2020
4, October 1988
A NEW GENERAL ESTIMATION CURVE FOR PREDICTING THE IMXILSE IMPEDANCE OF CONCENTRATED EARTH ELECTRODES
E E Oettlh
National Electrical Engineering Research Institute
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Pretoria, South Africa.
Abstract
A new general estimation curve which predicts the
impulse impedance 'of concentrated earth electrodes is
proposed. This is a further development of the ex-
perimental curve published by Korsuntcev [ l ] in 1958.
The use of this curve does not require any knowledge of
the critical soil ionization constant, Eo. The
characteristic dimension of an electrode has been
redefined to give a good resolution between two-
dimensional and three-dimensional electrode geometries.
The curve predicts the impedance approximately 6 u s
after the onset of the impulse, which is representative
of the impedance of electrodes at the time of the peak
lightning current of first strokes.
INTRODUCTION
One of the critical parameters in the lightning
performance of transmission lines is the impulse impe-
dance of the tower footings. It has been suggested
that the decrease in the impedance, which results from
soil ionization processes under high-voltage condi-
tions, be taken into account in order to optimize the
design of tower earthings [ 2 ] and to obtain more
accurate results when the lightning performance of
lines is analysed [3]. Unfortunately, this is one of
the most difficult parameters to predict with any
degree of confidence. Models that have been suggested
often require some knowledge of the critical soil
ionization level, Eo, a parameter about which very
little is known [2,4,5,6]. This is then incorporated
into an iterative mathematical process describing the
ionization zone around the electrodes. Estimation
curves have been suggested [3,7], but these apply
specifically to rod electrodes of known low-voltage,
power frequency resistance, a parameter which cannot be
known prior to installation. In this paper a new
general estimation curve, based on the ideas first
published by Korsuntcev [l], is proposed.
General background
The first researchers to attempt to model the
dynamic impedance of an electrode were Bellaschi,
Armington and Snowden in 1942 141. They described the
impedance of an electrode in terms of a uniform ioniza-
tion zone which was said to surround the electrode
whenever the critical breakdown strength, Eq, of the
soil was exceeded. This principle has since then
formed the basis of almost all the subsequent models
87 SM 567-1 A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee
of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentat-
ion at the IEEE/PES 1987 Summer Meeting, San Francisco,
California, July 12 -17, 1987. Manuscript submitted
February 2, 1987; made available for printing
April 21, 1987.
0885-8977/88/1000-202OS01 .OOO 1988 IEEE
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 3, No.
which attempt to predict the impedance of electrodes in
soil when ionization and discharge processes are
involved. Equations describing the impulse impedance
of spherical [5] and rod electrodes [6], as well as
that of buried counterpoises [8] have been developed
and further refinements such as the so-called
"ionization" and "de-ionization" time constants have
been introduced [ 6 ] .
In 1958, Korsuntcev [l] applied the theory of
similitude to the calculation of surge characteristics
of concentrated earth electrodes. This meant that the
impulse impedance could be described in terms of two
dimensionless arguments, n 1 and n 2 , defined as:
nl = "s
P
and "1 = f(n.2)
where: a is the impulse impedance ( a )
S is the characteristic dimension of the
electrode (m)
p is the soil resistivity (0.m)
I is the impulse current (A)
Eo is the critical soil ionization
strength (V/m)
f is the function describing the
relationship between n1 and n
(to be determined experimentallyf.
A brief discussion of the similitude criteria and
the physical interpretation of v l and nz can be found
in the next section.
Korsuntcev published a collection of data points
with an experimentally determined curve, f(nz), in 1958
[I].
This curve had great potential for engineering
application, but a number of uncertainties had to be
clarified before it could be used with confidence.
Some of these uncertainties were:
(a) Determining the value of Eo.,
(b) Defining the impulse impedance, a.
(c) Defining the characteristic dimension, S.
The problems and possible solutions regarding
these uncertainties will be addressed in this paper.
APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF SIMILITUDE TO CALCULATE
THE IMPULSE IMPEDANCE OF CONCENTRATED EARTH ELECTRODES
When deducing the similitude criterion, Korsunt-
sev [l] based his physical model on the concept of a
uniform spark zone, the boundaries of which are
determined by the critical breakdown strength, Eo, of
the soil. Within this zone, the resistance was assumed
to be zero. Thus, at the ionization zone boundaries:
E = Eo = pj
where E = electric field strength in the soil
P = resistivity
j = current density
~
 202 1

I
s t r e a m e r s could b e accounted f o r by t h e parameter Eo.
T h i s means t h a t e v e n i f t h e model of i n d i v i d u a l
i t
s t r e a m e r s i s accepted, then t h e p h y s i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
would r e s u l t i n t h e same s i m i l i t u d e c r i t e r i a whlch
wrwJ[i lead t o t h e same d e f i n i t i o n s of n and n2.

I I
i1
L-IONIZAlION J 1
LUNE

Fig. l a The development of a uniform i o n i z a t i o n zone.

F i g u r e l a i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s i d e a of a u n i f o r m
s p a r k zone. A t small c u r r e n t s t h e boundaries r e t a i n
t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e s e p a r a t e components of t h e
e a r t h e l e c t r o d e , b u t a t l a r g e r c u r r e n t s i t embraces t h e
e a r t h e l e c t r o d e a s a whole, t h u s masking i t s o r i g i n a l
outline. This means t h a t , a s t h e c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s , Fig. l b The development of d i s c r e t e streamers.
t h e e x a c t e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n becomes l e s s impor-
t a n t and only t h e o v e r a l l dimensions of t h e i o n i z a t i o n UNCERTAINTIES REGARDING THE PARAMETERS E,,, a AND S
zone a r e of m a j o r s i g n i f i c a n c e . Korsuntcev t h u s
introduced t h e i d e a of a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension, S, The c r i t i c a l s o i l i o n i z a t i o n s t r e n g t h , Eo.
which i s an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e o v e r a l l dimension of an
e l e c t r o d e without t a k i n g t h e d e t a i l e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n I n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s i m i l i t u d e theory,
i n t o account. This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension was de- where t h e e x a c t geometric c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s n o t taken
f i n e d a s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c e n t r e of i n t o account, Eo would b e a p r o p e r t y o f t h e s o i l type
t h e e l e c t r o d e , a t t h e ground s u r f a c e , t o i t s most only. A v a l u e f o r Eo must be e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e
remote p o i n t . The c u r r e n t d e n s i t y a r o u n d t h e can be c a l c u l a t e d . n 2 can only be determined once Eo
e l e c t r o d e would then be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o I / S 2 , w h i l e t h e i s known. Some r e s e a r c h e r s have determined Eo e x p e r i -
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d a d j a c e n t t o t h e e l e c t r o d e could be mentally [l], w h i l s t o t h e r s have t r e a t e d i t a s a v a r i -
r e p r e s e n t e d by p I / S 2 . Soil ionization w a s believed t o a b l e which i s a d j u s t e d u n t i l t h e impulse impedance,
commence when t h i s v a l u e exceeded t h e c r i t i c a l s o i l d e s c r i b e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n terms of a uniform i o n i z a -
ionization strength. The whole s i t u a t i o n w a s f u r t h e r t i o n zone s u r r o u n d i n g t h e e l e c t r o d e , b e s t f i t s t h e
s i m p l i f i e d by i g n o r i n g any p o s s i b l e t i m e - d e p e n d e n t experimental r e s u l t s [4,5,6]. Some of t h e v a l u e s f o r
effects, f o r instance the ionization t i m e required f o r Eo which h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t h e p a s t a r e l i s t e d i n
t h e formation of t h e i o n i z a t i o n zone. Table 1.
The impulse impedance of an e l e c t r o d e could t h e n
be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of t h e f i v e v a r i a b l e s : a , S , I, T a b l e 1: V a l u e s of E, used i n generating t h e d a t a
Eo and P . These a r e a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d and t h e s i m i l i - p o i n t s of F i g u r e 1.
tude theory could, t h e r e f o r e , b e a p p l i e d t o reduce t h e -

I------
v a r i a b l e s t o o n l y two dimensionless q u a n t i t i e s n 1 and P E
r2. The s i m i l i t u d e c r i t e r i o n used by Korsuntcev w a s Reference (fi.m) ~ 9 m ) Comments
t h a t i f two e l e c t r o d e s , a and b , a r e i n i d e n t i c a l s o i l -
c o n d i t i o n s (Eoa = Eob and p a = p b , and i f t h e i r charac-
t e r i s t i c dimensions have a r a t i o of n , such t h a t Sa/Sb Korsuntcev [ 1 470 1,2 Korsuntcev recommended
= n, then t h e r a t i o between t h e i r impedances ( a a / a b ) , 180 1,0 t h e s e v a l u e s "on t h e basis
w i l l be e q u a l t o l / n o n l y when t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d 100 0,8 of t e s t s done" [ 6 ] , b u t hc
a d j a c e n t t o t h e e l e c t r o d e s a r e equal. does n o t g i v e any f u r t h e r
This l e d t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of n1 and n 2 given by: references or description
regarding these t e s t s .
n l = ~ S / P

r 2 = IP/(S2 Eo) 290 0,83 The v a l u e of Eo was chose1

s o that the theoretically
ill can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a "normalized" impedance predicted results best
o r a s t h e impedance p e r u n i t r e s i s t i v i t y f o r a u n i t f i t t e d t h e experimental
l e n g t h of e l e c t r o d e . n 1 i s , t h e r e f o r e , a dimension- results.
less quantity. n 2 d e s c r i b e s t h e r a t i o between t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t e n s i t y a t t h e s u r f a c e of
t h e e l e c t r o d e , (P I / S 2 ) and t h e c r i t i c a l s o i l i o n i z a t i o n 100 0,03 The v a l u e of Eo was
c o n s t a n t , Eo. n 2 i s a l s o a dimensionless parameter. 100 0,27 chosen s o t h a t t h e
The normalized impedance, T ~ ,can be expected t o de- 85 0,127 theoretically predicted
crease as the e l e c t r i c f i e l d adjacent t o the electrode 75 0,22 results best f i t t e d the
(and hence n2) i n c r e a s e s . The behaviour of d i f f e r e n t 300 0,425 experimental r e s u l t s .
s o i l t y p e s a r e taken i n t o account by Eo. A s o i l with
a low v a l u e of Eo would r e s u l t i n a h i g h e r v a l u e of n 2 ,
which would then l e a d t o lower v a l u e s of n l . 50 .l-,3 The v a l u e of Eo was
Although, when t h e s i m i l i t u d e t h e o r y was f i r s t 60 0,05 chosen so t h a t t h e
a p p l i e d t o e l e c t r o d e s , i t was based on t h e assumption 150 0,2 theoretically predicted
of a uniform i o n i z a t i o n zone, i t could j u s t a s w e l l 300 0,05 results best f i t t e d the
h o l d t r u e e v e n where o n l y one o r two d i s c r e t e d i s - experimental r e s u l t s .
charge a r c s o r streamers a r e developed. A t low -
c u r r e n t s , t h e o r i g i n a l e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n would
s t i l l be important, b u t a t high c u r r e n t d e n s i t y , the In a n a t t e m p t t o c l a r i f y t h e uncertainties
a c t u a l e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a g a i n becomes l e s s r e g a r d i n g E , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s o i l ionization
important. This s i t u a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure and t h e bre%kdown s t r e n g t h of a l a r g e v a r i e t y of s o i l
lb. The l e n g t h , v e l o c i t y and impedance o f t h e t y p e s were i n v e s t i g a t e d [ 9 ] . For t h e purpose of t h e
 2022

700
p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n , i t is s u f f i c i e n t t o s a y t h a t t h e
breakdown s t r e n g t h of s o i l , even i n uniform e l e c t r i c 600
f i e l d s , i s a d i f f i c u l t parameter t o measure. It i s n o t
o n l y g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s o i l d e n s i t y , inhomo- 580
g e n e i t i e s and a i r gaps, b u t i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
long s t a t i s t i c a l d e l a y times. The r e s u l t s of t e s t s
c a r r i e d o u t on a number of d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s , f o r
-
C
488

*
Y

t h e p u r p o s e of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d 300
s t r e n g t h which could l e a d t o breakdown approximately U
5 p s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse, can be s e e n i n 200
F i g u r e 2.
100 h X

D e f i n i t i o n of t h e impulse impedance, a.

The impedance of an e l e c t r o d e does n o t neces- 500 1000 1500 2000

s a r i l y r e a c h a minimum when t h e c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e CURRENT I R I
c u r v e s are a t t h e i r maximum, b u t o f t e n c o n t i n u e s t o
d e c r e a s e f o r 10 -
30 ps a f t e r t h e c u r r e n t h a s reached Fig. 3 a = V / I v e r s u s I and a = V / I ( a t t = 6 P S I .
i t s peak. This is a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i o n i z a t i o n time Data &n!s a r e f r o g tests performed on a
r e q u i r e d f o r t h e formation of corona and s t r e a m e r s i n 1,48 m rod e l e c t r o d e i n sand w i t h a r e s i s t i v i t y
t h e surrounding s o i l [ 9 ] . T y p i c a l examples can be of 2 0009.m [reproduced from 121.
s e e n i n F i g u r e s A 1 t o AS of t h e Appendix. Previous
r e s e a r c h e r s have d e f i n e d a as: The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension of an e l e c t r o d e

a = V /I ( B e l l a s c h i 14,101 and Korsuntcev 111) Korsuntcev [ I ] defined the characteristic

or a = VTip$bp (Liew and Darveniza [ 6 ] ) dimension, S , as t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e g e o m e t r i c a l
c e n t r e of t h e e l e c t r o d e on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground t o
where V = peak v o l t a g e t h e most d i s t a n t p o i n t o f t h e e l e c t r o d e . An
Ip = peak c u r r e n t a l t e r n a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n , h , could demand t h e mean s q u a r e
Vp: = v o l t a g e a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t . r o o t of t h e l a r g e s t h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e , h l , t h e
h o r i z o n t a l dimension which l i e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
Rise times f o r t h e l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t s of f i r s t l a r g e s t h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e , h2, and t h e depth of t h e
s t r o k e s a r e t y p i c a l l y between 4 us and 8 vs [ l l ] . On electrode:
t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , t h e l i g h t n i n g performance, espe- (h = / h v .
c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e back-flashover mechanism, i s
l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e impedance of t h e t o w e r According t o t h e f i r s t d e f i n i t i o n , t h e charac-
f o o t i n g a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t . It i s t h e r e f o r e t e r i s t i c dimension of t h e three-dimensional t y p e of
t h e impulse impedance between approximately 4 p s and e l e c t r o d e s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4 (Group A) would have
8 ps a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse which i s of t h e e x a c t l y t h e same v a l u e as t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g two-
greatest engineering i n t e r e s t . Unfortunately, d i m e n s i o n a l t y p e e l e c t r o d e s a l s o shown i n F i g u r e 4
p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s on i m p u l s e g e n e r a t o r s o f t e n (Group B). The new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
r e n d e r i t impossible t o produce t e s t c u r r e n t s w i t h such dimension, however, c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s between t h e
f a s t r i s e t i m e s , and r e s e a r c h e r s o f t e n h a v e t o b e two groups of e l e c t r o d e s .
c o n t e n t w i t h much slower impulses. A s a r e s u l t of t h e
f i n i t e i o n i z a t i o n time r e q u i r e d for the formation RECONSTRUCTING THE DATA POINTS USED FOR DETERMINING
of s t r e a m e r s and corona, t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a = V. / I A GENERAL ESTIMATION CURVE
may, t h e r e f o r e , n o t always b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o t P t h $
impedance w i t h i n t h e f i r s t few m i c r o s e c o n d s of t h e Work r e c e n t l y c o m p l e t e d a t t h e C S I R [ 9 , 1 2 ] , h a s
l i g h t n i n g impulse. Using t h e r e s u l t s of tests done a t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e impulse impedance of e l e c t r o d e s i s
t h e CSIR [ 1 2 ] , a, d e f i n e d f i r s t l y as Vip/Ip and t h e n as governed by complex streamer and corona p r o c e s s e s which
V / I ( a t t = 6 p s ) , has been p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of cannot be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e uniform i o n i z a t i o n zone
I and I ( a t 6 LIS) r e s p e c t i v e l y (Figure 3). This model. Therefore, i n t h e present p r a c t i c a l engineering
c f e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t a i s n o t only a f u n c t i o n of a p p l i c a t i o n , i t i s suggested t h a t Eo b e t r e a t e d a s a n
t h e c u r r e n t , b u t a l s o depends v e r y much on t h e t i m e a t empirical calibration factor, not necessarily related
which i t is c a l c u l a t e d . t o breakdown s t r e n g t h of t h e d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s .

20
a
8
a a
8 a
15 ~

1
- X ,
+ + SOIL TYPE SYMBOL USED

. IO. q SAND a -
3 x k RED CLAY 8
Y
U
+ BLACK CLAY +
- - - - - - ,-- - s MIXTURE
X
-

Fig. 2 Experimental r e s u l t s of t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d s t r e n g t h which l e d t o breakdown approximately 5 p s a f t e r t h e

o n s e t of t h e impulse, p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e s o i l t y p e s t e s t e d .
 2023

Ca t e g o r - q A Category B
S
and
P l a n view Syde view h P l a n view Side view
(m)

Sinyle b u r i e d s t r i p F o u r strips buried t o form

1 a crossarm

'
/ '
,

S- 1 . 41 S- 1 . 4 1 s- \/2
h-2. 2~ h- 3 h-\jh12+ h22* h 3 2 -6

T w o rods F o u r rods

s- 1 . 73
h- 3

Fig. 4 The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimensions, S and h, i l l u s t r a t e d f o r t h e two-dimensional type of e l e c t r o d e (Category

A) and t h e corresponding two-dimensional e l e c t r o d e s (Category B).

A new s e t of d a t a p o i n t s obtained from impulse The a l t e r n a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

measurements performed by Berger [ 131, B e l l a s c h i [ l o ] , d i m e n s i o n , h, was t h e n u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e a s e t of
V a i n e r and F l o r u [ 1 4 ] , Liew and D a r v e n i z a [ 6 ] and r e s u l t s which we s h a l l now l a b e l Pl and P2. These
O e t t l e [ 1 2 ] h a s now been c a l c u l a t e d . With a few r e s u l t s have been p l o t t e d i n Figure 6 on a l o g a r i t h m i c
exceptions (which are d i s c u s s e d i n Appendix I), a was scale. The s t r a i g h t l i n e f i t t e d t o F i g u r e 6 i s
d e f i n e d a s t h e impedance V/I, measured 6 u s a f t e r t h e d e s c r i b e d by:
o n s e t of t h e pulse. Although t h i s choice i s somewhat
a r b i t r a r y , i t i s b e l i e v e d t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e (log PI) = -0,3 (log P2) + -0,62
impulse impedance of an e l e c t r o d e a t t h e time of t h e
l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t peak. Eo was a r b i t r a r i l y chosen t o The r e s i d u a l sum of s q u a r e s i s now 0,259. A slightly
b e 1 MV/m f o r a l l e l e c t r o d e s a n d s o i l c o n d i t i o n s ; b e t t e r s t r a i g h t - l i n e f i t i s t h u s obtained when t h e new
a t t e m p t s a t improving on t h i s choice w i l l be d i s c u s s e d d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension is used.
l a t e r on i n t h i s s e c t i o n . The c o n d i t i o n s under which This g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e , t o g e t h e r w i t h a "conser-
t h e tests were performed, a s w e l l a s t h e e l e c t r o d e con- v a t i v e " e s t i m a t i o n curve i s shown i n Figure 6. The
f i g u r a t i o n s , s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and p o s s i b l e l i m i t a t i o n s c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e l i e s 35% a b o v e t h e
f o r a l l t h e d a t a p o i n t s used i n t h i s s e c t i o n , a r e g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e , s o t h a t 95% of t h e d a t a
d i s c u s s e d i n t h e Appendix. p o i n t s have v a l u e s of P 1 lower than t h e p r e d i c t e d
I n i t i a l l y , t h e o r i g i n a l d e f i n i t i o n of S w a s used values.
t o c a l c u l a t e n 1 and n2. I n F i g u r e 5, t h i s s e t o f In o r d e r t o determine whether t h e r e s u l t s could
r e s u l t s has been p l o t t e d on a l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e . A b e improved by u s i n g a c r i t i c a l s o i l i o n i z a t i o n
s t r a i g h t l i n e , f i t t e d t o F i g u r e 5 i s d e s c r i b e d by: c o n s t a n t which i s i n some way r e l a t e d t o t h e
r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e s o i l , t h e c o r r e c t e d c r i t i c a l s o i l
( l o g i l l ) = -0,29 (log 71 2) + -0,66. i o n i z a t i o n c o n s t a n t , EA, had t o be derived:

The r e s i d u a l sum of s q u a r e s i s then 0,312.

 2024

.2

0. 02

0.01

5 Results o i n i p J s r t e s t s i l l u s t r a t e d j n ternis of n and n 2, S 1s a e f l n e d a s t h e d i s t a n c e lrom the

g e o m e t r i c a l c e n t r e of t h e e l e c t r o d e , on ground l e v e l , t o t h e most d i s t a n t p o i n t .

BERGER
+ BELLRSCHI
A L I E U RND
DRRVENIZR
VRINER RND
FLORU
x OETTLE

1 I I I I I I 1 I I I 1
,001 ,c 2 ,005 ,Ol ,02 -05 $1 2 *5 I 2 5 IO 20

IP
P, = -
h2E,

Fig. 6 R e s u l t s of impulse t e s t s i l l u s t r a t e d i n terms of PI and P2. The new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

dimension, h ( a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e t e x t ) , was used t o c a l c u l a t e v a l u e s of P1.

If P1 = "3 and P2 = PI A p l o t of Eb/Eo (= P;/Pz) against p for a l l the data

P h2 Eo p o i n t s would p r o v i d e an i n d i c a t i o n of w h e t h e r a n y
improvement could be achieved by u s i n g a r e s i s t i v i t y
t h e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t , Pi, which c o i n c i d e s w i t h dependent v a l u e f o r Eo. Such a p l o t can be seen i n
t h e v a l u e of PI on t h e e s t i m a t i o n curve on F i g u r e 5 can Figure 7. It w a s concluded t h a t any f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s
be w r i t t e n as: a t r e f i n i n g t h e model by u s i n g d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s f o r Eo
i n s o i l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t r e s i s t i v i t i e s would n o t
Pz = (EA i s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve t h e r e s u l t s . A similar procedure
h2 EA c r i t i c a l s o i l ionization was followed t o g e n e r a t e p l o t s of Ed a g a i n s t h , and E b
strength). a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t a t 6 ps. Again t h e s c a t t e r i n t h e
 2025

d a t a p o i n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t no r e l a t i o n s h i p between Eo The e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e s can be a p p l i e d t o any

and e i t h e r h o r I can be expected, a r e s u l t which i s i n e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n by means of i t s
accordance with the t h e o r e t i c a l considerations. a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension. The c h a r a c -
outlined previously, t e r i s t i c dimension h a s been r e d e f i n e d a s

COMMENTS h = ,hh: + hg + d2 ' ( s e e Figure 4 ) .

The impulse impedance of e l e c t r o d e s i s governed T h i s new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

by complex corona and streamer p r o c e s s e s [ 9 ] which a r e dimension c l e a r l y d i s c r i m i n a t e s between
not y e t f u l l y understood. It i s known, however, t h a t "two-dimensional'' and "three-dimensional"
t h e f i n i t e impedance and v e l o c i t y o f t h e s t r e a m e r s e l e c t r o d e arrangements. The r e s i d u a l sum
themselves do p l a y an important r o l e i n t h e o v e r a l l of s q u a r e s around t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e f i t t e d
impedance of t h e e l e c t r o d e [ 9 , 1 2 1 , a n d t h a t t h e s e t o t h e d a t a p o i n t s i s s m a l l e r when t h i s new
parameters a r e dependent on t h e c u r r e n t a s w e l l a s on d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension
t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o i l type. I n view of t h e s e conside- i s used.
r a t i o n s , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d on v e r y
s m a l l ( " r e d u c e d s c a l e " ) e l e c t r o d e s have n o t b e e n Eo can be approximated by 1 MV/m f o r a l l
included i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a p o i n t s . s o i l , e l e c t r o d e and c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s .
More e x p e r i m e n t a l work o n p r a c t i c a l e a r t h Owing t o t h e complexity of t h e d i s c h a r g e
e l e c t r o d e s which have c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimensions between p r o c e s s e s i n s o i l , t h e use of experimental
2 m and 8 m, p r e f e r a b l y i n s t a l l e d i n h i g h - r e s i t i v i t y r e s u l t s of breakdown t e s t s , even i f t h e s e
s o i l s , would no d o u b t be v a l u a b l e i n e x t e n d i n g t h e a r e a v a i l a b l e , i s n o t recommended.
e x i s t i n g c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a p o i n t s . Only when more
p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e w i l l i t be p o s s i b l e t o The new s e t of d a t a p o i n t s i s based on a
d e f i n i t i o n of t h e impulse impedance a s : a =
V / I (at 6 P s ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s was a
somewhat a r b i t r a r y c h o i c e , i t does, a s f a r
a s lightning current impulses a r e
concerned, g i v e a more r e a l i s t i c (and a l s o
more c o n s e r v a t i v e ) impulse v a l u e than t h e
previous definitions.

The e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e c a n b e u s e d i n t h e
design stage providing r e s i s t i v i t y
measurements a r e a v a i l a b l e . The
e l e c t r o d e ' s low v o l t a g e power f r e q u e n c y
r e s i s t a n c e does n o t need t o be known.

(2) I n t h e d e s i g n of new t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , conside-

r a t i o n should be given t o power frequency f a u l t
current conditions, a s well a s t o the desired
impulse impedance of t h e tower e a r t h i n g . It i s ,

%L.+:
d
3.00
I
4.00
I
R.OO
1
12.00
I
16.00
I
20.00
1
24.00
I
2e.00
I
32.00
t h e r e f o r e , suggested t h a t , i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e
tower e a r t h i n g d e s i g n , the "conservative"
e s t i m a t i o n curve (Figure 6) be used i n a d d i t i o n
t o t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e e a r t h p o t e n t i a l s i n t h e
absence of s o i l i o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s [17]. In
p (0.m. t h e l i g h t n i n g performance a n a l y s i s of e x i s t i n g
'1 ~ / The t h e o r e t i c a l t y c o r r e i t c d ; o i l L L I I
L jir~oii l i n e s , more r e a l i s t i c and a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s could
s t r e n g t h , Eo, p l o t t e d a g a i n s t the L e s i b t L v i t , be o b t a i n e d i f t h e g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n curve of
f o r a l l t h e d a t a p o i n t s appearing on Figure 6. Figure 6 were used i n s t e a d of t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e
e s t i m a t i o n curve.
e s t a b l i s h more d e f i n i t e confidence l i m i t s around t h e
g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n curve. REFERENCES
I t would be p o s s i b l e t o g e n e r a t e a s e r i e s o f
e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e s which c a n be u s e d t o p r e d i c t t h e 1. Korsuntcev, A.V. "Application of t h e t h e o r y of
impulse impedance, n o t only a t 6 lis, but a l s o a t , f o r s i m i l i t u d e t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of c o n c e n t r a t e d
i n s t a n c e 4 P S , 10 P S o r 16 lis a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e earth electrodes". E l e k t r i c h e s t v o , No. 5, May
impulse. I n o r d e r t o determine t h e e s t i m a t i o n curve 1958.. D D 31-35.
a t , f o r i n s t a n c e , 4 lis, one would need t o r e c a l c u l a t e 2. EPRI "Transmission Line Grounding", EPRI EL-2699,
each of t h e d a t a p o i n t s , P1 and P2, with a determined V o l . 1, P r o j e c t 1494-1, October 1982. Prepared
4 PS a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse. It should be by S a f e E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s L t d . , M o n t r e a l ,
n o t e d , however, t h a t h i g h n o i s e l e v e l s o r unwanted Quebec, Canada.
o s c i l l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f i r s t few m i c r o s e c o n d s a r e 3. Anderson, J.G. "Lightning performance of
o f t e n unavoidable when impulse t e s t s a r e performed on t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s " (Chapter 12 of Transmission
p r a c t i c a l e a r t h e l e c t r o d e s and i t may n o t always b e Line Reference Book - 345 kV and above, Second
p o s s i b l e t o determine a a c c u r a t e l y at times l e s s E d i t i o n , E P R I , Palo A l t o ) , 1982.
than 6 p s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse. 4. B e l l a s c h i , P.L, Armington, R.E. and Snowden, A.E.
"ImDulse and s i x t v c v c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
. . <

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS d r i v e n grounds 11". T r . Am. I n s t . Elec. Eng.,

1942, Vol. 61.
(1) A new set of d a t a p o i n t s f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e i m - 5. Petropoulos, G.M. "The h i g h v o l t a g e
p u l s e impedance of c o n c e n t r a t e d e a r t h e l e c t r o d e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e s " . J IEE
has been c o n s t r u c t e d . This approach has t h e 1948, V o l . 95, P a r t 11, pp 59-70.
following very important advantages compared t o 6. L i e w , A.C., Darveniza, M. "Dynamic model of
previous methods: impulse c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c o n c e n t r a t e d e a r t h s " .
2026

-
Proc. IEE, Vol. 121, No. 2, Feb. 1974, pp 123-135. Table A (continued)
7. Darveniza, M. et a1 "Modelling for lightning - --

I-
performance calculations", IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-98, pp Reference P I CL
p1
1900-1908, 1978. : Q.m (kA 1 (Q ) (m)
8. Velazques, R and Mukhedkar, 0. "Analytical - --
modelling of grounding electrodes transient
behaviour". IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. PAS-103, No. 6, June 1984.
9. Oettlh, E.E. "The characteristics of electrical
breakdown and discharge processes in soil".
NEERI Internal Report, Library No. I ELEK 263, 527 1 438 252 0,2 0,096 18,94
October 1986, (submitted for publication to the

10.
SAIEE) .
Bellaschi, P.L. "Impulse and 60-cycle
527
47c
953
1 421
30 6
260
0,2
0,4
0,117
0,22
12,51
4,17
64C 1 857 20 2 0,8 0,252 1,86
characteristics of driven grounds". Trans. Am. 1 04a 1 760 204 1,2 0,235 1,27
Inst. Elec. Eng., 1941, 60, p 123. 1 06C 2.420 147 2,2 0,305 0,53
11. Anderson, R.B. and Eriksson, A. J. "Lightning 1 425 2 704 124 3 0,26 0,43
parameters for engineering applications". 1 35c 2 404 140 4 0,4 092
Electra, No. 69, pp 65-101. 527 532 3 65 0,2 0,138 7sO
12. Oettlh, E.E. "Results of impulse tests done on 1 35c 1 760 112 4 0,332 0,141
practical electrodes at the National Electrical
Engineering Research Institute's Outdoor High
Voltage Laboratory". NEERI Internal Report, 1 40C 3 806 83 18 1,065 0,016~
Library No. I ELEK 267, November 1986 (submitted 1 40C 1 800 97 18 1,24 0,0071
for publication to the SAIEE). 1 54a 4 200 79 18 0,92 0,002
13. Berger, K. "Das Verhalten von Erdungen unter 1 54c 2 028 89 18 1,04 0,0091
hohen Stossstromen". Bull. Assoc. Suisse Elek., 1 9oa 4 107 82 8,Ol 0,78 0,024
1946, 37, p 197. 1 9oa 1 813 100 8,Ol 0,95 0,OlOl
14. Vainer, A.L., and Floru, V.N. "Experimental
study and method of calculation of the impulse
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d e e p e a r t h i n g s 'I, 760 1 183 253 ,1 0,363 0,755
Elektrichestvo, No. 5, pp 18-22, 1971. 800 1 566 230 ,154 0,33 0,941
1 162 1 520 184 ,346 0,215 D.975
1 162 2 000 170 ,346 0,196 1,28
1 350 755 2 70 ,62 0,323 D, 39
APPENDIX

A brief sumnmary of the origin and experimental 1 000 1 350 254 1,375 0,095 9s6
conditions of all the data points shown in Figure 9. 1 000 115 675 1,375 0,253 0,82
1 000 250 633 1,375 0,237 1,77
1 000 400 533 1,375 0,2 2,84
General 1 000 700 408 1,375 0,153 5,OO
1 000 1 100 316 1,375 0,118 7,82
A complete list of all the references and the variables --
used for calculating the data points, P1 and P2 can be
found in Table A. The different groups appearing in
Table A are also discussed in more detail in the next
sections. Only results of measurements indicating a
decrease in the impedance of more than 20% under Rod electrode: 2 036 123 650 ,48 0,472 3,114f
impulse conditions were considered. 2 036 190 57 1 ,48 0,415 3,1761
240 2 416 67 ,48 0,413 3,264
Table A: List of references and variables used for 24 0 1,688 76 ,48 0,47 3,184
calculating the data points, P1 and P2. 240 3,228 59 ,48 0,364 3,354
Ring electrode: 1 892 216 484 ,6 0,41 3,16
1 1 892 374 372 ,6 0,314 3,276
Reference P I. 160 2,784 40,5 ,6 0,405 3,174
(Q.d (kA) 160 4,160 36,6 ,6 0,366 3,26
- -- -

Liew and Dar-

veniza [6]
Fig. 3 [6] 50 2 650 5,76 ,623 0,196 L,63
300 1 475 92 0,75 0,23 0,786 Fig. 4 It 50 3 310 5,76 ,623 0,32 3,426
300 916 120 0,75 0,3 0,049 Fig. 6 87,2 6 610 431 ,06 0,5 0,061:
57 6 416 19 0,75 0,25 0,65 Fig. 7 I' 157 5 000 0 ,16 0,413 3,168:
11
57 3 930 23 0,75 0,31 0,4 Fig. ' 8 310 3 700 6,4 ,44 0,286 I, 192t
II
ig. 8 57 5 440 23 0,375 0,148 2.2 Fig. 9 63 6 380 927 ,75 0,615 1,014
11
ig. 9 320 1 063 89 0,75 0,21 0,60 - -- -
I
ig. 11 IV 200 2 279 67 0,75 0,25 0,81
It
ig 12 125 3 700 39 0,75 0,234 0,62 Group 5:
- I 1
Bellaschi [ l o ] 125 5 250 4 ,38 0,457 1,115t
-
125 -
1 900 0,5 ,38 0,58 ),042
 2027

Reference P I a h P 1 P2
(Q.m) (kA) (Q) (m)

(a)
Group 6:

Vainer and 80 1 2 100 9,4 3,7

Floru [14]

Group 1: R e s u l t s of t e s t s done by Berger [13] on d i f - CURRENT DENSITY

f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s i n a l a r g e , hemispherical c o n t a i n e r .
30
Berger t e s t e d a v a r i e t y of s o i l t y p e s u s i n g two
hemispherical e l e c t r o d e s . The o u t e r e l e c t r o d e had a
diameter of 2,5 m and t h e i n n e r e l e c t r o d e , which was 25
placed i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e l a r g e o u t e r e l e c t r o d e , had
a diameter of 0,5 o r 0,25 m. I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of P1 20
and P2 , t h e o u t e r e l e c t r o d e w a s n o t considered and t h e
system was t r e a t e d a s a s i n g l e e l e c t r o d e i n homogeneous
s o i l of g i v e n r e s i s t i v i t y . Although t h i s i s n o t , 15
s t r i c t l y speaking, c o r r e c t t h e dimensions of t h e o u t e r
e l e c t r o d e were b e l i e v e d t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h f o r
IO
t h i s approximation t o be a c c e p t a b l e . Under v e r y high
v o l t a g e c o n d i t i o n s , however, when corona and streamer
d i s c h a r g e s around t h e i n n e r e l e c t r o d e can extend f a r 5
toward t h e o u t e r e l e c t r o d e , t h i s assumption cannot be
expected t o hold. Impulse measurement where t h e impe-
d a n c e had d e c r e a s e d by more t h a n 60% a t 6 p s were 0 5 IO 15 20 25 30 35 40
t h e r e f o r e n o t included i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a TIME

points. Fig. A 1 Example of t h e v o l t a g e v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y

As f a r a s possible, a = V / I w a s calculated a t ( A l ( a ) ) and t h e r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t i m e c u r v e s
6 p s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse. This w a s done (Al(b)) used f o r determining t h e parameters
u s i n g t h e curves of v o l t a g e a g a i n s t c u r r e n t d e n s i t y , needed i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of P I and P2.
t o g e t h e r with t h e corresponding r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s time
curves f o r t h e same sample ( s e e , f o r example, F i g u r e s
A l ( a ) and ( b ) ) .
I n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t i m e
curves were n o t given. In t h o s e c a s e s t h e impedance
a t 6 p s could only be e s t i m a t e d from t h e v o l t a g e v e r s u s
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y c u r v e s when t h e t i m e was g i v e n
numerically a d j a c e n t t o t h e curve. I n t h e example
shown i n F i g u r e A2, t h e impedance a t t = 6 p s could RO
only be estimated f o r curve I. 140

Group 2: R e s u l t s of t e s t s done by B e r g e r [ 1 3 ] on 120

v a r i o u s e l e c t r o d e s i n t h e n a t u r a l s o i l a t t h e high-
voltage laboratory. The f o l l o w i n g e l e c t r o d e s were 100
tested:

(1) F l a t copper and i r o n p l a t e , 500 x 960 x 1 , 5 mm

(2) 18 m long b u r i e d copper and i r o n w i r e , 6 mm
diameter .
(3) 250 mm diameter hemispherical e l e c t r o d e . 40
(4) 35 mm diameter copper and i r o n r o d s , up t o 5 m
long. 20

The p l a t e , .wire and rod e l e c t r o d e s were b u r i e d a t 0

d i f f e r e n t depths of up t o 4 m. Berger s t a t e s t h a t t h e
r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e s o i l was measured and found t o b e CURRENT DENSITY
approximately 1 000 R.m. This v a l u e does n o t always
correspond w e l l t o t h e r e s i s t i v i t y t h a t can be deduced
t h e o r e t i c a l l y from t h e low v o l t a g e , 50 Hz r e s i s t a n c e
values a s given f o r the various electrodes. This
could p o s s i b l y be due t o inhomogeneities i n t h e s o i l o r
t o s e a s o n a l changes n o t mentioned i n Berger's publica- Fig. A2 Voltage v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y curves. Only
tion. The average r e s i s t i v i t y around each e l e c t r o d e Curve 1, where t h e t i m e i s i n d i c a t e d numeri-
was t h e r e f o r e c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y u s i n g i t s given low c a l l y , was used t o c a l c u l a t e a s e t of d a t a
v o l t a g e power f r e q u e n c y r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e and t h e s e p o i n t s (P1 and P2. (Redrawn from Berger [ 1 3 ] )
r e s i s t i v i t y v a l u e s w e r e then used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of
and P 2 . The r e s i s t i v i t i e s a s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e
I i f f e r e n t e l e c t r o d e s a r e l i s t e d i n Table B. Unfortunately, t h e r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t i m e c u r v e s
were o n l y given i n a few i n s t a n c e s . I n those cases
where t h e c u r r e n t p e a k a p p e a r e d t o occur at
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 vs w i t h t h e impedance r e m a i n i n g
v i r t u a l l y c o n s t a n t t h e r e a f t e r , a w a s t a k e n a t t h e time
of peak c u r r e n t . An example where t h i s approximation
was thought t o be v a l i d can be seen i n F i g u r e A3. In
t h e example shown i n F i g u r e A4. t h e impedance a t
t = 6 p s could be e s t i m a t e d r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y f o r curve
1. Measurements r e p r e s e n t e d by c u r v e s 1 , 2 , 3 and 4
3
were n o t considered w h i l s t curve 7 was approximated by
t h e impedance a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t .

Table B: Average s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e
d i f f e r e n t e l e c t r o d e s t e s t e d by Berger [ I 3 1

I
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,O 2,5 3,OAlcm'
Electrode d e s c r i p t i o n CURRENT DENSITY

S i n g l e rod e l e c t r o d e s of l e n g t h , d 527
470 Fig. A4 Voltage v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y c u r v e s f o r
640 t e s t s done on rod e l e c t r o d e s of d i f f e r e n t
1 040 depths. The impedance,a , f o r curve 1
1 060 was t a k e n a t t = 6 PS. Curves l ' , 2 , 3 and 4
1 425 were n o t used b u t , curve 7 , , w a s e s t i m a t e d
1 350 by V / I a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t .

6 mm 0 w i r e b u r i e d h o r i z o n t a l l y 1 400
a t a depth, d 1 540 Group 3 : R e s u l t s o f t e s t s done o n r i n g a n d r o d
1 900 e l e c t r o d e s i n t h e outdoor high-voltage l a b o r a t o r y a t
t h e CSIR [ 1 2 ]
F l a t p l a t e b u r i e d a t a depth, d 760
800 I m p u l s e t e s t s on a 1 , 4 8 m d e e p a n d a 0 , 9 8 m
1 162 diameter r i n g e l e c t r o d e (buried 0 , 8 m deep) a r e
1 350 described i n d e t a i l i n reference 1 2 . The n a t u r a l s o i l
i n t h e outdoor l a b o r a t o r y i s a l o w - r e s i s t i v i t y c l a y ,
b u t t h e e l e c t r o d e s were i n s t a l l e d i n a l a r g e , 3 , 5 m
diameter and 3 , 5 m deep h o l e which was f i l l e d w i t h a
sandy t o p s o i l . The e x i s t e n c e of t h e l o w - r e s i s t i v i t y
c l a y was n o t t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of
P1 and P , b u t measurements where t h e impedance had
d e c r e a s e d s y more t h a n 60% a t 6 s were n o t t a k e n i n t o
account.

Group 4 : R e s u l t s of t e s t s d e s c r i b e d by L i e w a n d
Darveniza on one and f o u r r o d s d r i v e n t o d e p t h s of up
to 3 m [61.

An example of c u r r e n t and r e s i s t a n c e waveshapes

a s p r e s e n t e d by Liew and D a r v e n i z a can be s e e n i n
Figure A5. The impulse impedance w a s deduced from t h e
experimental c u r v e s a t 6 ~r s.

0 0.02 0,06 0,lO OJ4 0,18

CURRENTDENSITY ( A l C m 2 )

0 5 20 25
lo TIME, ps l5
Fig. A3 An example of v o l t a g e v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y
curves where t h e impedance was approximated by
V / I a t t h e t i m e of peak c u r r e n t and n o t a t
t = 6 PS. Fig. A5 R e s i s t a n c e , v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t c u r v e s f o r a
P l a t e e l e c t r o d e s u r f a c e area = 9 6 0 0 cm2. 0 , 6 1 m deep rod e l e c t r o d e i n s o i l w i t h a re-
(Redrawn from Berger [ 1 3 ] . ) s i s t i v i t y of 5 0 a.m.
(Redrawn from Liew and Darveniza [ 6 ] . )
 2029

Group 5: R e s u l t s of t e s t s done by B e l l a s c h i on two s u r f a c e ( s i m i l a r t o a rod) h a s been used t o c a l c u l a t e

rods i n p a r a l l e l combination [ l o ] . P1 and P2. The diameter of t h e tube i s n o t given, but
i t i s known t h a t t h e 3 , 6 m l o n t u b e was i n s t a l l e d
In 1941, B e l l a s c h i p r e s e n t e d t h e r e s u l t s of impe- a f t e r "borehole" d r i l l i n g . T i e d i a m e t e r was t h u s
d a n c e t e s t s on f o u r rod e l e c t r o d e s i n s t a l l e d i n a n e s t i m a t e d a t 0 , l m. The impulse impedance a t 6 s i s
outdoor high-voltage l a b o r a t o r y . The impulse impedance deduced from t h e volt-ampere c h a r a c t e r i s t i c where t h e
of two of t h e rods where no r e d u c t i o n due t o t h e proxi- time i s given numerically a d j a c e n t t o t h e curve (Figure
mity of f e n c e s , o t h e r e l e c t r o d e s o r inhomogeneities i n 2 of Reference 14).
t h e s o i l was suspected, have been used t o c a l c u l a t e P1
and P2 . The rods were 2,286 m deep and spaced 0,66 m
apart. The r e s i s t i v i t y c a l c u l a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y from E l s i e E O e t t l b was born i n South A f r i c a on February 16,
t h e measured low-voltage r e s i s t a n c e of t h e r o d s was 1959. She r e c e i v e d t h e B.Sc.(Hons.) degree in P h y s i c s
found t o be 125 .m. Current and r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s from t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S t e l l e n b o s c h , South A f r i c a , i n
can be found i n Table V of r e f e r e n c e 10. 1980, and t h e B.Sc. degree i n E l e c t r i c a l Engineering
from t h e U n i v e r s i t y of t h e Witwatersrand, Johannesburg,
Group 6: R e s u l t s of impulse t e s t s conducted by Vainer South A f r i c a , i n 1983.
and Floru [ 1 4 ] . In 1984, s h e worked w i t h G H Marais and P a r t n e r s , a
c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r i n g company. She j o i n e d t h e
V a i n e r a n d F l o r u d e s c r i b e d t e s t s on v a r i o u s N a t i o n a l E l e c t r i c a l Engineering Research I n s t i t u t e of
l e n g t h s of tube e l e c t r o d e s b u r i e d a t d i f f e r e n t depths. t h e South African Council f o r S c i e n t i f i c and I n d u s t r i a l
Only t h e r e s u l t s of a tube i n s t a l l e d v e r t i c a l l y a t t h e R e s e a r c h i n 1985, where s h e i s P r o j e c t L e a d e r of a
research p r o j e c t concerned with the e a r t h i n g of
transmission lines.