centre of gravity.
In regular objects like a cube or a sphere, the centre of gravity

is in the middle. In some objects the centre of mass is
outside the object.
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The centre of gravity is the point through which the entire weight is said to act. Objects with a very low centre of
gravity tend to be very stable. Some objects are so stable that they never fall over. Objects with a high centre of
gravity are unstable.
Balancing
Many questions involve the balancing of see-saw around

pivots. Let us look at some situations:
This is the simplest case. The pivot is in the middle of a

uniform bar. It means that the object is totally regular and
the centre of mass is in the middle. Therefore we can
ignore the mass of the bar. If the bar is balanced, we can
say that:
anticlockwise moments = clockwise moments
Ax = By
Let is look at a case where we move the
pivot P.
In this case, the line of action of the weight,

W, is z metres from the pivot P. Applying
the principle of moments we can say:
Ax = By + Wz.
Couples
If two forces act about a hinge in opposite directions,

there is an obvious turning effect called a couple. The
resulting linear force from a couple is zero.
The couple is given by the simple formula:
moment = 2 Fs
The turning effect is often called the torque. It is a

common measurement made on motors and engines,
alongside the power.
Dynamics
Motion along a straight line

Displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
v = s/t; a=v/t
Representation by graphical methods of uniform and non-uniform acceleration; interpretation of
velocity-time and displacement-time graphs for uniform and non-uniform acceleration.
Significance of areas and gradients.
Equations for uniform acceleration:
v = u + at , s = (u + v) t, s=ut + at2, v2 = u2 + 2as
Acceleration due to gravity, g
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detailed experimental methods of measuring g are not required.
Terminal speed.
Projectile motion
Independence of vertical and horizontal motion;
problems will be soluble from first principles.
The memorising of projectile equations is not required.
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration
We will only consider linear motion, i.e. motion in a straight line.
Distance is how far you travel between any two points by any route. It is a scalar quantity.
Displacement is the minimum as the crow flies distance from the starting point to the finishing point. It is
a vector quantity, so it has direction.
Speed is how fast you go, the rate of change of distance.
Velocity is rate of change of displacement. It is a vector.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is a vector.
average speed (m/s) = distance (m) v = s

time(s) t
average velocity (m/s) = displacement (m)
time (s)
a = v
acceleration (m/s) = velocity(m) t
time (s)
The picture on the right shows the difference between

distance and displacement.
Suppose we have two towns A and B 10 km apart but either

side of a hill. They are joined by a railway line that is straight,
and goes through the hill in a tunnel. The road goes round
the hill and the total journey distance is 25 km.
So the distance is 25 km. The displacement (the straight-line

distance in a particular direction) between A and B is 10 km
due East.
If we go from A to B and back again, the distance is 50 km,

but the displacement is 0.
Graphical Interpretation of
Velocity
Acceleration (m/s)
We can represent the movement of

objects using a graph, usually plotting
time on the x-axis (horizontal) and the
speed or distance on the y-axis (vertical).
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Consider a train accelerating from a station along a straight and level track to a maximum speed and slowing down
to a stop at the next station. The easiest way to show this is with a velocity time graph. Acceleration is the
gradient of the velocity-time graph.
From the graph,

between O and A, the train has a positive velocity increasing in size. The train has an acceleration in the
direction of the velocity (positive)
between A and B, the train travels at a constant velocity and has a constant acceleration.
between B and C, the train slows down. The train has a positive velocity decreasing in size. The train has an
acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity (negative) Slowing down can also be called
deceleration.
Displacement is the area under the velocity-time graph. The gradient of the displacement-time graph is the
average velocity. The curve of a displacement time graph is determined by whether the velocity is positive or
negative and whether the velocity is constant, increasing or decreasing.
The corresponding distance time Displacement

graph is like this: (m)
between O and A, the
gradient is positive and
increasing in size.
between A and B, the
gradient is positive and
constant.
between B and C, the
gradient is positive but
decreasing in size.
We can work out the speed at any instant by

measuring the gradient of the distance
time graph.
Acceleration is usually uniform, which

means that the speed [velocity] is
changing at a constant rate. This is
shown by a straight line on a speed time
graph. However in many real life
situations acceleration is not constant.
Therefore the graph is not a straight line:
Equations of Motion
We can use the Equations of Motion to

calculate the speed of an object under
different circumstances. These are
quantities are involved in linear motion,
movement in a straight line:
Quantity Quantity symbol Units

Displacement s m
Initial Velocity u m/s
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Final velocity v m/s
Acceleration a m/s2
Time t s
a = v
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. t
v = v - u = a
t t Thus v = u + at
Average velocity = u + v = s From this we get the following equation:

2 t
s = (u + v) t
2
Since t = 2s .
(u + v)
v = u + at becomes: v = u + a x 2s .
(u + v)
(u + v)v = (u + v) u + 2as which becomes uv + v 2 = u2 + uv + 2as
Therefore v 2 = u 2 + 2as
By replacing v by u + at, the above equation becomes: (u + at) 2 = u2 + 2as
u2 + 2uat + a2t2 = u2 + 2as thus dividing by 2a 2uat + a2t2 = 2as

2a 2a 2a
We get: s = ut + at 2
These equations can only be used for linear motion where the acceleration is constant.
Acceleration due to gravity and projectile motion
A projectile is any object that is thrown by any means. There are three situations we will look at:
Throwing an object vertically into the air;
Throwing an object horizontally from a height;
Throwing an object at an angle.
Throwing an Object Vertically Into the Air
Consider a basketball player throwing a ball in the air. What goes up must
come down.
The ball has a constant downward force acting on it because of gravity

(assuming that there is no air friction). This force is equal to the weight of
the ball. Since this force is a resultant force, the ball will have a constant
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downward acceleration of g = 9.8 ms-2. The resultant force will always be in the same direction as the acceleration
(Newton II)
Motion upwards: Motion downwards:
Velocity (decreasing) Velocity (increasing)
Acceleration (constant) Acceleration (constant)

W = mg
Assuming that vectors up are positive, we can

represent these motions graphically.
A displacement time graph looks like this:
The velocity time graph looks like this:
Note that the gradient is constant, i.e. the acceleration is

constant.
The acceleration time graph looks like this:
It shows us that the acceleration is constant at

-9.8 ms-2. The minus sign tells us that the
acceleration is towards the ground as vectors up are positive.
Throwing an object horizontally from a height
If we throw an object horizontally, there are two important things to

consider:
The horizontal velocity remains constant (ignoring air
resistance)
The vertical velocity increases at a rate of 9.8 ms -2
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If we throw one object and drop a second object at the same time, we see this:
The second object, thrown horizontally, will hit the ground at the same time as the object that is simply dropped.
Although the drawing is not to scale, you can see how the horizontal velocity remains constant, while there is
acceleration downwards.
Look at the diagram below. A pallet is dropped from a helicopter to the ground. We will ignore the air resistance.
The path taken is NOT a

straight line, because the
velocity downwards is
increasing at a constant
rate of 9.8 ms-2. It is a
parabola. There are two
components in this
problem:
The horizontal velocity which remains constant.

The vertical velocity which changes, as the object is accelerating towards the ground. We use an
equation of motion to analyse the motion.
Throwing an object at an angle
The horizontal movement is totally independent of the vertical movement. That means that they do NOT
affect each other.
The two movements are vector quantities, so they have a direction.
The velocities are at 900 to each other.
There is a resultant velocity from the two independent velocities.
Archery is a sport in which the participants subconsciously do calculations involving movement in two directions.
Again the vertical and horizontal movement are independent.
Let us analyse the motion from the moment an arrow is released to the moment it hits the target. We want to find
the range. For simplicity we will assume that the target is at the same height as the release point. We will also
ignore air resistance. We will not worry about the signs.
1. On release, the arrow leaves at a velocity v

ms-1 and angle .
The horizontal velocity is v cos . The

horizontal velocity remains constant.
2. The vertical velocity is v sin initially
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Newtons laws
Newtons laws of motion

Knowledge and application of the three laws of motion in appropriate situations.
For constant mass, F = ma
Work, energy and power
W = Fs cos ; P = W/t; P = Fv
Conservation of energy
Principle of conservation of energy, applied to examples involving gravitational potential energy,
kinetic energy and work done against resistive forces.
Ep = mgh; Ek = mv2
Newtons First Law states: Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is compelled to change that state by an external force acting on it. This is also known as the law of
Inertia (Inertia is that property of a body that resists a change in motion)
A car will maintain a constant speed if

the drive force and the drag are
balanced. The total (resultant)
force is zero .
Newton's Second Law states: If an unbalanced or resultant force acts on an object then the object will
accelerate in the direction of the resultant force and the acceleration will be directly proportional to the
resultant force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
Thus Resultant Force = mass x acceleration F res = ma

Force in N, Mass in kg, Acceleration in ms -2.
Acceleration is always caused by a resultant force, the vector sum of all the forces. The acceleration is always,
without exception, in the same direction as the resultant force.
Newtons Third law states that: If body A exerts a force on body B, body B must exert an equal and
opposite force on body A. (For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction)
In other words, forces always act in pairs (sometimes called Newton III pairs). This is true whether the forces are
in equilibrium, moving, stationary or accelerating. Free-body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative
magnitude and direction of all forces acting upon an object in a given situation.
Free Body diagram for a book on a table:

Table on book
Table on book
(reaction force)
(reaction force)
Book on table
Book on Earth
Earth on book
Earth on book
(weight)
(weight)
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The diagram on the right hand side shows the Newton III pairs.
It is important to remember that an object will only start moving or accelerate if the forces acting on it (ie in the free
body diagram) are unbalanced.
Terminal Speed
If you drop a ball bearing through thick treacly (viscous) oil, you will see that the ball bearing falls slowly at a
constant speed. It does not change speed. This is because the weight downwards is balanced by the upwards
drag force. This constant speed is called terminal speed. It is encountered whenever objects fall through fluids
(liquids or gases). Air is a fluid because it's a gas. So a feather falling through air will have a terminal speed of 10
cm/s. A sky diver falling through air has a terminal speed of about 60 m/s (about 230 km/h). If he hit the ground at
that speed, he would be killed. To reduce the terminal speed he opens a parachute which increases the surface
area (and the drag) which slows him down to about 5 m/s.
Think about a sky divers jumping from a plane:
The drag is in the opposite direction to the

weight, so the acceleration decreases.
Then the drag (upwards force)
balances the downward force (weight)
Therefore there is no acceleration and
the speed is constant.
This is terminal speed.
A speed time graph of a parachutist would look like this:

Spee
d
(m/s)
6
0
4
5
3
0
1
5
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10 20 30 40
50 Time (s)
Applying the Brakes
Brakes slow a car down by making extra friction, which is in the opposite direction to the movement of the car. The
acceleration is in the opposite direction of the motion (velocity).
The greater the speed, the bigger the braking force that is needed to stop a car in the same distance. If you are
driving at 50 km/h, it only needs a light force on the pedal to stop the car in 100 m. If you are driving at 100 km/h it
would need a much bigger braking force to stop the car within 100 m.
When you have to stop really quickly, for example a child runs out in the road in front of you, a significant proportion
of the stopping distance is taken up with the "thinking distance". There is a reaction time while you see the
emergency, realise there is an emergency, and then put your foot on the brake. During this time, the car is still
travelling at the original speed.
The idea of thinking distance

Speed
is shown on the speed time
(m/s)
graph below:
Thinking Distance
20
Braking distance
10
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

Time (s)
Reaction time
The graph shows the braking performance of a car in good condition on a dry road. The braking distance will
increase if:
the car is in poor condition, especially if the tyres are worn down;
the road is wet or greasy.
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If there is ice, there is very little friction, and braking has to be done very carefully indeed. Ice is one of the
slipperiest substances known.
Why is it so dangerous to drive while drunk? Although people have a sense of well-being, alcohol has a depressing
effect on the brain. This results in:
loss of inhibition, making people show off by driving faster, or more aggressively;
loss of coordination;
less appreciation of dangerous situations;
much slower reaction time when an emergency arises.
Work, Energy and Power
Work is defined as: The product of force and the distance moved in the direction of the force .
Work = Force distance moved in the direction of the force.

w = Fs (cos)
Units are newton metres (Nm) or joules (J).
Work is actually a scalar quantity despite being the product of a vector quantity.
Normally we consider the line of action of the force and the line of displacement to be at zero degrees to each other.
The cosine of zero is 1. However if we have the line of action of the force and the displacement at an angle, we
have to use the cosine function to take this into account.
When work is done, there must be movement. This can result in acceleration, a rise in temperature, or deformation
in shape.
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. When work is done, energy is transferred.
Energy comes in many forms. Some kinds of energy can be stored, while others cannot. Energy is always
conserved.
Power
Power is the rate at which energy is used.

P = w
Power = energy transferred (J) = work done (J) t
time taken (s) time taken (s)
Units of power are watts (W).

1 watt = 1 joule per second, Also kilowatt (kW). 1kW = 1000 W, megawatt (MW). 1 MW = 1 106 W.
We can also relate power, force and speed:

Work done = force x distance moved. W = Fs
Power = energy time. P = W/t
Speed = distance time: v = s/t
So we can write:
P = W/t = Fs/t
Therefore:
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P = Fv
Power (W) = force (N) speed (m/s) P = Fv
Conservation of Energy
The Law of Conservation of Energy States: Energy is neither created nor destroyed; it is converted from
one form to another.
Potential Energy
This term is often used in the context of gravitational potential energy. If we lift an object of mass m against gravity,
we are doing a job of work.
Work done = PE = weight distance moved against gravity.
E p = mg x h
Notice the term h ("delta h"). This means "change in height". So if we lifted an object from 200 m above sea level
to 300 m above sea level, the change in height is 100 m, which we would use in the equation.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the ability to do work through motion. If the motion is in a straight line, we call the
kinetic energy translational. This is the only kinetic energy we will consider.
E k = mv 2
If an object falls, the potential energy is turned into kinetic energy. Then we combine the equations for Ep and Ek,
(conservation of energy):
Ep = Ek,
mgh = mv2
mgh = mv2
Thus v 2 = 2gh
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Materials
Bulk properties of solids (major part)

Density = m/V
Hookes law, elastic limit, experimental investigations
F = kL
Breaking stress
Tensile strain and tensile stress
Derivation of energy stored F L
Description of plastic behaviour, fracture and brittleness; interpretation of simple stress-strain
curves.
Bulk properties of solids (minor part)
Elastic strain energy
The Young modulus
The Young Modulus = tensile stress / tensile strain = F L / A L
One simple method of measurement.
Use of stress-strain graphs to find the Young modulus.
Elastic Properties of Solid Materials

We will study how materials behave under compression (squashing) forces and tension (stretching) forces.
Scientists need to know how materials behave so that they can assess how suitable a particular material is to a
particular job.
Density
Density is mass per unit volume. Density, mass, and volume are linked by a simple = m
relationship: V
SI Units for density are kg/m 3. In some texts, you will find some densities given in g/cm 3. It is
important that you use the SI units otherwise formulae will not work. To convert you will need the following
conversion:
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
Hookes Law
If we load a spring, we find that the extension (code e) or stretch is proportional to the force (code F). If we
double the force, we double the stretch.
F = ke
Fe
The constant of proportionality is called the spring

constant and is measured in newtons per metre
(Nm-1).
We can plot this as a graph:
We can see that the graph is a straight line and that

the gradient gives us the spring constant. That is why
we have the extension on the horizontal axis.
The same is true if we apply a squashing force.
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Stress and Strain
If we stretch a wire, the amount it stretches by depends on:
its length
its diameter
the material its made of.
If we have two of the same material and length, it is clear that the thicker wire will stretch less for a given load. We
make this a fair test by using the term tensile stress which is defined as the tension per unit area normal to
that area. The term normal means at 90o to the area.
stress = F
We can also talk of the compression force per unit area, i.e. the pressure.
A
In some text books you may see stress given the symbol (sigma)
You will have met the expression F/A before. It is, of course, pressure, which implies a squashing force. A
stretching force gives an expression of the same kind. Units are newtons per square metre (Nm-2) or Pascals
(Pa).
If we have a wire of the same material and the same diameter, it is easy to see that the wire will stretch more for a
given load if it is longer. To take this into account, we express the extension as a ratio of the original length. We call
this the tensile strain which we define as the extension per unit length.
strain = e
Strain = extension (m)
original length (m) L
There are no units for strain; its just a number. It can sometimes be expressed as a percentage.
Elastic Strain Energy
When we stretch a wire, we have to do a job of work on the

wire. We are stretching the bonds between the atoms. If we
release the wire, we can recover that energy, which is called the
elastic strain energy. Ideally we recover all of it but in reality
a certain amount is lost as heat.
The energy is the area under the force-extension graph.
So we can use this result to say: EP = Fe
Stress-Strain Curves
Stress-strain graphs are really a development of force-extension graphs, simply taking into account the factors
needed to ensure a fair test. A typical stress-strain graph looks like this:
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We can describe the details of the graph as:
P is the limit of proportionality, where the linear

relationship between stress and strain finishes.
E is the elastic limit. Below the elastic limit, the
wire will return to its original shape.
Y is the yield point, where plastic deformation
begins. A large increase in strain is seen for a small
increase in stress.
UTS is the ultimate tensile stress, the maximum
stress that is applied to a wire without its snapping.
It is sometimes called the breaking stress. Notice
that beyond the UTS, the force required to snap the
wire is less.
S is the point where the wire snaps.
We can draw stress-strain graphs of materials that

show other properties.
Curve A shows a brittle material. This material
is also strong because there is little strain for a
high stress. The fracture of a brittle material is
sudden and catastrophic, with little or no plastic
deformation. Brittle materials crack under tension
and the stress increases around the cracks.
Cracks propagate less under compression.
Curve B is a strong material which is not ductile.
Steel wires stretch very little, and break
suddenly. There can be a lot of elastic strain
energy in a steel wire under tension and it will
whiplash if it breaks. The ends are razor sharp
and such a failure is very dangerous indeed.
Curve C is a ductile material
Curve D is a plastic material. Notice a very large strain for a small stress. The material will not go back to its
original length.
The Young Modulus

Y = Fl
The Young Modulus is defined as the ratio of the tensile stress and the tensile
strain.
Ae
So we can write: Young modulus = tensile stress
tensile strain
Units for the Young Modulus are Pascals (Pa) or newtons per square metre (Nm-2).
The Young Modulus describes pulling forces.
We can link the Young Modulus to a stress strain graph.
20 of 37
The Young Modulus is the gradient of the stress-strain graph for the region
that obeys Hookes Law. This is why we have the stress on the vertical
axis when we would expect the stress to be on the horizontal axis.
The area under the stress strain graph is the strain energy per unit
volume (joules per metre3).
Strain energy per unit volume = 1/2 stress x strain.
The units arise because stress is in Nm-2 and strain is mm-1:
Nm-2 x mm-1 = Nm m-3. Nm is joules, hence Jm-3
21 of 37
Waves
Syllabus extract:
Progressive Waves
Oscillation of the particles of the medium;
amplitude, frequency, wavelength, speed, phase.
c=f
Longitudinal and transverse waves
Characteristics and examples, including sound and electromagnetic waves. Polarisation as
evidence for the nature of transverse waves; applications e.g. Polaroid sunglasses, aerial
alignment for transmitter and receiver.
Progressive Waves
Waves are caused by oscillations. Oscillations are complete to-and-fro movements, of which vibrations are
one example. Another example is the oscillation of electrons, which cause radio waves.
Waves occur when a disturbance at the source of the wave causes particles to oscillate about a fixed central point.
There is a maximum displacement from the central point, which is called the equilibrium position. When particles
reach that maximum displacement, they start to move towards the central point. They pass through the central point
as they move to the maximum displacement on the other side.
We can show this on a water wave. The particles of water oscillate up and down from the equilibrium position. The
wave is travelling from left to right. P is going down, Q is at the maximum displacement, and R is going up.
The wave is called a progressive wave because it is moving in a particular direction. It is transferring energy from
the point of disturbance, but the particles are not travelling with the wave, merely going up and down.
Waves can be considered to travel either as plane wavefronts, from a plane source or as circular wavefronts
from a point source:
In 3 dimensions, the waves would propagate spherically from a point source.

22 of 37
Terms Used with Waves
Displacement of a particle is the distance at any given moment from the central or equilibrium position , i.e.
the undisturbed position. It is given the Physics symbol s or x, and the SI unit is metre (m). The displacement
decreases the further the wave progresses from its source.
Intensity of waves at a point is the power per unit area at that point. The energy of a wave increases as the
square of its amplitude. However the energy decreases as the square of the distance from the source, which is
known as the inverse square law. The physics symbol for intensity is I and the units are watts per square metre
(W m-2).
Amplitude of a wave, symbol A or r, units metres (m), is the maximum displacement of a particle from its
equilibrium position. In other words it is the height of the wave from the average level. It is NOT the height from
crest to trough.
Wavelength is defined as the distance between any two points on adjacent cycles that are in phase , in
other words the distance between adjacent peaks or troughs. The symbol for wavelength is (lambda). The units
for wavelength are metre (m).
Frequency, symbol f, has the unit hertz (Hz), and is the number of waves passing a given point every second.
Period is the time taken for one complete oscillation. The symbol is T and the unit is seconds (s). Frequency is the
reciprocal of period and is related to period by the simple equation: f = 1/T
Wave velocity, symbol v, units: metres per second (ms-1), tells us the speed of propagation of the wave, i.e. how
fast it travels. For water waves this is a few cms -1. In air, sound waves propagate at 340 ms-1. For light the speed is
3 x 108 m-1. The speed of light is given the symbol c.
Mechanical waves are produced by a disturbance in a material, or a medium, and can be longitudinal or
transverse. Mechanical waves need a medium or material to travel in.
In electromagnetic waves the disturbances are in the form of oscillating electrical and magnetic fields. They are
always transverse. Electromagnetic waves can travel in a vacuum.
The phase of a particle is the fraction of the cycle a particle has passed through relative to a given starting
point. We describe the difference in the motion of particles in terms of the phase difference. This is the fraction of a
wavelength by which their motions are different.
23 of 37
The path difference between two waves is the number of cycles difference there is in the distance they have
to travel.
N
The Wave Equation
The frequency, speed, and wavelength of any wave can be linked by the simple equation:
v=f
where v is the speed of the wave in m/s, f is the frequency in Hz, l is the wavelength in m.
The wave equation is used for longitudinal and transverse waves. When we use the equation for light or radio
waves, we use the symbol c for the speed of light. c = 3.0 108 m/s. So the equation is written c = fl.
Phase
When a wave is travelling, all the particles are in continuous motion. The different particles have different
displacements, velocities and directions. Indeed this is true even of adjacent particles. The phase of a particle is
the fraction of the cycle a particle has passed through relative to a given starting point. We describe the
difference in the motion of particles in terms of the phase difference. This is the fraction of a wavelength by
which their motions are different.
Consider the two particles X and Y.

X is at the trough of a wave,
whereas Y is at the crest. Their
directions are upwards and
downwards respectively. They are
half a wavelength (/2) out of
phase. By linking oscillation to
rotary movement, we can also
describe X and Y as being 180o or
radians out of phase. We say that
these particles are in antiphase.
W and Z are one wavelength, 360o
or 2 radians apart. They are both at the starting point of a cycle. Their motion, including displacement, velocity
and direction, is identical. We can therefore say that they are in phase. Particles can be any amount out of phase.
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
A transverse wave is one in which the displacement of the particles is at 90 o to the direction of travel. In a
water wave, the particles
move up and down while
the wave travels
horizontally. All
electromagnetic waves are
transverse.
We can show the features
of a transverse wave in the
diagram on the right.
24 of 37
In longitudinal waves, the displacement is parallel to the direction of travel of the wave. There are regions of
high pressure, compression, and regions of low
pressure, rarefaction. In a sound wave the air
molecules move forwards and backwards; where
they are squashed together, a compression
results, where they are forced further apart, there
is a rarefaction. Like all mechanical waves, a
medium or material is required. The speed of
sound in air is 336 ms-1, in water 1400 ms-1, in
steel it is 6000 ms-1. Other examples of
longitudinal waves include some kinds of
earthquake waves (the pressure or P-wave). We
can see the features of a longitudinal wave in the
diagram on the right.
Graphical Representation of Waves
We can show that both

longitudinal and transverse
waves can be represented by a
displacement-distance graph. If
we take a snapshot of a wave at
any instant, we see:
For a transverse wave we see

that the graph looks very similar
to the actual wave.
For a longitudinal wave the

graph is not so easy to see.
Let us look at the air
molecules in their
undisturbed positions and
compare them as a sound
wave passes by.
25 of 37
If we plot displacement
on the y-axis and
distance on the x-axis,
we get the same graph
to what we had before.
The shape is a sine
wave.
If we plot a
displacement-time
graph for a single
particle we see:
This is true whether

we have a longitudinal
or transverse wave. If we connect a microphone to a CRO, the CRO displays a displacement-time trace.
Polarisation of Transverse Waves
Polarisation is a feature of transverse waves only. Longitudinal waves are never polarised. We say that a
wave is plane polarised if all the vibrations in the wave are in a single plane , which contains the direction of
propagation of the wave. Suppose we have a rope
and make waves down it. We could make waves in
any direction we liked. But if we made waves through
a narrow vertical slit, we would find that the waves
would only pass through if they were vertical. This
would be a vertically polarised wave.
Light waves are easily polarised using polaroid filters. Light waves, like all electromagnetic waves, consist of an
electric field component perpendicular to a
magnetic field component, which are always in
phase. We normally consider only the electric
field component in polarisation, because the
electrical effects are those that dominate. The
unpolarised waves are normally oriented in
any direction.
If two polaroid filters are mounted such

that they are parallel, the light will pass
through both the first at which point it is
vertically polarised, and then through the
second.
If the two filters are crossed, so that the

transmission planes are at 90o to each
other, the vertically polarised light gets
blocked, because it cannot pass the
horizontal transmission plane. No light
passes.
Crossed polaroids are found in liquid crystal

displays on calculators and petrol pumps.
26 of 37
Refraction at a plane surface
Refraction at a plane surface
Refractive index of a substance s, n = c/cs
Candidates are not expected to recall methods for determining refractive indices.
Law of refraction for a boundary between two different substances of refractive indices n1 and n2
in the form: n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 .
Total internal reflection including calculations of the critical angle at a boundary between a
substance of refractive index n1 and a substance of lesser refractive index n2 or air: sin c = n2/n1
Simple treatment of fibre optics including function of the cladding with lower refractive index
around central core limited to step index only; application to communications.
Refraction and Snells Law
Light will always travel in the fastest path from point A to point B. If this path goes through different materials through
which light travels at different speeds, then light will not travel in a straight line. This bending of light when it enters a
new medium is known as refraction, and is the reason a stick looks bent when we hold part of it in water. Our eyes
are trained to think that light travels to us in a straight line, so when it bends, we think it is the object that is bent, not
the light.
Light travels faster in media that are less optically dense and slower in media that are more optically dense.
The refractive index (n) is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
Speed of light in a vacuum c

n = =
Speed of light in the medium v
The refractive index can be used to determine at what angle the light bends. We do this using an equation
developed by Snell, named, Snell's law. When light hits the boundary between two transparent media, it generally
splits into two parts. One part reflects back into the first medium, the other refracts into the second media. The
exception to this is when the light hits at such an angle that there is total internal reflection, which means that all the
light bounces back into the original medium.
q1 = angle of incidence
Normal Medium 1 q2 = angle of refraction
Incident ray (speed of light = c1)
The relative refractive index for light moving
q1 from medium 1 into medium 2 :
c1 n2
1 n2 = =
q2 Refracted Medium 2 c2 n1
ray (speed of light = c2)
27 of 37
The diagram shows light travelling from one
medium at speed c1 into another medium at speed
c2. Each point on a wave front can be seen as a
as a source of wavelets (Huygens principle). The C
wavelets represented here, reaching the boundary are
one period apart so the distance moved by the wave in c 1T q1
medium 1 will be and in medium 2 c 2T. q1
sinq1 = c1T sin q2 = c2T A c2T q2 D

AD AD
B
Thus sinq1 = sinq2 q2
c1 c2
1 n 2 = sin q1 = n2
sin q2 n1 This is known as Snell's law of refraction
For a ray travelling from medium 1 into medium 2, 1 n 2 is a relative refractive index. If medium 1 is a vacuum
(c1 = 3 x 108 ms-1) then the refractive index for a ray travelling from the vacuum into a medium is a property of a
medium called its absolute refractive index (n).
n= vac n med = c
cmed
Material Absolute refractive index at a particular

wavelength of light
Vacuum 1
Air 1.0003 (assumed to be 1)
Diamond 2.42
Glass 1.5 2.0
Ice 1.31
Water 1.33
Total Internal Reflection
When rays travelling from a medium of higher refractive index (more dense) into a medium of lower refractive index
(less dense), the angle of refraction is larger than the angle of incidence. The angle of refraction cannot exceed 90 0,
so there is a limiting angle of incidence called the critical angle (q c) above which no refracted ray can be formed.
For incident ray greater than the critical angle, the rays reflect back into the first medium and TOTAL INTRNAL
REFLECTION takes place.
q2
medium 2 TIR
medium 1
q1 qc
28 of 37
Medium 1 is more dense than medium 2 ( n 1 n2 ). When q1 = qc then q2 = 900
since sin q1 = n2 and sin 900 = 1

sin q2 n1
sin qc = n2 If medium 2 is air then n2 = 1 thus sin qc = 1

n1 n1
Applications of total internal reflection
Optical Fibres
Optical fibres are fibres or thin rods of glass
fibres which can transmit light with no
reduction in intensity. Optical fibres make
use of total internal reflection.
A digital light signal is given. The light that
travels inside the fibre hits the surface with
an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle so that all light is reflected toward the inside of the fibre. By
repeating this process thousands of times, light can be transmitted over long distances.
Endoscopes, which are able to transmit light to certain locations that otherwise, are hard to reach, uses optical
fibres and total internal reflection. The diagram on the right shows how a doctor will be able to see inside a human
knee.
Optical fibres are also in the heart of communication networks including the Internet and local area networks (LAN).
Binoculars
Binoculars are optical instruments that are able to magnify distant objects.
They are actually compact telescopes. Interestingly enough, it makes use of
total internal reflection. A pair of right-angled prisms is often used to bend
the path of light. It is the work of total internal reflection that shortens the
length of the light.
The diagram on the left shows the path of a light ray after entering the
binoculars.
Superposition of Waves
29 of 37
Superposition of waves, stationary waves
The formation of stationary waves by two waves of the same frequency travelling in opposite
directions; no mathematical treatment required.
Simple graphical representation of stationary waves, nodes and antinodes on strings.
We shall now look at what happens when two waves interact. If two jets
of water interact, they will mix and there are collisions between droplets
causing a change in speed and direction. This does not happen with
waves. If two waves interact, a new wave is temporarily formed, after
which the two waves carry on with exactly the same properties as before,
as if nothing had happened. The waves are superposed.
Superposition can only be applied to waves of the same kind.

Light and sound waves cannot superpose; light and X-rays can. Let us
look at two waves of different wavelengths crossing and superposing:
The resultant wave can be worked out by the vector sum of the two waves. The principle of superposition of waves
can be used to explain the presence of beats in sound, interference effects and standing waves.
We can use the superposition of waves to explain interference. When two
waves meet, the amplitude of the resultant wave will not only depend on the
amplitude of the two waves, but also their phase relationship. Let us look at two
waves of equal amplitude superposing:
In this case the waves are in phase. The resultant wave is double the
amplitude of the original waves. This is called constructive interference or
reinforcement.
If the waves are 180o (
radians) out of phase, the
waves cancel each other out.
This is called destructive interference or cancellation. If the

phases are different to these values, the resultant amplitude are
between these two extremes.
Standing Waves
Stationary waves are formed when two

progressive waves are superposed:
Equal frequency
Nearly the same amplitude
Same speed
Travelling in opposite directions.
30 of 37
If we send an incident wave down a string, which is fixed at the end, the wave is reflected at the fixed end and
undergoes a phase change of radians or 180o. There is no phase change at the free end.
If we send a continuous stream of waves down the string, they are reflected and a standing wave gets set up. The
frequency will be the same, the amplitude very nearly the same and the speed will be the same. The directions are
opposite. The phase change of p radians causes cancellation at the fixed end. This region of zero displacement is
called a node.
In a progressive wave, points X and Y would be in antiphase, p radians out of phase.

However, because the wave is reflected, the phase
is changed by p radians. So they are now 2p
radians out of phase, which means that they are in
phase. Superposition is constructive. The
amplitude is now at a maximum, and this is called an
antinode.
Notice:
All particles between nodes are in phase.
All particles either side of a node are in
antiphase.
Each sausage is half a wavelength.
We can show standing waves with Meldes Apparatus.
If we start the frequency of the vibration at a low level, increasing it slowly, we see little of significance until at a
certain value, a single large vibration loop is seen. This is due to resonance and is called the fundamental
frequency or the first harmonic. The second harmonic has two vibration loops. It is twice the fundamental
frequency.
The frequency at which resonance happens depends on:
The tension
The length
The mass per unit length (how thick the string is).
We can also have longitudinal standing waves, which we can show with a Kunst tube.
31 of 37
We should note that:
The wave is longitudinal so that all the particles vibrate parallel to the tube.
The amplitude is at a maximum at the open end of the tube, so there must be an antinode.
The amplitude at the closed end is zero; there is a node.
All molecules between nodes vibrate in phase.
All molecules either side of a node vibrate in antiphase.
Adjacent nodes are half a wavelength apart.
Waves on a string (transverse waves)
The 'note' or sound produced by a vibrating string depends on the frequency at which the string vibrates - and this
depends on:
The tension in the string
The length of the string
The 'weight' (mass per metre) of the string - called in science the 'mass per unit length'.
A string will naturally 'want' to vibrate at a number of different standing wave frequencies.
Fundamental frequency (f0): lowest possible resonant frequency: 1 st Harmonic
Harmonic Fundamental Nodes Length

frequency (L)
2
st
1 f0
2nd 2f0 3
3rd 3f0 4 1
4th 4f0 5 2
Wave Behaviour
Syllabus extract:
Interference
The concept of path difference and coherence
The laser as a source of coherent monochromatic light used to demonstrate interference and
diffraction; comparison with non-laser light; awareness of safety issues
Candidates will not be required to describe how a laser works.
Requirements of two source and single source double-slit systems for the production of fringes.
The appearance of the interference fringes produced by a double slit system, fringe spacing w =
D/s, where s is the slit separation.
Diffraction
Appearance of the diffraction pattern from a single slit.
The plane transmission diffraction grating at normal incidence; optical details of the
spectrometer will not be required.
Derivation of d sin = n , where n is the order number.
Applications; e.g. to spectral analysis of light from stars.
32 of 37
Interference
When two progressive waves of the same type coincide, they superpose. The results of the superposition is
interference.
We can demonstrate this with water waves in a ripple tank. The two dippers act as two different sources which are
in phase and having identical wavelengths and frequencies. We say that the sources are coherent.
In the pattern we can see:

Regions of constructive
interference where crests meet
crests and troughs meet
troughs. The amplitude is
larger.
Where the waves are in
antiphase, there is cancellation
We should note the following:

At any point where there is
constructive interference, the water is still rising and falling at the same frequency, but with greater
amplitude.
The position of the pattern remains steady, not altering with time.
The total energy of the system remains constant. While there is no energy in the regions of cancellation,
there is more energy in the regions of reinforcement.
We can demonstrate the same thing with sound waves. We set up two loudspeakers driven by the same signal
generator. If we use a microphone connected to a CRO, we can detect regions of reinforcement and cancellation.
(In reality we dont get complete cancellation.)
We can explain our observations in terms of

path differences. Suppose we go along the
centre line between the two sources. At all
points we are the same distance from either of
the sources. There is zero path difference.
Since the waves are in phase and produced at the same frequency and travelling at the same speed, they must still
be in phase. So they must reinforce.
We also see regions of constructive interference symmetrically on either side of the centre line. Thus the waves
must be in phase. This is because the waves have a path difference of one or more whole wavelengths. We often
describe this in terms of half wavelengths, so for there to be constructive interference, there must be a path
difference of an even number of half wavelengths.
The reverse side of the argument applies to odd numbers of half wavelengths. If the path difference is a
wavelength or 1 and so on, we get regions of cancellation. This is because the waves are in antiphase.
We can demonstrate similar effects with microwaves and sound. In general, if the separation of the sources is
smaller compared to the wavelength, the pattern of constructive and destructive interference is more spread out.
The uses of this are not confined to the laboratory. Freak waves in storms can occur due to this. Attempts at sound
deadening using high speed computers to produce sound waves in antiphase have been successful but are not yet
in commercial production.
33 of 37
Interference of Light
Getting two coherent light sources is extremely difficult due to the nature of the production of light. Light is
produced by the excitation of individual groups of atoms in bursts lasting less than nanoseconds (<1 10-9 s).
These are random so that there is no constancy in the phase relationships, even from a small region of the light
source. Although we need not go into the explanation for this, it has been found that the coherence length for two
rays of light rarely exceeds 1 mm.
However the LASER produces a single high

intensity monochromatic (one wavelength)
beam where all the waves are in phase. If
we can split this, we can easily demonstrate
interference effects.
Thomas Young first demonstrated

interference in 1801. He didnt have a laser,
which makes the original experiment harder
to reproduce. He split the light from a single
source into two. In this way he got coherent
beams. We have lasers now which make it easy to demonstrate.
When the laser shines on the double slit, all the waves are in phase so the slits act as coherent sources.
In the diagram the point O is the centre point on the screen and is equidistant from the two sources. Therefore
these must be reinforcement, because the waves arrive in phase. A bright fringe is produced. This fringe is made
by waves whose path difference is zero.
At P there is a dark fringe,

where there is no light. The
waves must be in antiphase
to cancel out so the path
difference must be one half
wavelength. At Q, the path
difference is two half
wavelengths, so another
bright fringe or maximum is
found. Where the path
difference is an odd number
of half wavelengths,
minima are found; even
numbers of half wavelengths
produce maxima. It
was found that the
wavelength could be
found according to
the formula:
where
is the wavelength (m)
w is the fringe spacing (m)
s is the slit spacing (m)
D is the distance from the slits to the screen (m). = ws
D
34 of 37
For a double slit the sources must be coherent (same wavelength and same phase) The diffraction pattern
produced has equally spaced bright and dark fringes, all equal width and equal brightness.
To make the pattern brighter, use either brighter light or wider slits. To describe the amount of diffraction we
measure the fringe separation W. To increase the fringe separation, reduce the slit separation (s) or use a
longer wavelength.
Diffraction
If we pass waves through a single slit, we observe that the waves spread out due to
diffraction.
If the slit is narrow, the diffraction is more marked .

The wavelength remains the same.
Diffraction does not need a slit. Waves can bend round a barrier by diffraction. Radio signals can be picked
up behind hills for this reason.
The longer the wavelength, the more the waves will diffract.
All waves diffract.
We can show the diffraction of light due to a single slit. (We must be careful not to confuse this with Young's double
slits.) If we have a wide slit, we see just a single bright region with sharp edged shadows.
If we make the slit narrower, we see a pattern

emerging with a bright central region, and
alternating light and dark bands. The narrower
the slit, the more marked the effect. The central
bright region becomes dimmer as well because
less light is transmitted
If the light is monochromatic, the

bands will be of the same colour.
Red light has a broader pattern
than blue light, suggesting that the
diffraction effect increases with
wave length. If we use white light, the central band is white, with the fringes being overlapped with the spectrum of
colours. This is called Frauenhoffer diffraction.
We can plot a graph to show the intensity, and

we see a bright central maximum, with
subsidiary maxima either side. We can explain
the effect of diffraction using the idea of
secondary wavelets. In the middle these form a
plane wave-front. At the edges, circular wave-
fronts move into the shadow region. The
maxima and minima are caused respectively by constructive and destructive interference.
We can work out the angle of diffraction using a simple equation: sin =
b
where is the angle of the 1st minimum, is the wavelength and b is the width of the
aperture (gap).
35 of 37
To make the pattern brighter, use brighter light or a wider slit. To make the pattern broader, use a narrower slit or a
linger wavelength. To describe the amount of diffraction we measure the angle between the central maximum and 1 st
minimum, (sin ). As the wavelength increases, the amount of diffraction increases. As the gap widens, the amount
of diffraction decreases.
The pattern from double slits is due to interference. From a single slit, its due to diffraction.
The single slit diffraction equation can be used, with modification, to determine the limit to which an optical
instrument can resolve. This is called the resolving power. (This is sometimes known as Rayleigh's Criterion.)
For a light microscope, the theoretical limit is about 1 m, so the microscope cannot be used to view atoms. A beam
of electrons is regarded as having wave properties. So an electron microscope has a much bigger resolution, as the
wavelength of the electron beam is much shorter.
Radio waves diffract round hills, which is why we can pick up radio signals behind hills, even though there is no
direct line of sight between the transmitter and the receiver.
The Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating can be used to split light into different wavelengths with a high degree of accuracy, much more
so than glass prisms. A diffraction grating usually consists of a piece of glass with very closely spaced lines ruled on
it. A transmission grating has clear spaces between the lines so that light can pass through it. A reflection grating
has a shiny surface between the lines so that light gets reflected off it. A compact disc acts as a reflection grating.
The diffraction grating has the advantage over the double slit method of measuring wavelength in that:
the maxima are more sharply defined;
the beam passes through more slits than two, so the intensity is brighter;
the angles are larger so that they can be measured with greater precision.
The formula is: n = dsin

Also
The term n is called the spectrum order. If n = 1, we have the first diffraction maximum
q is the angle,
l is the wavelength,
d is the slit width
sin can never be greater than 1, so there is a limit to the number of spectra that can be obtained.
If we did further calculations we could see that the red light is diffracted more than blue light. The pattern would be
like this:
36 of 37
Note that:
There is a central undeviated maximum, which would be white light.
The pattern would be symmetrical with orders either side of the maximum. We have not showed the ones
below here.
The third order does not have a red light ray.
The diffraction grating is a very good way of selecting light of a specific wavelength. Chemists and astronomers use
diffraction gratings in spectroscopy, which allows them to see the specific spectra given out by different elements.
Each element has its own individual spectrum. This allows astronomers to:
See what elements there are in stars.
If the spectrum fingerprint is shifted at all, astronomers can tell that a star is moving towards us (blue shift)
or away from us (red shift). This is due to the Doppler effect.
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PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves

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AS unit 2

Unit 1 . PHYA1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Unit 2 . PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves

Unit 3 Investigative and Practical Skills in AS Physics

Unit 4 . PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics

Unit 5 . One of Units PHA5A, PHA5B, PHA5C, PHA5D

Unit 6 . Internal Assessment Investigative and Practical Skills in A2 Physics

Scalars and Vectors

Vector Scalar Unit

A vector can be represented on paper by an arrow drawn to scale.

The heavy arrow indicates the resultant force.

If the two vectors are at 90o use

Equilibrium for Coplanar Forces

We can see easily from the free

In statics (when the forces

If we have hinged or pivoted body,

Consider a trap door held by a piece of string, BC. P is the weight

The perpendicular distance of the line of action of force Q is the

We treat objects as point masses referring to a single point

In regular objects like a cube or a sphere, the centre of gravity

Many questions involve the balancing of see-saw around

This is the simplest case. The pivot is in the middle of a

In this case, the line of action of the weight,

If two forces act about a hinge in opposite directions,

The couple is given by the simple formula:

The turning effect is often called the torque. It is a

Motion along a straight line

Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration

We will only consider linear motion, i.e. motion in a straight line.

average speed (m/s) = distance (m) v = s

The picture on the right shows the difference between

Suppose we have two towns A and B 10 km apart but either

So the distance is 25 km. The displacement (the straight-line

If we go from A to B and back again, the distance is 50 km,

We can represent the movement of

From the graph,

The corresponding distance time Displacement

We can work out the speed at any instant by

Acceleration is usually uniform, which

We can use the Equations of Motion to

Quantity Quantity symbol Units

Average velocity = u + v = s From this we get the following equation:

(u + v)v = (u + v) u + 2as which becomes uv + v 2 = u2 + uv + 2as

By replacing v by u + at, the above equation becomes: (u + at) 2 = u2 + 2as

u2 + 2uat + a2t2 = u2 + 2as thus dividing by 2a 2uat + a2t2 = 2as

Acceleration due to gravity and projectile motion

Throwing an Object Vertically Into the Air

The ball has a constant downward force acting on it because of gravity

Motion upwards: Motion downwards:

Velocity (decreasing) Velocity (increasing)

Acceleration (constant) Acceleration (constant)

Assuming that vectors up are positive, we can

The velocity time graph looks like this:

Note that the gradient is constant, i.e. the acceleration is

The acceleration time graph looks like this:

It shows us that the acceleration is constant at

Throwing an object horizontally from a height

If we throw an object horizontally, there are two important things to

The path taken is NOT a

The horizontal velocity which remains constant.

Throwing an object at an angle

Again the vertical and horizontal movement are independent.

1. On release, the arrow leaves at a velocity v