Idealized Cycles and Processes

Why the ICE is not considered as the closed system ??

 Ideal Air-Standard Cycles
An ICE is not a heat engine in the thermodynamic
definition of the term it is not a closed system and the
working fluid does not execute a thermodynamic cycle
The cycle experienced in the cylinder of an internal
combustion engine is very complex; such an engine can
best be analyzed as an open system which exchanges
heat and work with its surrounding environment (the
atmosphere); reactants (fuel and air) flow into the
system; products (exhaust gases) flow out
To make the analysis of the engine cycle much more
manageable, the real cycle is approximated with an ideal
air-standard cycle
for making analysis of the oreginal cycle it is convenient to compare the cycle with an ideal cycle and that is called air standact cycle

2
 Ideal Air-Standard Cycles
Air alone is the working fluid
Heat loss is considered zero while the heat capacity of the
air is assumed to be constant
Other assumptions are as follows:
Compression (process 1-2)
Adiabatic and reversible (isentropic) work done = change in interal energy

Combustion (process 2-3)

Adiabatic <dQ = 0>
Combustion occurs at
Constant volume (air-standard Otto cycle) no change in internal energy
Constant pressure (Diesel cycle) work done = change internal energy
Part at constant volume and part at constant pressure (Dual or
limited pressure cycle)
Combustion is complete (c = 1)

3
 Ideal Air-Standard Cycles
Expansion (process 3-4)
Adiabatic and reversible (isentropic)
Exhaust (process 4-5-6) and intake (6-7-1)
Adiabatic no change in internal energy < for both the cycle >
Valve events occur at top- and bottom-centre
No change in cylinder volume as pressure differences across
open valves drop to zero The piston will not move until the pressure at out of the valve and inside are same
Inlet and exhaust pressures constant
Velocity effects negligible

(1) Air-standard Otto Cycle

(2) Air-standard Diesel Cycle
(3) Air-standard Dual Cycle
(4) Throttled Otto Cycle (pi < pe) (1) (2) (3)
(5) Supercharged Otto Cycle (pi > pe)

We generally experienced the throttled cycle

4
(4) (5)
 one of the most critical assumotions are the combustion that occurs for different air standard cycle and it also works as the indicator of the engine performance

Ideal Air-Standard Cycles

The most critical assumption in determining how useful
these ideal cycles are as indicators of engine
performance is the form assumed for the combustion
process
The real engine combustion process occupies a finite
crank angle period (between about 20 and 70 crank angle
degrees), and the spark or fuel injection timing may be
retarded from its optimum advance to closer to TC
The Otto cycle is the limited case of infinitely fast
combustion at TC
The Diesel cycle would correspond to slow and late
combustion
The dual cycle lies in between
The original combustion occurs at the 20-70 crank angle and also the spark occurs as the piston advances to the TDC ..... But the Si engine faces the finie timing for making
the combustion at the TC
5
 Thermodynamic Relations
Applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics to the cylinder
contents, we obtain the following relationships
Compression stroke :
compression ration is greater than 1
v1
rc (1)
v2
Since the process is adiabatic
and reversible
s2 s1 (2)

The compression work is

Wc U1 U2 m(u1 u2 ) (3)

according to the second law of thermodynamics ...... only the internal energy is changed as the process is adiabatic and reversible and also the entropy is constant

6
 Thermodynamic Relations

Combustion process :
For the constant-volume (Otto) cycle, for the combustion process no volume is changed so the
workdone is 0

v3 v2 u3 u 2 0 (4a, b)

For the constant-pressure (Diesel) cycle,

p3 p 2 h3 h 2 0
For the constant pressure combustion the
enthalpy remains same (4c, d)

For the limited-pressure (Dual) cycle,

v 3a v 2 p3b p3a (4e, f)

and u3a u2 0 h3b h3a 0 (4g, h)

7
 Thermodynamic Relations
Expansion stroke :
For the constant-volume (Otto) cycle,
greater volume devided by small volume
v4
=rc s 4 s3 (5a, b)
v3
and the expansion work is
WE U3 U4 m(u3 u4 ) (6)

For the constant-pressure (Diesel) cycle,

v4
p3 p 2 rc s4 s3 (7a, b, c)
v2
for the combustion work
and the expansion work is
WE U3 U4 p 2 (V3 V2 )
m[(u3 u4 ) p 2 (v 3 v 2 )] (8)
m[(h3 h4 ) p 4 v 4 p 2 v 2 ]
8
 Thermodynamic Relations
For the limited-pressure (Dual) cycle,
v4
p3b p3a rc s4 s3b (9a, b, c)
v 3a
and the expansion work is
WE U3b U4 p3 (V3b V3a )
m[(u3b u4 ) p3 (v 3b v 3a )]
m[(h3b h4 ) p 4 v 4 p3 v 3a ] (10)

Now, the indicated fuel conversion efficiency nf,i is expressed as

Wc,i
nf,i (11)
mf QLHV
(which, since the combustion efficiency is unity, is equal to the
indicated thermal conversion efficiency t,i )
9
 Thermodynamic Relations

The indicated mean effective pressure (imep):

Wc,i mf QLHV f,i
imep (12)
Vd Vd
Wc,i , the indicated work per cycle, is the sum of the compression
stroke work and the expansion stroke work:
Wc,i Wc WE (13)

The indicated fuel conversion efficiency for different cycles are found
by subtituting the respective values in the above equations:
For the constant-volume (Otto) cycle, For the constant volume otto cycle both the expansion and
compression stroke are adiabatic and reversible

m[(u3 u4 ) (u2 u1 )]
f,i but remember the volume is changing and
that is the work ......
(14)
mf QLHV
work is being done at thecompression and also the expansion stroke and The heat is in at the combustion stroke and out at the exhaust stroke
So for getting work .....here the heat in is 0 and as the heat generation process is adiabatic so the only way is to make the internal energy change equal to zero

10
 Thermodynamic Relations
For the constant-pressure (Diesel) cycle,
originally (u1-u2)

m[(h3 h4 ) (u2 u1 ) p 4 v 4 p2 v 2 ]
f,i (15)
mf QLHV
For the limited-pressure (Dual) cycle,
m[(h3b h4 ) (u2 u1 ) p 4 v 4 p3 v 3a ]
f,i (16)
mf QLHV
The state of the mixture at point 1 in the cycle depends
on the intake mixture properties and the residual gas
properties at the end of the exhaust stroke
When the exhaust valve opens at point 4, the cylinder
pressure is above the exhaust manifold pressure and a
blowdown process occurs

11
Thermodynamic Relations

12
The gas that is remaining in the cylender expands isentropically and also the gas that goes out undergo an unstrained expansion that is irreversible

Thermodynamic Relations
In the ideal exhaust process model, this blowdown
occurs with the piston stationary at BC
During this process, the gas which remains inside the
cylinder expands isentropically
The gases escaping from the cylinder undergo an
unrestrained expansion or throttling process which is
irreversible
It is assumed that the KE acquired by each gas element
as it is accelerated through the exhaust valve is
dissipated in a turbulent mixing process in the exhaust
port into internal energy and flow work adiabatic + constant pressure = enthalpy copnstant

Since it is also assumed that no heat transfer occurs, the

enthalpy of each element of gas after it leaves the
cylinder remains constant
The kinetic energy of the gas that is blowed down is dissipated into internal energy and flow works

If there is no heat transfer then the enthalpy is constant 13

 The Exhaust Process
Consider that, at the instant of opening the exhaust
valve, the gases are to be divided into two portions
One portion will not escape from the cylinder but, instead,
will expand and force the second portion from the chamber
It expands isentropically along the line 4-5
The first element of gas which leaves the cylinder at point 4
enters the exhaust manifold at state a on the pressure = pe
line
An element that leaves the cylinder at an intermediate state b
on the expansion line 4-5 would enter the exhaust manifold
at state c
At the end of the blowdown process the gas in the cylinder
and the last gas to leave have the same state 5
There is, therefore, a gradient in temperature within the
exhausted gas
i think , after combustion there is high pressure and temp....... some escape and some are expanded for forcing the another part to go out now there is less pressure and so
thetemp is decreased and ..... at that time .... another portion will be exanded and make this portion out with relatively lower temp ...... consequencing enthalpy and entropy ...
This continues until the internal gas temp is reduced to such that ..... at that temp there is the perfect pressure of the exhaust manifold that is Pe ........ all these process
are ,.....isentropic and after releasing from the exhaust valve the process is irreversible
14
 The Exhaust Process
The temperature of the first element exhausted, Ta, is
slightly less than T4, the temperature of the last element
exhausted is T5
This is an irreversible throttling process, as a result, the
temperature of the escaping gas is higher than that of the
gas remaining in the cylinder and therefore the specific
volume is greater
A displacement of gas out of h p4
p pe
the cylinder follows the blow- T4
4
a
down process as the piston b c

moves from BC to TC
T5
5

15
 What is the thermodynamic change that is undergone by the exhaust gas ?? may be the kinetic energy conversion ...

The Exhaust Process

If heat transfer and KE dissipation effects are neglected,
no change in thermodynamic state of the gas occurs
In this displacement process, the mass of gas within the
cylinder at the end of the blowdown process is further
decreased by the ratio V5/V6
The mass of residual gas mr in the cylinder at point 6 in
the cycle is obtained by first determining the state of the
gas (T5, v5) at the end of the blowdown process following
an isentropic expansion from p4 to pe and then by
reducing the cylinder volume to the clearance volume V 6
The residual mass fraction is thus given by
expansion ratio at the expansion stroke and also
mr v 4 v5 v2 the expansion ratio at the exthaust stroke but at the

xr
idialized cycle there is no expansion at the exhaust
stroke (17)
m rc v5
Pe = P5 16
 The Exhaust Process
The average state of the exhausted gas be determined
by considering the open system defined by the piston
face, cylinder walls, and cylinder head
Applying the first law of thermodynamics for an open
system gives
U6 U4 = pe(V4 V6) He (18a)

where He is the enthalpy of the mass of gas exhausted

from the cylinder
The average specific exhaust enthalpy is, therefore,
m4u4 m6u6 pe Vd
he (18b)
m4 m6
which, with p = pe, defines the average exhausted-gas
state
internal energy has 2 major parts 1. kinetic and 2. potential energy

17
 The Intake Process
The mixture temperature at the end of the intake stroke
and at the start of the compression stroke can be
determined by again using the open system
Application of the first law between points 6 and 1 gives
U1 U6 = - pi(V1 V6) + (m1 m6)hi (19a)

or m1u1 m6u6 = - pi(V1 V6) + (m1 m6)hi (19b)

or m1h1 = m6h6 + (m1 m6)hi + V2(pi pe) (19c)

where hi is the specific enthalpy of the inlet mixture and

p1 = p i
Note that when pi < pe, part of the residual gas in the
cylinder at the end of the exhaust stroke will flow into the
intake system when intake valve opens

18
 The Intake Process
This flow will cease when the cylinder pressure equals p i
In many engines, the closing of the exhaust valve and
opening of the intake valve overlap
Flow of exhausted gases from the exhaust system through
the cylinder into the intake system can then occur and the
above equations need to be modified to account for valve
overlap
The work done by the cylinder gases on the piston
during exhaust is
We = pe(V2 V1) (20)
last volume - first volume

The work done by the cylinder gases during intake is

Wi = pi(V1 V2) (21)

19
 The Intake Process
The net work to the piston over the exhaust and intake
strokes, the pumping work, is
Wp = (pi pe)(V1 V2) (22)

which, for the cylinder gas system, is negative for p i < pe

and positive for pi > pe
The pumping mean effective pressure (pmep) is usually
defined as a positive quantity; thus,
For pi < pe: pmep = pe pi (23a)
For pi > pe: pmep = pi pe (23b)
The net and gross imep are related by
imepn = imepg (pe pi) (24)

pamping mean effective pressure + net mean effective pressure = gross mean effective pressure
What is the pumping mean effective pressure ??
20
 The Intake Process
The net indicated fuel conversion efficiency is related to
the gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency by

pe pi
f,in f,ig 1
imepg
(25)

21
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
If the working fluid in these ideal cycles is assumed to be
an ideal gas, with cv and cp constant throughout the
engine operating cycle, the equations so far developed
which describe engine performance and efficiency can
be further simplified
For the constant-volume cycle, the compression work
(eqn 3) becomes
Wc = mcv(T1 T2) absorbed
(26)

and the expansion work (eqn 6) becomes

WE = mcv(T3 T4) (27)

The denominator in eqn 14 can be related to the

temperature rise during combustion hence for a
constant-volume adiabatic combustion process
mcv(T3 T2) = mfQLHV (28)
Heat in is taken as positive and work done by the system is taken as positive
22
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
Note that the heating values at constant volume and
constant pressure are the same for the working fluid
The specific internal energy (and enthalpy) decrease,
Q*, during isothermal combustion, per unit mass of
working fluid has been defined as
mf QLHV
Q* (29)
m mass fraction

23
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
The relation for indicated fuel conversion efficiency (eqn
14) becomes
(T3 T4 ) (T2 T1 ) T4 T1
f,i 1 (30)
(T3 T2 ) T3 T2
since 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic processes between
the same volumes, V1 and V2
1 1
T2 V1 1 V4 T3
r c
T1 V2 V3 T4
where =c p c v compression is done from T1 to T2

24
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
Hence:
T4 T3

T1 T2
and eqn 30 can be rearranged as
1
f,i 1 1 (31)
r
c

The indicated fuel conversion efficiency increases with

increasing compression ratio and decreases as
decreases

25
Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant

26
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
The indicated mean effective pressure, using eqns (12)
and (31), becomes imep is work done devided by the
displacement volume

imep Q * 1 rc 1
1 1 (32)
p1 c v T1 1 rc 1 rc
The dimensionless numbers rc, , and Q*/(cvT1) are
sufficient to describe the characteristics of the constant-
volume ideal gas standard cycle, relative to its initial
conditions p1, T1
It is useful to compare the imep a measure of the
effectiveness with which the displaced volume of the
engine is used to produce work and the maximum
pressure in the cycle, p3
Mean effective pressure is the pressure that if is applied fully at the outward then the work would be produced is exactly same as the work is being produced in a cycle

27
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
The ratio p3/p1 can be determined from the ideal gas law
applied at points 2 and 3, and the relation
T3 Q*
1 (33)
T2 c v T1rc 1
obtained from eqn 28 - eqns 32 and 33 then gives
1
1
imep 1 rc rc 1
= c T (34)
p3 ( 1)rc rc 1 v 1 1
Q * rc 1
A high value of imep/p3 is desirable engine weight will
increase with increasing p3 to withstand the increasing
stress in components
28
Characteristics of Constant-Volume Air Cycle

r = compression ratio
p = absolute pressure
T = absolute temperature
Q = heat added between
points 2 and 3

29
Characteristics of Constant-Volume Air Cycle

r = compression ratio
p = absolute pressure
T = absolute temperature
Q = heat added between points 2 and 3

30
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
The indicated fuel conversion efficiency and the ratios
imep/p1, and imep/p3 for this ideal cycle model do not
depend on whether the cycle is throttled or supercharged
However, the relationships between the working fluid
properties at points 1 and 6 do depend on the degree of
throttling or supercharging
For throttled engine operation, the residual gas mass
fraction, xr can be determined using eqn 17 and since
state 5 corresponds to an isentropic expansion from
state 4 to p = pe, xr is given by
1 1 1

(pe p4 ) (pe pi ) (p1 p 4 )
xr
rc rc
31
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
Since 1
p1 p1 p2 p3 1 T2 Q*
rc 1 1
p4 p2 p3 p4 rc T3 c v T1rc
it follows that 1
pe
p
xr
1 i
(35)
rc 1 Q * /(c T r 1 ) 1
v 1c

The residual mass fraction increases as pi decreases

below pe, decreases as rc increases, and decreases as
Q*/(cvT1) increases

32
 Cycle Analysis with cv and cp Constant
Through a similar analysis, the temperature of the
residual gas T6 can be determined:
( 1) 1
T6 pe
Q*
1 1
(36)
T1 pi c T r
v 1c
The mixture temperature at point 1 in the cycle can be
related to the inlet mixture temperature, T i, with eqn 19
RT1 pe
c p T1 xr c p T6 (1 xr )c p Ti
1 (37)
rc pi
Use of eqns 36 and 37 leads to the relation
T1 1 xr
(38)
Ti 1
1
( rc ) e ( 1)
p
pi
33
 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles
The constant-pressure cycle is a limited-pressure cycle
with p3 = p2
For the limited-pressure cycle, the compression work
WC = mcv(T1 T2) (39)
initial temperature - final temprature

The expansion work, from eqn 10 becomes

WE = m[cv(T3b T4) + p3(v3b v3a)] (40)
For the combustion process, eqn (4g, h) give
mf2 3aQLHV = mcv(T3a T2) (41a)

mf3a 3bQLHV = mcp(T3b T3a) (41b)

or mfQLHV = m[cvc(T3a T2) + cp(T3b T3a)] (41c)

34
 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles
Combining eqns 11, 13, and 39 to 41 and simplifying
gives
T4 T1
f,i 1 (42a, b)
(T3a T2 ) (T3b T3a )
Letting a = p3/p2 and b = V3b/V3a
leads to the result
1 ab 1
f,i 1 1 (43)
rc a(b 1) a 1

For b = 1 this result becomes the constant-volume cycle

efficiency; for a = 1, this result gives the constant-
pressure cycle efficiency as a special case
35
 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles

The mean effective pressure is related to p1 and p3 via

imep Q * 1 rc
f,i (44)
p1 c v T1 1 rc 1
imep 1 Q * 1 rc
= f,i (45)
p3 arc c v T1 1 rc 1

36
 Cycle Comparison
The above expressions are most useful if values for
and Q*/(cvT1) are chosen to match real working fluid
properties
Analysis of pressure-volume data for real engine cycles
indicate that pVn, where n 1.3, is a good fit to the
expansion stroke p-V data
Q*, defined by eqn 29, is the enthalpy decrease during
isothermal combustion per unit mass of working fluid,
mf m
Q* QLHV (46)
ma m
The enthalpy decrease during combustion per unit mass of the working fluid

37
 Cycle Comparison
A simple approximation for (ma/m) is (rc 1)/rc; i.e., fresh
air fills the displaced volume and the residual gas fills the
clearance volume at the same density
rc = 12
= 1.3
Q*/(cvT1) = 8.525
p3a/p1 = 67

For isooctane fuel, for a

stoichiometric mixture, Q* is given by
2.92 106 (rc 1)/rc J/kg air
For = 1.3 and average molecular
weight M = 29.3, cv = 946 J/kg K
For T1 = 333 K, Q*/(cvT1) becomes
9.3 (rc 1)/rc

38
 Cycle Comparison
Overall performance characteristics for each of these
cycles are summarized in the following table
The ratio of imep to p3 is important because imep is a
measure of the useful pressure on the piston, and the
maximum pressure chiefly affects the strength required
of the engine structure
f,i imep/p1 imep/p3 pmax/p1

Constant volume 0.525 16.3 0.128 128

Limited pressure 0.500 15.5 0.231 67
Constant pressure 0.380 11.8 0.466 25.3

39
 Cycle Comparison
a = constant-volume cycles; b = limited-pressure cycle, p3/p1 = 100; c = limited-
pressure cycle, p3/p1 = 68; d = limited-pressure cycle, p3/p1 = 34; e = constant-
pressure cycle; Q = 1280(rc 1)/rc Btu/lbm air

40
Cycle Comparison

a = constant-volume cycles; b =
limited-pressure cycle, p3/p1 =
100; c = limited-pressure cycle,
p3/p1 = 68; d = limited-pressure
cycle, p3/p1 = 34; e = constant-
pressure cycle

41
 Cycle Comparison
The air-standard cycle with constant values for cp and cv
is unreal since cp and cv increase with temperature
increase while decreases
When these variations are included in the analyses, the
pressures and temperatures throughout the cycle are
radically changed in value
For any given expansion ratio and given heat input, the
thermal efficiency is highest for the constant-volume
cycle and lowest for constant-pressure cycle
In the former, the cycle allows the most complete
expansion and attains the highest efficiency because all
the heat is added before the expansion process in under
way

42
 Cycle Comparison
On the basis of the same heat input and the same
maximum temperature, constant-pressure cycle is the
most efficient while constant-volume cycle is the least
efficient
The real diesel engine can use high compression ratios,
while the SI engine is limited to relatively low ratios
because of the restriction imposed by autoignition
For constant compression ratio and heat input
t = [1 QR/constant]
t Otto > t dual > t diesel
For constant maximum pressure and heat input
t diesel > t dual > t Otto

43
 Cycle Comparison
For constant maximum pressure and output
t = W/QA = W/(W + |QR|)=constant/[(constant) +|QR|]
t diesel > t dual > t Otto
For constant maximum pressure and temperature
t = 1 - |QR|/QA = 1 constant/QA
t diesel > t dual > t Otto

44
 Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis
A more accurate representation of the properties of the
working fluid inside the engine cylinder is to treat the
unburned mixture as frozen in composition and the
burned gas mixture as in equilibrium
When these working fluid models are combined with the
ideal engine process models, the resulting cycles are
called fuel-air cycles
The sequence of processes and assumptions are:
1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression of mixture of air,
fuel vapour, and residual gas without change in chemical
composition
2-3: Complete combustion (at constant volume or limited
pressure or constant pressure), without heat loss, to
burned gases in chemical equilibrium
45
 Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis

3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of the burned gases

which remain in chemical equilibrium
4-5-6: Ideal adiabatic exhaust blowdown and displacement
processes with the burned gases fixed in chemical
composition
6-7-1: Ideal intake process with adiabatic mixing between
residual gas and fresh mixture, both of which are fixed in
chemical composition

46
 Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis
For constant-volume fuel-air cycle, efficiency is little
affected by variables other than the compression ratio
and equivalence ratio

47
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
The real engine and the fuel-air cycle have the same
geometric compression ratio, fuel chemical composition
and equivalence ratio, residual fraction and mixture
density before compression
Midway through the compression stroke, the pressure in
the fuel-air cycle has been made equal to the real cycle
pressure
The compression stroke pressures for the two cycles
essentially coincide
Modest differences in pressure during intake and the
early part of the compression process result from the
pressure drop across the intake valve during the intake
process and the closing of the intake valve 40 to 60
after BC in the real engine
48
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
The expansion stroke pressures for the engine fall below
the fuel-air cycle pressures for the following reasons: (1)
heat transfer from the burned gases to the walls; (2)
finite time required to burn the charge; (3) exhaust
blowdown loss due to opening the exhaust valve before
BC; (4) gas flow into crevice regions and leakage past
the piston rings; (5) incomplete combustion of the
charge.

49
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
Heat transfer
Heat transfer from the unburned mixture to the cylinder
walls has a negligible effect on the p-V line for the
compression process
Heat transfer from the burned gases is much more
important
Due to heat transfer during combustion, the pressure at
the end of combustion in the real cycle will be lower
During expansion, heat transfer will cause the gas
pressure in the real cycle to fall below an isentropic
expansion line as the volume increases
A decrease in efficiency results from this heat loss
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
Finite combustion time
In an SI engine, combustion typically starts 10 to 40
before TC, is half complete at about 10 after TC, and is
essentially complete 30 to 40 after TC - peak pressure
occurs at about 15 after TC
In a diesel engine, the burning process starts shortly
before TC and the pressure rises rapidly to a peak some
5 to 10 after TC since the initial rate of burning is fast
The final stages of burning are much slower, and
combustion continues until 40 to 50 after TC
Thus, the peak pressure in the engine is substantially
below the fuel-air cycle peak pressure value, because
combustion continues until well after TC, when the cylinder
volume is much greater than the clearance volume
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
After peak pressure, expansion stroke pressures in the
engine are higher than fuel-air cycle values in the absence
of other loss mechanisms, because less work has been
extracted from the cylinder gases
For spark or fuel-injection timing which is retarded from the
optimum for maximum efficiency, the peak pressure in the
real cycle will be lower, and expansion stroke pressures
after the peak pressure will be higher than in the optimum
timing cycle
Exhaust blowdown loss
In the real engine operating cycle, the exhaust valve is
opened some 60 before BC to reduce the pressure during
the first part of the exhaust stroke in four-stroke engines
and to allow time for scavenging in two-stroke engines
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
The gas pressure at the end of the expansion stroke is
therefore reduced below the isentropic line a decrease in
expansion-stroke work transfer results

Crevice effects and leakage

As the cylinder pressure increases, gas flows into crevices
(a few percent of clearance volume) such as the regions
between the piston, piston rings, and cylinder wall
This flow reduces the mass in the volume above the piston
crown, and this flow is cooled by heat transfer to the
crevice walls in premixed charge engines, some of this
gas is unburned and some of it will not burn
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
Leakage in a well-designed and maintained engine is
small
All these effects reduce the cylinder pressure during the
latter stages of compression, during combustion, and
during expansion below the value that would result if
crevice and leakage effects were absent

Incomplete combustion
In spark-ignition engines, the HC emissions from a
warmed-up engine are 2 to 3 percent of the fuel mass
under normal operating conditions; carbon monoxide and
hydrogen in the exhaust contain an additional 1 to 2
percent or more of the fuel energy, even with excess air
present
 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
Hence, the chemical energy of the fuel which is released in
the actual engine is about 5 percent less than the chemical
energy of the fuel inducted
The fuel-air cycle pressures after combustion will be higher
because complete combustion is assumed
In diesel engines, the combustion inefficiency is usually
less, about 1 to 2 percent, so this effect is smaller

The effect of all these loss mechanisms on engine

efficiency is best defined by an availability balance for
the real engine cycle
Standard and fuel-air cycle efficiencies as a function of
the compression ratio