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This definition of evolution was developed largely as a result of independent work in the
early 20th century by Godfrey Hardy, an English mathematician, and Wilhelm Weinberg, a German
physician. Through mathematical modeling based on probability, they concluded in 1908 that gene
pool frequencies are inherently stable but that evolution should be expected in all populations
virtually all of the time. They resolved this apparent paradox by analyzing the net effects of
potential evolutionary mechanisms.
Hardy and Weinberg went on to develop a simple equation that can be used to discover the
probable genotype frequencies in a population and to track their changes from one generation to
another. This has become known as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation. In this equation
(p² + 2pq + q² = 1), p is defined as the frequency of the dominant allele and q as the frequency of
the recessive allele for a trait controlled by a pair of alleles (A and a).
II. Population Genetics
Stimulation 1
Generation Class Data
AA Aa aa p q
Start-P 16 - 16 0.5 0.5
F1 - 32 - - -
F2 10 14 8 0.531 0.469
F3 10 17 5 0.578 0.422
F4 12 11 9 0.547 0.453
F5 10 12 10 0.5 0.5
F6 12 7 13 0.484 0.516
F7 12 6 14 0.469 0.531
F8 14 2 16 0.469 0.531
F9 12 4 16 0.438 0.563
F10 13 2 17 0.438 0.563
Chi-square test
Genotypes O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E
AA 10 9 1 1 0.11
Aa 14 16 -2 4 0.25
aa 8 7 1 1 0.14
Total 32 32 0 X2= 0.504
Chi-square test
Genotypes O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E
AA 10 8 2 4 0.5
Aa 12 16 -4 16 1
aa 10 8 2 4 0.5
2
Total 32 32 0 X = 2.0
Aa 7 9 -2 4 0.444
aa 4 3 1 1 0.333
2
Total 20 20 - - χ =0.902
Allelic Frequencies
Total number of alleles = 2 x 20
= 40
Frequency of p = [2(9) + 7] /40
= 0.625
Frequency of q = 1- 0.625
= 0.375
Genotype frequencies
AA = p2 = (0.625)2 = 0.3906
Aa = 2pq = 2 x (0.625) x (0.375)
= 0.4688
aa = q2 = (0.375)2 = 0.1406
Expected Values
AA = 0.3906 x 20
= 7.816
=8
Aa = 0.4688 x 20
= 9.376
=9
aa = 0.1406 x 20
= 2.816
=2
Probability level is 0.05 or at 95% confidence limit, therefore the P value = 0.05
Conclusion:
Since, χ2 value of is 0.902 < 3.84, H0 hypothesis is accepted.
Therefore, this sample is in HW equilibrium.
Table 6.3b: χ2 calculation for chi-square test for conformity of class data to
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Classes Observed Expected (E) Deviations (O-E)2 (O-E)2/ E
(genotypes) (O) (O-E)
AA 9 8 1 1 0.125
Aa 4 7 -3 9 1.286
aa 3 1 2 4 4.000
2
Total 16 16 - - χ =5.411
Allelic Frequencies
Total number of alleles = 2 x 16
= 32
Frequency of p = [2(9) + 4] /32
= 0.6875
Frequency of q = 1- 0.6875
= 0.3125
Genotype frequencies
AA = p2 = (0.6875)2 = 0.4727
Aa = 2pq = 2 x (0.6875) x (0.3125)
= 0.4297
aa = q2 = (0.3125)2 = 0.09766
Expected Values
AA = 0.4727x 16
= 7.5632
=8
Aa = 0.4297x 16
= 6.8752
=7
aa = 0.09766 x 16
= 1.4562
=1
H0 = this sample conforms to the HWE distribution of genotypes
Probability level is 0.05 or at 95% confidence limit, therefore the P value = 0.05
Question 6
What has happened to p and q in each simulation? Are there recessive alleles remaining in the
population at the end of each simulation? Justify your answers.
In simulation 1 (Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium), it is noticed that the p and q is not the same with
initial value. In parental generation, p = 0.5 and q = 0.5. However in generation F10, p decreases to
0.438 while q = 0.563. The recessive allele’s frequencies are increasing along the generations. In
simulation 2 (Selection against Recessive Alleles), p is always more than q, showing that frequency
of dominant alleles are always higher than recessive alleles. There is still recessive alleles
remaining in the population but they are decreasing while dominant alleles are increasing. This is
due to the reason that homozygous recessive is lethal
PART B
QUESTIONS:
1. Based on the generated plots, briefly describe what happens to the mouse population before
and after owls are introduced. You will need to attach the printouts of the graphs in your
report.
Answer:
Natural selection is the process by which genetically heritable traits become more or less
From Graph A1, fluctuation of mouse population can be observed before owls are
introduced. Owls in this case describe the migration of new species into the population.In
this case with no mutation or migration, with the B allele favored by natural selection as the
bb (white mouse) is prey of owls. The fixation probability of population with selection is
The organisms in better adapted to their environment, so giving the spurious impression that
the organisms were designed to fit their environment. B alleles will be favoured. As a result,
black mouse (BB) and grey (Bb) will survive and white mouse (bb) will be lost in the long
run.
2. Explain the effects of small population size on an isolated community of organisms. Attach
Answer:
The small population size of 10 mice shows that the genotypes of the mice are quickly fixed
around the 60th generation and remained fixed. There is random mating, no mutation in coat
colour alleles, no predation by owls and no differential survival among coat colour phenotypes.
In small population, significant random fluctuations in allele frequencies are made possible by
chance deviation. The degrees of fluctuation increases as the population size decreases. In
extreme case (as shown in N=10), genetic drift lead to the chance fixation of one allele to the
exclusion of another allele. Drift erodes genetic variability in populations. Small populations are
3. Why do the plots display more wavy lines as population size decreases? What do the wavy
lines represent?
Answer:
In simulation C, the plots display more wavy lines as population size decreases from N =
200 to N = 10. The wavy lines shown in the plots for the extremely small population groups
represent the huge and major deviations from the theoretical and mathematical ratio
possible by chance deviation; and in extreme cases, genetic drift can lead to the chance
fixation of one allele to the exclusion of another allele. All attempts to generate the graphs of
gene frequencies for effects of both genetic drift with selection simultaneously results in
extremely uncertain plots where some may end up with all fixed and the results are seriously
fluctuating.
Conclusion
As a conclusion when agents of evolution favor the survival and/or reproduction of some
individuals and their alleles over others, the population’s allele frequencies change over time and
the population is said to evolve.When all individuals are equally likely to survive and to produce
offspring that survive, allele frequencies do not change from one generation to the next because
alleles end up in fertilization events, and thus the offspring generation, in proportion to their relative
frequency in the parental generation.