Race Relations Within the United States

Relations between races in America had been contentious since its settlement in the 17 th

century. Europeans who first discovered America felt entitled to the land that Indians have

claimed hundreds of years ago, causing conflict (Packard, 2003, p. 24). Years later, slaves

brought over from Africa would be subject to harsh lifestyles for over two centuries before being

freed and exposed to white animosity. Today, the new race conflict is between Middle Eastern

peoples and the rest of the population, namely whites again, in addition to the angst of illegal

immigration of Hispanics. Race relations have been strained throughout United States history

and have been most felt between blacks and whites since its onset.

Race can be defined as a collection of people categorized based off of origin, heritage,

similarity, and phenotypic features and is involuntarily imposed through an external force

(Gaddis, Day 4). In the opinion of Angela Onwuachi-Willig, a professor of law at the University

of Iowa College of Law, race is defined primarily as a matter of perception how one perceives

one-self, and how one is perceived by others (Race and Racial Identity Are Social Constructs,

2016). Race can be subgrouped by ethnicity, which focuses on cultural similarities within a

racial class and is often self-identified and voluntary (Gaddis, Day 4). The idea of race is

constructed via the fact that we put meaning behind the racial classifications that we impose.

This includes stereotypes, hierarchal systems, discrimination, abilities, socioeconomic class, etc.

(Oliver, 2013). While race classifications may seem stable, they are constantly inconsistent. In

fact, the US Census has been changing its pure race categories and the names of what we call

these classifications to better reflect modern societys view (Sollors). Racial categories and

classifications are often in flux because the boundary criteria are not natural (Oliver, 2013). Who

is or is not in a group, what the boundaries are, and how many groups there are, are constantly
changing based on contemporary race and policy relations. The constant change and

reclassifications and the stereotypes and relations within these racial categories suggest that race

is more of a social, rather than natural construct.

Referring back to race being defined as a "collection of people categorized based off of

origin, heritage similarity, and phenotypic features", the idea that race is biological has some

validity. Phenotypes are observable characteristics such as height, hair and skin color, hair type,

facial and body features, intelligence, etc. in humans (Feldman). Phenotypes are often used to

distinguish between the races and ethnic groups that occur subconsciously in everyday

interaction. These biological differences have a major geographic component as to why humans

tend to look different from one another. Major barriers, such as oceans, deserts, and mountains

create genetic differences within a certain region due to obstruction of migration (Feldman).

Race in this sense relates heavily to ancestral groups in which phenotypic characteristics and

heritage match the specific race or ethnicity. While this is an easy method of separating the races,

it has flaws. Only 9-11% of the differences between human phenotypic properties vary between

the races (Feldman). When looking at the differences within each race, the differences become

much higher, up to 89% of genetic variations occur within a race (Feldman).

Throughout history, whites have used social and biological evidence to support their

idea that they are superior to other groups. Packard suggests that race was formed by Noah from

his three sons, Shem, Japheth, and Ham. These sons were described based on their skin color,

their settlement in the world, and their actions, and became the father of each race. If it wasnt

for the Bibles interpretation, how would race be interpreted and related during the height of

Christianity? During the height of Jim Crow, Packard writes, In every generation and in every

combination of whites parent and child, pastor and parishioner, teacher and student the
principles of racism and of white supremacism were almost effortlessly passed down from the

elder to the younger, from the formed mind to the unformed (Packard, pp. 153-154). If race

were a biological construct, children should be able to depict the races at an early age and learn

their superiority or inferiority just through interaction of their peers. However, it takes the whole

social system to teach children about race and racism. In addition, children often play with other

children of differing race, economic status, and other social and biological features and do not

hesitate to interact, further suggesting that prejudice and racism are socially taught by others.

While the concept of race is largely a social production, the United States government

has helped to shape the American viewpoint and relations between the races. In the Dredd Scott

v. Sandford case, the Supreme Court stated that blacks can be considered property (Packard, p.

35). This put this group of humans on the lowest rung of the social hierarchy ladder, if one can

even count human property as part of this hierarchy. The ruling ultimately reaffirmed Southern

beliefs that whites are superior to blacks. The Three-Fifths Compromise of 1787 counted black

slaves as three-fifths of a person, which gave this faction of humans some physical count in

governmental rule, but still with no rights (Packard, p. 30). This changed with the 13th

Amendment which abolished slavery and gave blacks full citizenship status, albeit a second-tier

citizenship (Packard, p. 46). Years later, Plessy v. Ferguson was settled in the Supreme Court

against the advancement of blacks. The judges determined that segregation is legal, and while

blacks are legal citizens of the United States, they are essentially not first-rate citizens and thus

should be separated from the white population, but with equal amenities and access to the law

(Packard, p. 76).

The Plessy v. Ferguson case cemented the way white Americans viewed blacks during

the time and the effects have continued into modern America. The 1896 Supreme Court ruling
legalized segregation of blacks and whites under the separate but equal condition. Since the

concept of equal was loosely used under the 14th Amendment, many black amenities were vastly

subpar to those enjoyed by whites. Recreational areas, such as libraries, parks, theaters, and

restaurants were highly segregated or off limits to blacks. This form of segregation limited

cultural exposure for blacks. Recreational education was hard to obtain as most libraries had

limited selections for blacks or none at all because the library was off limits to blacks. Food

served to blacks was often substandard to what whites were served at restaurants, if they were

even allowed in. Public transit was shared but blacks were expected to use the lesser sections of

the transit. Whites were allowed to sit in the front of the bus while blacks had to use the back, a

negative social connotation aimed at humiliating blacks. In addition, those who were black had

to pay at the front of the bus, get off, and get back on in the back of the bus, as to not intermingle

with the white population at the front. Once at the workplace, the cafeteria, area of work, and

even restrooms were segregated. Factories and other places of business attempted to create as

little interaction between the races at work as possible.

Segregation was just as bad in the education and domestic spheres of life for blacks,

especially in the South. Blacks were given a lesser education than whites of comparable status.

Blacks often had to travel to the nearest colored school where they entered a rundown or

informal school building with little educational resources, and teachers who were either not

formally trained or given little formal education in an effort to education the black youth.

Housing was hard to obtain for blacks. Zoning laws created ghettos in cities and housing

covenants limited where blacks could buy property. This system created dense ghettos in the city

with poor housing conditions, but did succeed in segregating the black and white communities.
This practice would not be abolished for numerous decades until the Civil Rights campaign made

more radical changes to Americas social life.

Due to high segregation during this time, whites have little exposure to blacks on the

whole. With blacks being less educated, the phenotype that blacks are less intelligent appears to

be validated, but in reality, it is a social construction. Crime rates among blacks are higher due to

poor socio-economic conditions, congested housing areas, and competition among limited

resources. Blacks often are given menial jobs, giving the impression that their skills are limited.

Many blacks couldnt either afford cars or had old models, limiting their ability to move and

commute to work. Due to the lack of ability to commute, this race had a limited range of jobs to

choose from that often limited their economic prospects. Finally, a lack of cultural exposure gave

the impression that blacks cannot assimilate to white culture and should be segregated.

The effects of Plessy v. Ferguson and the legal Jim Crow laws can still be experienced

today. Blacks earned less than Hispanics and all races from 1967 to 2012, the most recent year

that data was available for this study (Perlberg, 2013). In addition, blacks have the second lowest

educational attainment, above those who are Hispanic of any race (Census Bureau, 2016). There

are several studies that have shown that those who are black are still discriminated against in the

workplace in terms of hiring. Whites with equal or slightly lesser qualification are more likely to

be chosen for the job position than their black counterparts (McConahay, 1983). While the

access to amenities and opportunities have become more fair since the end of the Civil Rights

Movement, racism still persists in the United States across the numerous fields of society.

The idea of race is a complex concept that consistently changes based on societys

preferences, governmental interactions, and social science discovery. Race is more closely

associated with being a social construct rather than being a natural, biological classification
system. While some phenotypes are clearly associated with races such skin color, hair type, and

other physical characteristics, these only serve as physical markers that a society uses to

differentiate a subset of humans from each other. The relationship between blacks and whites

within the United States has been strenuous from slavery up until modern day with the Black

Lives Matter movement, calling for more social justice between whites and blacks. The

movements that arose from black uprisings are deeply rooted in the American history and aim to

create a more socially just nation for all who inhabit it. Will there be a Hispanic or Middle

Eastern call to equality based off of todays strife? How will the BLM movement shape todays

relationship between blacks and whites? Time will soon tell how these newest movements will

affect social relations and the characteristics we assign to our socially constructed races.
Works Cited
Census Bureau. (2016, March). Educational Attainment in the United States: 2015. Retrieved Februrary
12, 2017, from United States Census Bureau:
https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf

Feldman, M. W. (n.d.). THe Biology of Anecstry: DNA, Genomic Variation, and Race. In Inventing Race
and Ethnicity (pp. 136-157). Retrieved February 8, 2017

Gaddis, M. (2017). Sociology 419: Race and Public Policy. State College, Pennsylvania , USA. Retrieved 9
2017, Februrary

McConahay, J. B. (1983, December 1). Modern Racism and Modern Discrimination. Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, 9(4), 551-558. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167283094004

Oliver, P. (2013, January 24). Race is Socially Constructed. Wisconsin, USA. Retrieved February 8, 2017,
from http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~oliver/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Race-is-Socially-
Constructed.pdf

Onwuachi-Willig, A. (2016, September 6). Race and Racial Identity Are Social Constructs. The New York
Times. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from
http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/06/16/how-fluid-is-racial-identity/race-and-
racial-identity-are-social-constructs

Packard, J. M. (2003). American NIghtmare: The History of Jim Crow (1st ed.). New York, New York, USA:
St. Martin's Press. Retrieved 6 2017, February

Perlberg, S. (2013, September 17). American Median Incomes by Race Since 1967. Retrieved February
11, 2017, from Business Insider: http://www.businessinsider.com/heres-median-income-in-the-
us-by-race-2013-9

Sollors, W. (n.d.). What Race Are You? In The New Race Question (pp. 263-267). Retrieved February 8,
2017