Translating into L2 during Translator Training

Elke St.John 2003

Modern Languages Teaching Centre, University of Sheffield
E.StJohn@sheffield.ac.uk

1. Introduction

During translator training at University translator trainees usually practice to translate

into L1 using a range of tools. There are many translation tools available to the trainee,
which are also used by the professional translator, all of which have their advantages as
well as pitfalls. Dictionaries (mono and bilingual), corpora and Internet are all common
translation aids, which are easily available to the translator.

Although normal practice among translators is to translate into their mother tongue,
they are frequently required to translate into L2 as part of their professional activity
(see Campbell, 1998; Grosman et al, 2000). This is particularly the case with languages
that have traditionally been less widely taught e.g. Chinese and Japanese. It is thought
when working into their L2, translators are particularly dependent on a range of tools
and other information sources. In this respect, the use of a native speaker is not
commonly talked of.

This study will investigate the relative merits of using a native speaker during the
translation and the post-editing process of translating into L2 in translator training.
This seems to be a little rehearsed topic. The study will also look into the effects,
advantages and disadvantages that a native speaker informant brings to the translation
process. In particular, it will be interesting to find out how dependent trainee
translators working into L2 are on native speaker informants and how much help native
speakers can actually offer.

2. Literature Review

Le theme nexiste pas. (Ladmiral, 1979: 50)

This radical objection by Ladmiral namely that translation into non-mother tongues
does not exist also reflects the invisible assumption in translation literature that
translators usually work into L1. As mentioned above under normal circumstances,
professional translators work into their mother tongue; there is an unwritten golden
rule that translations need ideally be done by native speakers of the TL culture and
consequently, the vast majority of professional translation is probably done in this way.
In his Approaches to Translation, Newmark indeed explains that the translator should
always work into his/her native language as he argues that it is impossible to ever have
the same feeling for any other language even if the translator has been living for a long
time in a country other than his/her native land. He argues:

A foreigner appears to go on making collocational mistakes however long he lives in his adopted
country, possibly because he has never distinguished between grammar and lexicology. An educated
native will also make mistakes in collocation, particularly if he is under the influence of interference,

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 but he will correct himself intuitively. Sprachgefhl means awareness of collocations. For the above
reasons, translators rightly translate into their own language. (1981: 180)

Cay Dollerup, himself an extremely fluent non-native speaker and writer in English,
also affirms this view stating:

However, as non-native speakers, we should not fool ourselves into believing that we shall ever
master English as the natives do. Our command of English will never be perfect: there are white
spots, uncharted domains in our linguistic and cultural mapping of English and, consequently, there
are cases where we are incapable of producing a good translation in the sense that it sounds like an
authentic, native text to target language users. (2000: 63)

The native speakers natural feel for a language is very useful when translating
metaphors and idioms, for example. Mona Baker supports this point by stating that a
persons competence in actively using the idioms and fixed expressions of a foreign
language hardly ever matches that of a native speaker. The majority of translators
working into a foreign language cannot hope to achieve the same sensitivity that native
speakers seem to have for judging when and how an idiom can be manipulated (1992:
64). This does not only apply to idioms, but also to collocations and sayings as well as
the overall usage of vocabulary and the general style of a text; the non-native speaker
cannot realistically, or at least very rarely, have the same grasp for the feel of a foreign
language.

Non-mother tongue translations are often deemed as unacceptable and invalid.

Professional translators generally tend to translate only into their mother tongue and
often only accept jobs, which only involve translating into L1. Indeed, The Code of
Professional Ethics of the Translators Guild of Great Britain states:
A translator shall only work into the language (in exceptional cases this may include a second
language) of which he (sic) has native knowledge. Native knowledge is defined as the ability to speak
and write a language so fluently that the expression of thought is structurally, grammatically and
idiomatically correct. (art 4.1 of the ITI Code of Conduct).

Although this stipulates that most translation should be done into L1, it leaves open the
possibility for the reverse direction.

Grosman (2000: 23) comments, that theories which favour translation into the native or
first language tend to neglect the importance of the translators comprehension of the
source text and culture in his/her second language. It is a question of emphasis and as
Grosman points out, whilst it is usually expected that a translation by a non-native
speaker should be read and corrected by a native speaker it is not usually expected that
a target language speakers reading and comprehension of the source text be
submitted to a corresponding checking by a native speaker of the source text. (2000:
23). Grosman suggests that this could be a reflection of an underlying political reality
and that the comparative neglect of the source text and culture merely reflects the
existing asymmetries in power relations between widely disseminated and less widely
disseminated languages. (2000: 24)

However, translation into L2 is a common practice in some countries where TL native

speakers are not readily available. Stuart Campbell comments in this respect on the
insistence to translate into L1:

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 In theory this is fine, but in practice it poses some difficulties since the supply of translators into
particular languages may not match demand, so that translation sometimes (or perhaps even often)
has to be undertaken into the second language. (1998: 57).

Campbell, in his Translation into the Second Language (1998) also stresses that
translation into L2 is an inevitable practice in these multicultural and ethnic contexts.
Whilst he admits that the primary difficulty of translating into L2 is to produce a
natural-sounding target text, he convincingly maintains that the right evaluation of the
second language output should be based on the authentic-looking quality and
situational appropriateness of the target text.

Directionality can actually be affected by many more factors than language

combinations, namely subject specialists, text types, deadlines or availability of
translators. It may also be influenced by the status of a language or the amount of
translation that already exists in that language and the importance of the particular
translation. Moreover, in the world of globalisation translation into the second
language has become an economic necessity. Snell Hornby examines the impact of
globalisation on language and translation in her study McLanguage: The identity of
English in translation today: In the global village of today, one could make the
categorical statement that every translator needs a working knowledge of English as
international lingua franca. (2000: 37) She argues that the need for global
communication in a universally understood language has led to a situation where
translation into English as a non-mother tongue has become a fact of modern life for
which we need to train our future professional (2000: 37)

Campbell (2000: 212) agrees that the international dominance of English has led to a
situation where there is a large demand for documentation in English much of which
needs to be translated. Acknowledging that the figures are imprecise Campbell (2000:
212) cites Sagers estimate that in 1989 150-200 million pages of translation were
produced by 175,000 employees. Most of the translation into English must have been
performed by non-native speakers. Lise (1997: 27) for example notes that a vast
amount of translation into English as a second language is carried out in Japan.

It can also be argued that translating into L2 can be the preferable direction in the case
of certain text types, for example technical or scientific texts where accuracy is of more
importance than style. The same could be said of medical translation where direct
equivalents are readily available and a lesser knowledge of both languages is required.
Crystal endorses this point:

On the whole, translators work into their mother tongue (or language of habitual use), to ensure a
result that sounds as natural as possible though some translators have argued that, for certain types
of text (e.g. scientific material) where translation accuracy is more crucial than naturalness, it makes
more sense for translators to be more fluent in the SL. (1987: 344, italics in the original)

Having identified a demand for translation into English as a non-mother tongue, Snell
Hornby (2000: 38) also goes on to consider the nature of the text types for which this
type of translation is appropriate. She suggests typical LSP texts such as informative
texts, which are highly conventionalised in verbal and non-verbal elements e.g.
instructions for use, public announcements, commercial correspondence and scientific
reports and operative texts such as tourist brochures. Perhaps not surprisingly, Snell
Hornby considers expressive texts such as literary or journalistic works to be the least

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suitable text type for this type of translation. It is logical to assume that the expressive
use of language in, for example, poetry or metaphor would pose problems for the
translator possessing the more limited linguistic knowledge characteristic of
International English or McEnglish.

When translating into International English the question of foreign language

competence arises: Snell Hornby (2000: 38) notes that in order to translate informative
and operative texts the translator should have a sound grasp of basic grammar and
syntax as in the use of tenses and the function of the article. However, she notes that
lingua franca English lacks the lexical richness (such as the knowledge of unusual
fixed idioms), which is required for the translation of expressive texts. However this
precisely makes LSP translation well suitable for the translator translating into L2.

Stuart Campbell refers to the output of translation into English as a second language as
a special kind of Interlanguage, a dynamic individual code potentially moving
towards native speaker competence (2000: 213) He suggests that translation into L2
competence can be approached in stages rather than fixed points which means that
competence can be measured in terms of continual progress in improved language
processing. This could be considered in translator training where translation into L2 is
practiced. Campbell, for example, suggests that translation into L2 competence can be
measured by specific grammatical criteria. In contrast to Snell Hornby he assumes that
there is a probability of less than full control over the sentence level grammar and of
gaps in the lexical repertoire. Moreover, he feels that practise in translation into the
second language can lead to increased competence but acknowledges that this
competence is restricted by the nature of the texts which need to be translated: in other
words certain structures like the agentless passive tend to recur in the type of texts
which are translated into English as the second language. (Campbell 2000: 214)
Indeed, the use of language is not only more precise and unambiguous but the limited
amount of constructions make the task of the translator who translates LSP texts into
L2 much easier.

In summary, it has been identified in the literature review above that (professional)
translation into L2 is commonly practised despite the taboo of translating into non-
mother tongues. Therefore this pilot study can hopefully contribute something to this
much disputed topic. It has been acknowledged that translation into English as an L2 is
often an inevitable practice in certain countries, e.g. China and Japan because the
languages of these countries are not widely spoken. Therefore, it seems appropriate to
carry out this study with Japanese and/or Chinese speakers. It has also been suggested
that certain text types of LSP texts, for example instructions, might be more suitable
than others for translation into L2.

3. Methodology

3.1. Participants

For the purposes of this pilot study, one Japanese student, one Chinese student and two
English students were chosen. The two English native speakers were asked to help the
Chinese and Japanese students to translate a text into English. The Japanese and
Chinese student had an advanced knowledge of English with a 6.5 score each in the

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IELTS test at the beginning of their course. All four trainees had been 5 months into
their practical translation training as part of their postgraduate translation course and
had attended a module in translation theory. The two English native speakers had no
knowledge of either Japanese or Chinese. This obviously meant that the whole process
was conducted in English.

3.2. Text

The text chosen for the translation exercise could be regarded as an LSP text with an
informative and operative function. It was a Transportation Guide and full of everyday
language but also set phrases. This kind of language can be found in everyday
situations in every country, where the processes involved and described are unlikely to
change greatly; for example instructions were given for using public transport and
guidelines on ticket use which is an everyday task unlikely to vary from country to
country. The second section of the text gave Advice for a comfortable Journey which
contained imperatives that can be found everyday in a number of different places,
which are intended for public use.

3.3. Translation Process

The translation process was not discussed in advance, nor was a synopsis of the text
given. The translation commenced immediately with no preceding discussion as to
how to go about it. The native speakers had no idea of the text type or indeed the
content and style. The translators also had the help of an electronic dictionary, which
was consulted from time to time for the translator to verify vocabulary and this was
discussed with the native speaker. The four participants worked in pairs in two separate
rooms.

The experiment was video recorded and a focus group meeting was held afterwards to
discuss the process. I had also asked the participants to complete a questionnaire to
supplement the focus group. Unfortunately, the answers they provided did not provide
any information or ideas that I did not already have from watching the videos.
However, it served to back-up my own thoughts on the use of a native speaker
informant.

4. Analysis

The analysis is divided into two main areas, namely grammar/accuracy and use of
language. These were the main two areas, which I identified where the two native
speakers mainly offered their help. Furthermore, considering the text type, these two
areas seemed to be the obvious ones to concentrate on. Style is not of primary
importance in informative texts (cf. Snell Hornby 2000: 38). In the following analysis,
I have not differentiated between the Japanese and Chinese speaker.

4.1. Grammar

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The grammatical advice needed was mainly concerned with the use of prepositions, the
use of article, changing the word order and grammar shifts, for example, changing
active clauses to the passive as the first examples 1-3 show below.

(1) The Japanese text literally said: MAX Drivers will not check your tickets.
Native speakers suggestion:
Your ticket will not be inspected by MAX drivers.

In English, the sentence above is more likely to be a passive clause. Although this
example is perfectly grammatically correct in English, it is more likely to be in the
passive clause in this type of text, and this is the kind of judgement that only a native
speaker can give. Moreover in the above example, the native speaker informant not
only advised to use the passive mode but also suggested a change in the use of
terminology, namely inspect instead of check, which seems to fit better in this
particular context. Consider example 2 below with regard to the adverb available.
The passive form and the verb use were suggested as alternatives:

(2) The ticket is still available to use

Native speakers suggestion:
The ticket can be still used

It can be argued that example 1 and 2 can still be understood correctly without the
suggestions for improvements however the learning process the translator is subjected
to by these improvements also needs to be considered and can be valuable.

Another area where Japanese and Chinese can benefit from the help of an English
native speakers input is with the use of articles. As pointed out in the literature review,
Snell Hornby actually recommended that L2 translators should have knowledge of the
function of articles. However articles are virtually non-existent in Chinese and
Japanese and therefore a constant source of errors for Japanese and Chinese speakers
when writing in English. In example 3 below, for example, the definite article is
necessary from a grammatical point of view and was therefore suggested.

(3) Tri-Met will be the most convenient method of transportation.

The corrections suggested by the native speaker below in examples 4 and 5 were also
necessary. Proper names usually do not have to be preceded by an article. Although
this is a rather straightforward rule it appears that the input from the native speaker was
still needed.

(4) Welcome to the TRI-Met Public Transport Service

Native speakers suggestion:
Welcome to TRI-MET

(5) The best way to travel around N. is using the TRI-MET transport services
Native speakers suggestion:
The best way to travel around N. is using TRI-MET transport services

The translators agreed with the native speakers suggestions in the vast majority of
cases. Where problems arose the native speaker endeavoured to give as much help as

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possible by providing more explanation. This means that a kind of learning has
probably also taken place.

Since the Chinese and Japanese language do not use any articles it was particularly
difficult for the trainee translators to use the definite and indefinite article correctly as
example 6 below exemplifies:

(6) When you pay the fare, a driver gives you a fare ticket
Native speakers suggestion:
When you pay the fare, the driver gives you a receipt

The native speaker also changed fare ticket to receipt. The term fare ticket came
up in the electronic dictionary. The translator did not ask many direct questions, rather
the native speaker volunteered information and advice on the basis of the rough
translations and explanations offered by the Japanese and Chinese speakers. The
questions that were asked of the native speaker tended to concern specific vocabulary.
The Japanese or Chinese speakers could offer a general word, which was not the
correct choice in the context, but the native speakers could understand the idea and
offer the correct word for the context in English. For example, in the next three cases,
the native speakers feel for the language in pragmatic contexts was needed. In all
examples the polite form please was quite rightly deleted:

(6) Please do not smoke

Native speakers suggestion:
No smoking

No smoking is obviously the appropriate register, which should be used in these well-
defined situations. In Chinese and Japanese polite forms are always used. This is also
reflected in their translations below:

(7) Please give up the seats at the front to senior citizens

Native speakers suggestion:
Yield front seats to senior citizens

Also typical for English LSP texts is often a telegraphic style as suggested above in
Example 7. In English the passive form is often preferred in operative texts because it
avoids mentioning the agent and it keeps the more formal style which is appropriate in
these contexts. Examples 6,7 and 8 are typical for conventionalised phrases in LSP
texts.

(8) Please use headphones while listening to the radio

Native speakers suggestion:
Radio can only be used with a handset.

As Viggio Hjrnager Pedersen argues that the task of the native informant is mainly to
produce formulations that are stylistically more acceptable to native speaker than my
own. (2000: 111) The input of the native speaker was much needed in examples 6,7
and 8.

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English prepositions can sometimes even cause the English native speaker problems.
In example 9 below, the preposition in was correctly changed to on although at
would have also been correct:

(9) MAX services differ in Weekends

Native speakers suggestion:
MAX services differ on Weekends

For the most part, it seemed that the native speaker anticipated what was going to come
next and offered an English translation. In examples 10 and 11, grammar mistakes
were corrected.

(10) All the tramcars are called MAX

(11) You can check how long it takes from one stop to the others.

The sound grasp of grammar as recommended by Snell Hornby is not evident here but
as noted by Campbell more practice could lead to increased competence and this could
be a way forward in translation classes. However the mistakes made in many examples
above (with the exception of examples 6,7 and 8) are quite basic. Practising language
skills seems to be more essential here than translating skills, which are more used in
the following category.

5.2 Use of Language

Advice was also given regarding collocations and use of English as can be seen below
in the following examples. There was, of course, the added complication of a different
alphabet and a great deal of advice on English spelling was required. In addition to
this, due to the Chinese and Japanese characters of the ST encompassing many
meanings, this had to be transferred into English using a great many more words. One
or two characters in Japanese can hold many different meanings and the translator used
the native speaker to transfer those effectively into English and this often required
explanation in the English text. Example 12 is a typical example. In Chinese and
Japanese there are no separate words for leg and foot:

(12) Please do not put your legs on the seats

Native speakers suggestion:
Please do not put your feet on the seats

An explanation was not needed as it was obvious to the native speaker what the
meaning was. In the following three examples, the choice of terminology needed
adjusting. Although the adjectives right and correct have probably the same
meaning according to their electronic dictionary only correct collocates with fare,
day and bus number in this particular context.

(13) You need to insert the right fare

Native speakers suggestion:
You need to insert the correct fare

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The native speakers feel for the language is obviously invaluable here. The indefinite
article was also changed in example 14 below:

(14) Please make sure you check against a right day

Native speakers suggestion:
Please make sure you check against the correct day

Interestingly, the verb check was used correctly here in contrast to example 1 above.
To check seems to come up as the first term in their electronic dictionary. From the
video and the focus group discussion it actually seems that the Japanese and Chinese
speaker heavily relied on their electronic dictionary during the translation process.
Surprisingly, in example 15 below in contrast to examples 3 to 6, the definite article
was used correctly this time:

(15) Make sure to use the right bus number

Native speakers suggestion:
Make sure to use the correct bus number

With phrases like No smoking in example 6, it can often be more a case of

substitution rather than translation, but the translator needs to be aware of this and a
translator translating into L1 will obviously have more the intuition for this. A native
speaker informant can therefore help to find the correct TL equivalent with such
standard formulations. Consider example 16 below in this respect:

(16) Commemoration Day of Martyr

Native speakers suggestion:
Memorial Day

Translators translating into L2 do not belong to the L2 cultural group and are therefore
dependent on help from a native speaker otherwise their own L1 culture could be
projected on to the TT as in example 16 above. It seems in example 16 that something,
which was embedded in the Japanese or Chinese culture was transferred literally.
Example 17 is similar in this respect:

(17) The station plates of the bus stops use

Native speakers suggestion:
The bus stop signs of the bus stops use

The noun station plate came up in the electronic dictionary. An English parallel text
could have actually been very useful to find the appropriate terminology in both
examples 17 and 18:

(18) Single zones and double zones

Native speakers suggestion:
One zone and two zones

The cultural transfer needs to be carefully analysed when translating into L2. This is
certainly an area where the support of a native speaker is needed although parallel texts
can also be useful here.

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Example 19 below is also an area where the native speakers input is important to
ensure political correctness:

(19) people who are disabled

Native speakers suggestion:
citizens with disabilities

The noun people is a very general word and can have negative connotations in certain
contexts. Similarly, the noun person in example 20 can be regarded as too general for
this LSP text and was therefore quite rightly changed to passenger.

(20) If the person who does not have a ticket or the fare is not correct, they will be
charged, or will be sent to a court, or both penalties.
Native speakers suggestion:
If a passenger who does not have a ticket or has not paid the correct fare,
they will be fined, or sent to a court, or incur both penalties.

The verbs fined and incur are also more appropriate in this context. These are more
conventionalised phrases, which could have also been gleaned from parallel texts.
Interesting that the indefinite article was correctly used in example 21 below in
contrast to example 6 above. The proper name MAX alone seems somewhat not
explicit enough. The addition of train makes the phrase more complete.

(21) Payment for a MAX

Native speakers suggestion:
How to pay for a MAX train

It seemed that in the second category Use of Language the Japanese and Chinese
speakers are more dependent on the help and discussion of a native speaker. Most
corrections in the first category could be avoided if the language competence was
improved.

It is evident from the video that the native speaker was somewhat used as a supplement
to the dictionary. Both trainee translators roughly translated short segments and waited
for a more natural translation from the native speaker or they gave an explanation of
the meaning and the native speaker modified it into better English.

5.3. Focus group

The Chinese and Japanese speakers recorded several positive points of using a native
speaker. They found the exercise very encouraging and interesting, e.g. the exchange of
cultures. They really liked the fact that any queries that the translator has can be
immediately answered. The discussion in the translation process proved to be
extremely helpful in that the translator and native speaker can discuss different options.
They appreciated the interaction that a translator does not find when working in
isolation with a dictionary. The main disadvantages both L2 translators mentioned was
that they had to give lots of background information of the text and this often resulted
in long discussion about cultural issues. They found, for example, that the biggest

10
benefit of using a dictionary was that it is a quick way of finding out what I am
looking for.

5. Conclusion

This study addresses a topic, to which, hitherto, insufficient attention has been paid.
Ideally, professional translators work into their L1, but we know that many of the
students who undertake translator training in Britain will be called upon to translate
texts into their L2, in the course of their careers. And some text types may actually lend
themselves to being translated out of rather than into L1. This study focuses
primarily on the assistance that can be provided by a native speaker during the
translation process of an LSP text. All too often, the translator has been envisaged as a
more or less solitary individual and there has been a sense in which asking for
linguistic advice is an admission of inadequacy. The analysis revealed that when
translating into L2 a native speaker could offer help in a variety of ways. The principal
help given by the native speaker in this study was to correct grammar and offer a more
natural form of English. This is in contrast to what Newmark (1981: 180) argues that
the most persistent errors by even the most competent of L2 translators are not so much
grammatical or syntactic as collocational. The analysis shows that help with grammar
was also provided on several occasions. Despite the errors the language illustrates
Snell Hornbys notion of what happens to the English language when it moves outside
the control of English native speakers can be demonstrated with this study:

It is standardised and reduced and could be described as a shadow of the English language. [] It as
a prototypical product of a supra-cultural, technological, globalized society. It is language as a
product or a commodity and it is dry and functional. (2000: 40)

Considering that the text was an LSP text the native speaker could offer surprisingly a
great deal of advice. However a native speaker would probably only be able to offer
minimal help if the text was more specialist and contained specific vocabulary and
terminology. In this respect, some consideration also needs to be given to the potential
limitations of native speaker informants. Their insights are not 100% reliable (e.g. on
such matters as negative prosody). They may lack the metalanguage necessary to
explain some of their intuitions. They are therefore best dealt with as one of a number
of information sources, with some attention being given to what each can best offer the
translator.

There are also other issues, which need to be considered for further study. The native
speakers had no idea of the text type or indeed the content and style. Perhaps a
summary should have been given at the beginning. It was also suggested during the
focus group discussion that native speaker and translator should have discussed
beforehand how they would work together. From the video one could see that the
Japanese and Chinese speaker relied heavily on their electronic dictionary and only
used the native speaker informants as a last resort.

If students can be encouraged to exploit the fact, by for example working

collaboratively with native speakers of other languages, this will be a significant step
forward in translator training.

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6. Bibliography

Baker, Mona (1992) In other words. London, New York: Routledge

Campbell, Stuart (1998) Translation into the second Language. Harlow: Longman

Campbell, Stuart (2000) Critical Structures in the Evaluation of Translations from

Arabic into English as a Second Language. In Carol Maier (2000) Evaluation and
Translation, The Translator, Special Issue, Vol 6, No 2.

Crystal, David (1987) Translating and Interpeting, in: The Cambridge Encyclopaedia
of Language. Cambrdige: Cambridge University Press.

Dollerup, Cay (2000) English: Axes for a target language In Grosman, Meta, Mira
Kadric, Irena Kovai, Mary Snell Hornby (eds.) (2000) Translation into Non-
Mother Tongues in Professional Practise and Training. Tbingen: Stauffenburg Verlag.

Grosman, Meta (2000) Non-mother tongue translation An open challenge. In

Grosman, Meta, Mira Kadric, Irena Kovai, Mary Snell Hornby (eds.) (2000)
Translation into Non-Mother Tongues in Professional Practise and Training.
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Grosman, Meta, Mira Kadric, Irena Kovai, Mary Snell Hornby (eds.) (2000)
Translation into Non-Mother Tongues in Professional Practise and Training.
Tbingen: Stauffenburg Verlag.

Hjrnager Pedersen, Viggo (2000) Translation into L2 In practice, and in the

classroom. In Grosman, Meta, Mira Kadric, Irena Kovai, Mary Snell Hornby (eds.)
(2000) Translation into Non-Mother Tongues in Professional Practise and Training.
Tbingen: Stauffenburg Verlag.

Ladmiral, Jean-Ren (1979) Thormes pour la traduction. Paris: Payot.

Lise, W. (1997) Machine translation is it working in Japan? Language International

9 (1): 27-35.

Newmark, Peter (1981) Approaches to Translation. Oxford/New

York/Toronto/Sydney/Frankfurt: Pergamon Press.

Sager, Juan C. (1993) Language Engineering and translation: Consequences of

Automation. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Snell-Hornby, Mary (2000) McLanguage: The identity of English as an issue in

translation today In Grosman, Meta, Mira Kadric, Irena Kovai, Mary Snell
Hornby (eds.) (2000) Translation into Non-Mother Tongues in Professional Practise
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